Frequently Asked Questions about Coffee

Frequently Asked Questions about Coffee

Version 3.11

Main Coffee Page

[email protected]
__________________________________________________________________

This FAQ is dedicated to coffee and all that goes with it.

There are several newsgroups in which these topics may be of relevance,
including rec.food.drink.coffee, alt.coffee, alt.food.coffee and
alt.drugs.caffeine.

I welcome any and all contributions to this FAQ. If you do not agree
with the info in here please let me know or write an article for the
FAQ. If you feel you can explain something better than I have, by all
means rewrite the article and send it in.

1. How to brew the ultimate drink

1. What is the best temperature to brew coffee?
2. Quality of coffee
3. What is the difference between arabica and robusta?
4. Just how much ground coffee do I need for x amount of coffee?

Preparation Methods

1. Drip
2. Press Pot aka French Press aka Cafetiere aka Bodum
3. Espresso
4. Vacuum
5. Percolator
6. Ibrik

Peripherals and Secondary Storage

1. Proper care of Coffee makers...
2. How to clean espresso machine
3. How to store coffee?
4. What kind of grinder should I buy?

Miscellaneous

1. How do you spell Colombia/Colombian?
2. How do you spell Espresso?
3. Where did the term "cup of joe" come from?
4. What is a Kopi Luak?
5. How much caffeine is in decaf?

Coffee Recipes

1. Espresso
2. Chocolate covered espresso beans
3. Cappuccino
4. Frappe
5. How to make the best cup of coffee
6. Turkish Coffee
7. Irish Coffee
8. Thai Iced Coffee
9. Vietnamese Iced Coffee
10. Melya
11. Caffe Latte

Flavoring

1. Chicory
2. Italian Syrups
3. Other

Espresso Drink Names/Terms

1. Caffe Latte aka Cafe au Lait
2. Cappuccino
3. Americano
4. Hammerhead
5. Mocha
6. Espresso Con Panna
7. Double
8. Ristretto
9. Lungo

Administrivia

1. How do I get the newest copy of this FAQ?
2. List of Contributors
3. Copyright

* How to brew the ultimate drink
1. What is the best temperature to brew coffee?
According to chemical studies, the optimal water temperature
for drip coffee is 95-98C. According to my notes, colder water
doesn't extract enough caffeine/essential oils from the beans,
and above such temperature the acidity increases wildly.

2. Quality of coffee
The quality of a brew depends on the following factors (in no
particular order):
1. Time since grinding the beans.
2. Time since roasting.
3. Cleanliness with brewing equipment.
4. Bean quality (what crop, etc.).
5. Water quality.

Fact: Unless you are buying some major debris, bean quality is
not very important, as compared to 1-3 and 5.

Fact: A coffee can in the supermarket often contains major
debris, so be careful when you choose. (See note below).

Fact: Once you have freshly roasted and ground coffee,
filtered water and equipment free of oil residues from the
last brew, quality of beans makes a huge difference.

NOTE: A coffee can in the supermarket often contains a blend
of Arabica and robusta beans while most coffee houses sell
only arabica beans. Arabica beans are usually flavor rich,
while robusta beans have more caffeine, less flavor and are
cheaper to produce.

When you buy coffee, whether in a coffee house or in a
supermarket, you want to get 100% arabica, except for espresso
blends, which may be a combination of both. My personal
experience says that a 100% arabica espresso blend is better
but many people (including many Italians) will disagree on
this point, so go with what you like.

For freshness, in a coffee house it is better to buy popular
blends that move fast, while in a supermarket vacuum packaged
containers with expiration date are your best bet.

Chances are you will not get truly fresh coffee in a
supermarket. This is an absolute fact if it is pre-ground. In
a coffee house look for a shop that roasts in-house and ask
what was roasted that day. If the person behind the counter
does not know, ask to talk to someone who cares about coffee.
If no one knows, go somewhere else. As a side note, it should
be mentioned that coffee is at its best after 12-24 hours, so
you might be interested in day-old coffee as well if you plan
to brew the same day. Also, grind your own coffee. Buying
fresh and then having it ground defeats the purpose. Ground
coffee only lasts a few hours or one day tops.

3. What is the difference between arabica and robusta?
Arabica beans and robusta beans are two different species of
coffee. They are the primary species of coffee that find their
way into the American cup. The general differences are those
of taste, and the conditions under which the two species
differ in production.

Taste: Arabicas have a wider taste range, between varieties.
They range in taste from sweet-soft to sharp-tangy. Their
unroasted smell is sometimes likened to blueberries. Their
roasted smell is perfumey with fruity notes and sugary tones.

Robustas taste range is neutral to harsh and they are often
described as tasting grain-like, oatmeally. Their unroasted
smell is often described as raw-peanutty. Their roasted smell
is often likened to burnt rubber.

Production Conditions: Arabicas are delicate, they require
cool tropical climates, lots of moisture, rich soil, shade and
sun. They are subject to attack from various pests, and are
extremely vulnerable to cold and bad handling.

Robustas are hardier plants, capable of growing well at low
altitudes, less subject to problems related to pests and rough
handling. They yield more pounds of finished goods per acre at
a lower cost of production.

Economics: Customs and trade, supply and demand over the
course of the last 150 years has determined the relative
values of arabica vs. robusta beans. Generally speaking, the
best coffees are all arabicas and the highest quality blends
are pure arabica blends. They are also the priciest.

In the U.S. you will generally find arabicas in the coffee
store and specialty food shop, and robustas in the supermarket
cans and jars of instant.

In Italy, home of espresso, the very highest quality brands
are pure arabica, and like here, the popular-priced goods are
blended with robusta beans. Because "Imported from Italy" can
make an ordinary supermarket quality Italian espresso a
"gourmet" coffee in the U.S., you will find robustas in some
Italian brands offered for sale in the United States.
The coffee you like is a very personal thing. You may find
that you really prefer the all-arabica blends, or you may feel
comfortable with something less, just because you like it.
That's OK. The American marketplace, thanks to the Specialty
Coffee movement here, is now rich enough in roast types,
species, varieties, blends, brews, grinds, and price points to
have something for every taste and pocketbook.

4. Just how much ground coffee do I need for x amount of coffee?
a. Whatever seems right to you.

b. It may change slightly from coffee to coffee and according
to freshness.

c. What the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) has
to say:

A cup is defined as 6 ounces of water before brewing. This
will produce 5.33 ounces of brewed coffee. Or 125 ml & 110 ml
for Euro style coffee makers

The SCAA defines 10 grams or .36 oz per cup as the proper
measure for brewed coffee if using the American standards. If
using Euro standards the measure is 7 grams per 125 ml.

To further confuse things I will add a few more measures:

3.75 oz per 1/2 gallon
55 grams per liter
2.25 gallons per 1 lb.

If you want to know more check the SCAA's web page at
www.scaa.com.

d. According to "The Coffee Lover's Companion" by Diana Rosen,
the standard is 2 tbs. per 6 oz of water. This to me seems
very high but I have never tried it.

e. My personal taste is 1 "standard measure" per cup of
coffee. A standard measure is approximately 1 tbs. this is a
plus or minus equation depending on the coffee I am using, the
degree of roast (darker = more coffee due to weight loss to
keep the same weight per ounce) and the coffeepot I am brewing
in. I believe this should be approximately in line with the
SCAA's advice.

Preparation Methods
1. Drip

Drip is the most common form of coffee served in the United
States. This method essentially pours near-boiling water over
medium-course coffee grounds to produce coffee. This is
probably the easiest method of making coffee. A few words
about filters: There are two types of filter available for
drip coffee. One type is paper. The other is a metal or
plastic permanent filter. Neither is innately better but they
do produce different coffee flavors. A paper filter will hold
some of the essential oils that are being released from the
coffee. Some people have a preference for this. In paper
filters there are several brands that have various thickness
and types of paper that will absorb more or less of the oils.
One selling point for paper filters is that they are very easy
to clean up; just throw them away. This of course means more
landfill and more trees being cut down. Some people also feel
that paper filters give coffee a papery taste. The permanent
filter has some obvious advantages and disadvantages in
relation to paper. I will add just a couple of ideas about
them here. One, use metal; plastic won't last as long and may
give your coffee an off flavor. Two, permanent filters require
a slightly courser grind and you may get some sediment in your
cup. This is probably comparable to the sediment in a coffee
press.

2. Press Pot aka French Press aka Cafetiere aka Bodum

A French press is a glass container with a wire mesh attached
to a plunger. To make coffee, you first allow water to come
very close to a boil but just short of this point. If you are
heating water in an open pan, when you see the very beginning
of a boil, pull your water. The overall temperature of the
water from top to bottom should even out to be in the ideal
range for coffee. If you are using a closed tea pot, this is
the point where the water just begins to sound different in
the pot. For more information on temperature see the section
on water temperature. The press should be pre-warmed before
putting the coffee in. This will help keep the glass from
absorbing as much heat when the hot water is put in the press
thus making for warmer coffee when you pour. The press should
contain approximately the same amount of very coarsely ground
coffee as you would use for drip coffee. Let it rest for 2-3
minutes or until it is easy to press the plunger down and then
plunge the wire mesh. This filters the coffee. Course ground
coffee is a must here or there will be a great deal of
sediment in the cup. You will have a small amount of sediment
no mater what. Due to the fact that there is no paper filter,
all oils make it into the cup. This is a great cup of coffee.

3. Espresso

See the Home Espresso Machine Mini-FAQ by David Bogie at
http://www.islandnet.com/coffee/faq.html for info on espresso.
Also check the info in this file under the recipe section.

4. Vacuum

This is a method I have never experienced so if someone who
has first-hand experience wants to redo this, let me know. The
buildup of steam in the lower bowl forces the water up into
the funnel, where it mixes with the ground coffee. A quick
stir wets the grounds into the water, and a small amount of
water left behind in the bowl keeps the steam coming and the
temperature constant. Brewing continues for 2 minutes (it can
go longer but you don't get any more flavor) and we then take
the siphon off the hotplate. With no more steam being
produced, a vacuum forms in the bowl, which sucks the brewed
coffee down through the filter.I hear this gives a great cup
of coffee and is quite fun to watch.

Cona (the original) in England, Hario in Japan, and Yama Glass
in Taiwan and Bodum make vacuum pots. Corey & Silex used to
make them in the U.S. and Sunbeam also made a metal model with
built-in heating.

5. Percolator

Percolators violate most of the natural laws about brewing
coffee.

o Don't over extract the oils and flavor. Percolators work
by taking coffee and reheating it and throwing it over
the grounds over and over and over again.

o Never reheat/boil coffee. This destroys the flavor. For
best flavor, boil the water, pass it over the grounds and
retain the heat. Don't reheat it.

Violating these rules may not sound like much, but these are
about the only rules there are. The effect of a percolator is
to keep passing boiling water/coffee over the grounds until
there is no flavor left and the flavor in the coffee is so
dead that it's a worthless waste.

6. Ibrik
This is being worked on now. Check the next version.

Peripherals and Secondary Storage

1. Proper care of coffee makers...

It is very important that you wash your coffee maker pot and
filter container thoroughly at least once a week. Bitter oils
stick to the glass container and plastic filter holder.
I used to wash the plastic filter container and rinse the
glass pot. Coffee started to taste bad. When I was told to
wash both thoroughly with plenty of soap the flavor improved
instantly. Note: To the naked eye rinsed and soap washed pots
look the same (clean that is).

Another trick is every time you use your coffeepot, unless you
are making another pot right away, put a couple of drops of
liquid dishwashing detergent in the pot and run hot water into
the pot. Let this sit on the counter till you need it again,
rinse and you are ready to go. This does not replace the
weekly or twice-weekly washing but helps keep it cleaner
between washings.

Some drip coffee makers require periodic cleansing with a
solution of water and vinegar.

If you have a coffee/teapot, the inside of which is stained
with oily brown residues - also plastic/metal coffee filters,
tea strainers, and stainless steel sinks in caffeine-o-phile
houses - they can be restored to a shining, brand-spanking-new
state by washing in hot washing powder (detergent).

Get a large plastic jug, add 2 or 3 heaped tablespoons of Daz
Automatic or Bold or whatever, and about a pint of hot water -
just off the boil is the best.

Swill the jug around until the detergent is dissolved, and
then pour into tea/coffeepot, and let it stand for 5 minutes,
swilling the pot around occasionally, just to keep the
detergent moving. Put the lid on and shake it a few times
(care: slippery + hot)

Repeat as necessary. Keep it hot with a little boiling water
if needed. If you have a cafetiere, disassemble it, and soak
the parts in the mixture for a few minutes, agitating
occasionally.

In both cases, the residue just falls off with almost no
scrubbing. It does great things with overused filter machine
filters, too.

Important: Rinse off all detergent afterwards, use lots of
fresh water!

2. How to clean an espresso machine

If the exterior needs cleaning, just use a good cleaner like
Fantastik or the like - note though that Fantastik might
actually remove some of the stamped on text and logos if they
are painted on.

If the interior needs cleaning, you need to decalcify it. Add
about 3 oz. of vinegar to about 20 oz. of water, and let it
run through the machine. Then run about 3-4 times the amount
of fresh water. Several online coffee sites have info on
decalcifying.

If you can disassemble the frothing wand, do so - and get the
wand almost sterile-clean. If little rubber gaskets pop out,
DON'T LOSE THEM and remember what order they go back on.
Same thing goes for the brewhead - that's where the water
comes out - most pump machines have a brewhead that can be
removed with a single screw - tilt your machine on its side
(make sure there's no water in it) and disassemble that part -
again, do get it crystal clean - use toothbrushes, use a clean
j-cloth, whatever it takes to get all the nooks and crannies.
Once the machine is cleaned inside and out, run one more full
batch of water through it, making sure you stop the pump just
before all the water drains out.

3. How to store coffee?

One should always store coffee beans in a glass, air-tight
container. Air and moisture are coffee's principle enemies.
Glass is best because it doesn't retain the odors of the beans
or the oils, which could contaminate future beans stored in
the same container. However, if you use glass, make sure the
container is not exposed to light, as sunlight is believed to
reduce freshness.

Buy only what coffee can be consumed in a week to a week and a
half from the time it was roasted. This is the only way to
have truly fresh coffee.

Do not freeze ground coffee. There are two key problems here.
One, the freezing will damage some of subtle tastes in the
coffee and two, when the coffee is taken out the container
will sweat, exposing your coffee to moisture.

4. What kind of grinder should I buy?

First off, any grinder is better than having your coffee
preground at the store. Pregrinding is just a way of insuring
stale coffee.

Perhaps the earliest form of grinding anything, whether it be
spices or coffee, was the simple mortar and pestle approach.
The item to be ground - or crushed as it were - was placed in
the bottom of a bowl, and the blunt end of a stick was used to
crush said item along the bowl's bottom and sides. Following
this - and history tends to lead us down numerous paths -
mechanical means replaced the mortar and pestle. Manually
operated, the coffee (or, again, spice, wheat, corn...
whatever) was placed between a stationary and a moving disc.
The movement of the one disc atop the other created a grinding
force. This is also known as milling; a term we carry into the
present.

Milling has become very efficient with the use of electrical
motors as opposed to horses, water, steam, or human-power. And
milling, as a process, is as common to the agricultural
industry as it is to coffee. To understand the benefit of
milling coffee, let us first compare it to another popular
grinding technique, the blade-style coffee grinder. Available
in practically every housewares store in the world, the
blade-style grinder uses a small, universal electrical motor
to spin two metal blades at very high speeds. When in contact
with the coffee beans, the blades chop and crush the bean's
structure. Akin to the mortar and pestle for not creating a
uniform grind, this method is quick and inexpensive. Many
models of this type can be had for less than 20$US.

A step up, and the primary focus of this article, is the burr
style, or milling style coffee grinder. Like the wheat or corn
grinder, and essentially identical to commercial,
industrial-sized grinders, the burr grinder for today's
consumer is available in a myriad of colors, features,
materials, and prices.

Why a burr grinder?

As mentioned above, the blade variant of coffee grinders
allows a varying particle size from the resultant grind. The
leading reason for the use of a burr grinder is the ability to
produce a uniform grind of the beans. A uniform grind is
important for a few different reasons. First, it provides an
even surface area for extraction during whatever brew process
you may wish to use. Second, for espresso, the uniform grind
allows for even wetting and even packing of the grounds.

How come?

Let us return above. An even grind will provide for an even
extraction of the oils from the coffee. Ill-proportioned grind
will cause some of the coffee to over-extract, and some to
under-extract. Over-extracted coffee will taste bitter and
overly pungent. Under-extracted will taste weak and thin.
Burr grinders, ideally and theoretically, pass an incoming
bean under (or in between) its burrs once. Whether it be for
one revolution or two, the bean, as it finishes its pass, is
completely crushed into identically-sized pieces. Blade-style
and mortar and pestle re-grind the coffee, which provides the
inconsistency mentioned above.

The Big Debate - Flat-Plate Burr Grinders vs. Conical Burr
Grinders:

Burr grinders are distinct by two forms. The first is where
the burrs are plate-shaped and lie atop each other. In the
second model, the burrs are shaped like two mating cones; the
grinding teeth facing toward each burr set. The debate lies
with life expectancy (read: wear), grind consistency, and ease
of cleaning. To begin with, both variations are easy to clean
so long as the manufacturer designed the grinder to allow one
of the two burr sets to be removed. To my knowledge, every
manufacturer has done so. It is up to the owner to find the
appropriate cleaning tool used to get into the teeth's
grooves. Incidentally, a stiff bristled brush like that of a
toothbrush works well. The debate flourishes here: does a
conical burr-set wear more but provide a greater grind
consistency and slower operating speed (due to prolonged
contact between bean and burr), or does the flat-plate
burr-set provide greater consistency and life because of its
ability to operate at faster speeds? You decide. There are
arguments for and against both parties. All in all, to the
average consumer, this argument is like the blowing of the
wind. Meaningless.

"You get what you paid for."

I mentioned this above. And it is true, especially when you
figure in other factors to your potential purchase. These
factors are as follows:

Does the machine come with a warranty? If so, how many years?

May I try the machine first before committing to a purchase?

Is the machine too loud?

Is the machine easy to clean up? Does its spill or throw
ground coffee all over the place?

Is there service available in my area? If so, how much extra
and how easy is it to obtain?

Is the machine repairable by myself or a local appliance
repairperson?

Keep all of these questions on the tip of your brain when and
after you go shopping. You'll find distinct differences
between each and every model mentioned above. It is true that
the higher you go, the greater the quality of the machine -
both in materials used and end product. Consistency is still
very much a driving argument and consistency is best achieved
when higher-quality components and material are used.
These are the biggest questions you need to keep on your mind:
How much will you use this grinder and for what reasons? Do
you plan on only grinding for one style of coffee? Do you plan
on using it daily? Do you plan on using many different types
of coffee beans?

If you can answer these questions, you can narrow down your
search very easily.

For more info and the full text of this article check out
http://www.seasoned.com/issues/199809/

Another point that deserves attention is that many cheap
coffee grinders have a tendency to have some type of static
problems. Some of the more expensive models can also have
these same problems so, as with other considerations, be sure
to try the grinder before you buy.

* Miscellaneous
1. How do you spell Colombia/Colombian?
Please read the question :).

2. How do you spell Espresso?

By far, the most common spelling used throughout the world
today is "espresso". This is a shortened form of the original
Italian name for the drink "caffe espresso" (accent marks
omitted). This spelling is considered to be the correct
spelling by the vast majority of of coffee consumers, vendors,
retailers, and producers.

Some English language dictionaries also list "expresso" as a
variant spelling. However, this does not mean the spelling is
'equally valid.' (see the post by Jesse Sheidlower included
below)

It was pointed out during the great "espresso vs. expresso"
debate (spring '94) that the Italian alphabet does not even
contain the letter "X," which is incorrect.

Further, it was discovered that at least three dictionaries
contained incorrect definitions of the word "espresso". The
American Heritage Dictionary gave the following definition:

"A strong coffee brewed by forcing steam under pressure through
darkly roasted, powdered coffee beans."

The Oxford English Dictionary said:

"Coffee brewed by forcing steam through powdered coffee beans"

The Webster New World Dictionary gives:

"coffee prepared in a special machine from finely ground coffee
beans, through which steam under high pressure is forced."

All three of these are wrong. In fact, espresso is a strong
coffee brewed by quickly forcing hot water through darkly
roasted, finely-ground coffee beans.

(Some espresso makers do use steam, but only to force the hot
water through the ground coffee. The steam NEVER touches the
coffee. Many espresso makers use no steam at all. Instead,
they use either a pump or a piston to quickly force hot water
through the ground coffee.)

Once these errors and the origins of the word "espresso" had
been pointed out, the argument "but expresso is in the
dictionary" quickly began to crumble. The final death blow to
this position came in a post by dictionary editor Jesse
Sheidlower. This post is reproduced in its entirety below:

Jesse Sheidlower writes

I find this thread fascinating. I regret that it demonstrates an
unfamiliarity with dictionaries and how to use them, but no matter.
I believe that I am the only dictionary editor to participate in
this discussion, so let me waste a bit more bandwidth addressing
some of the points made so far, and introducing a few others:

o The OED, Second Edition, does include _espresso_ and
_expresso_, the latter being a variant of the former. It
correctly derives it from Italian _caffe espresso_.
[Accents left off here.] Whoever claimed it derives the
term from a would-be Italian _caffe expresso_ was in
error.

o There _is_ an "x" in Latin and Italian.
Mike Oliver points out that there are two Italian
alphabets, one (il tradizionale) with no w, x or y, and
the other one with all the letters in the English
alphabet. The latter seems to be the one currently in
use. (Reference: Il grande dizionario Garzanti della
lingua italiana, Garzanti Editore s.p.a, 1987).

o There are four major American dictionaries (published by
Merriam Webster, Webster's New World, Random House, and
American Heritage). The most recent edition of each gives
_espresso_ as the main form, and _expresso_ as a variant
only. The fact that _expresso_ is listed in the
dictionary does not mean that it is equally common: the
front matter for each dictionary explains this. The
person who claimed that three dictionaries including OED
give _expresso_ as "equally valid" was in error.

o Dictionaries, in general, do not dictate usage: they
reflect the usage that exists in the language. If a
dictionary says that _espresso_ is the main spelling, it
means that in the experience of its editors (based on an
examination of the language), _espresso_ is notably more
common. It does not mean that the editors have a vendetta
against _expresso_.

o To the linguist who rejects the authority of
dictionaries: I agree that language is constantly
changing; I'm sure that every dictionary editor in the
country does as well. Dictionaries are outdated before
they go to press. But I think they remain accurate to a
large extent. Also, if you are going to disagree with the
conclusions of a dictionary, you should be prepared to
back yourself up. I can defend, with extensive written
evidence, our decision to give _espresso_ as the
preferred form.

o The spelling _espresso_ is the form used by the copy
desks of the _New York Times,_ _Gourmet,_ _Bon Appetit,_
The _Wine Spectator,_ the _Wall St. Journal,_ the _L.A.
Times,_ _Time,_ _Newsweek,_ and to my knowledge every
other major or minor newspaper or magazine, general or
food-related, in the English-speaking world. The fact
that a handwritten menu on an Italian restaurant door
spells it "expresso" is trivial by comparison.

o In sum: though both _espresso_ and _expresso_ are found,
the former is by far the more common. It is also to be
favored on immediate etymological evidence, since the
Italian word from which it is directly borrowed is
spelled _espresso_. The form _espresso_ is clearly
preferred by all mainstream sources.

3. Where did the term "cup of joe" come from?

It has recently come to my attention that the answer to this
question is a bit up in the air so I will be reporting
reasonable possibilities that I pick up from the news groups
here. Some or all may be urban legend but until I have a sure
way to know I will use this system.

1. The U.S. Navy used to serve alcoholic beverages on board
ships. However, when Admiral Josephus "Joe" Daniels became
Chief of Naval Operations, he outlawed alcohol onboard ships,
except for very special occasions. Coffee then became the
beverage of choice, hence the term "Cup of Joe."

2. "Joe" is 19th Cent. American slang for coffee.

4. What is a Kopi Luak (Kopi Luwak)?

The only coffee of commerce today that is the product of an
animal's digestive tract is Kopi Luak or Luwak from Sumatra,
Java and Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is reported that the yearly
crop is about 80 LB total. It retails in the US for about
$18.50 oz. or $296.00 LB. and is available from John Martinez
& Son in Atlanta, GA.

According to the former head of the Indonesian national zoo,
as told to the Smithsonian's rep. Kopi Luak is a fiction with
a great sales pitch. (See: http://www.si.edu/natzoo/coffee.htm
)

Does it really exist? That is a good question. Is something
being sold in the US as Kopi Luak? Yes.

Check out what Dave Barry had to say about it at:
http://home.earthlink.net/~munson/tom/coffee/nov9.html.

5. How much caffeine is in decaf?

In the United States federal regulations require that in order
to label coffee as "decaffeinated" that coffee must have had
its caffeine level reduced by no less than 97.5 percent.
Example: Panamanian coffee is about 1.36% caffeine by weight
normally. This and many other arabica coffees are about 98.64%
caffeine free even before anything is done to lower the
caffeine content..

When 97% of the caffeine has been removed only .0408 % of the
coffee weight is caffeine. About 4/10ths of 1%. At this level
it is labeled "decaffeinated. How roasters label their
products is another matter. Suppose two roasters roast Panama
coffee that originally came from the same lot, and were
decaffeinated together in the same vat. One roaster labels his
decaf. "97% Caffeine Removed." The other says his is "99+%
Caffeine Free." Which roaster is not telling the truth?
The answer is: They are both right. They are both essentially
saying the same thing. But, which decaf. does the average
consumer believe has the least caffeine?

Currently used solvents for decaffeinating coffee include, H2O
(water), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), Meth. Chloride, Ethyl Acetate.
Note: A relatively new method called Swiss Water Decaffeinated
uses "flavor-charged" water in the decaffeination process.

* Coffee Recipes.

NOTE: I do not entirely agree with some of the assertions made in a
couple of these recipes and do not know much about some of the
preparation methods described, so use these at your own risk.

1. Espresso

I need a good write up of how to make espresso. Someone please
help out here.

* Chocolate covered espresso beans

You won't get single, glossy beans, but the taste is there!

1. Put dark roast coffee beans on a waxpaper-covered baking
sheet.
2. Melt some chocolate by putting a container with the chocolate
in a pan of boiling water, stir the chocolate when it is
getting hot. Some experimentation regarding what chocolate to
use is in place. I used chocolate chips from Ghiradelli. One
should probably aim for dark and not too sweet chocolate.
3. Pour the chocolate over the beans and smear it so that each
bean is covered - you should have a single layer of covered
beans not too far apart.
4. When the beans have cooled off a little bit, put the sheet in
the fridge/freezer.
5. When solid, break off a piece and enjoy. Note: I often use
very finely ground (think espresso grind) coffee for this.

* Cappuccino

Disclaimer: People prepare cappuccino in many different ways, and
in their very own way, each one of them is correct. The following
recipe, which is commonly used in Latin countries, has been tasted
by several of my North American friends and they unanimously agreed
that cappuccino prepared using this recipe tastes much better than
the standard fare in USA/Canada.

Start with cold milk (it doesn't really need to be ice-cold), use
homo. milk or carnation. 2% or skim is just not thick enough
(though admittedly, it is easier to produce foam with skim milk).
Place the milk in a special cappuccino glass with a cappuccino
basket. (Cappuccino glasses have a thinner bottom).

Aerate the milk near the top, within 2cm (1 in.) of the top. Move
the glass down as the milk aerates. It is a good idea to have an
oscillating motion while aerating the milk. (ed. The process of
oscillation probably won't really add much to your drink but it
does look cool.)

Aerating the milk in another container, then pouring in a glass and
adding the foam with a spoon is sacrilege.

If you need to aerate the milk in a separate container, aerate
exactly the amount of milk required for one cup, so no need to add
foam with a spoon.

Once the milk has been aerated, promptly clean the aerator with a
wet rag. Failure to do so will quickly result in rotten milk flavor
coming from the aerator.

Another warning on similar lines applies to restaurant-type coffee
machines: leave the aerator valve open when powering the machine up
and down. When the machine is off a partial vacuum is formed in the
boiler that will suck milk residue into the boiler. This then coats
the inside of the boiler and can cause bad smelling steam until the
boiler is flushed. Some machines have a vacuum bleed valve to
prevent this problem but many don't.

Wait for the steam pressure to build up again (for some cappuccino
makers wait time is near zero, for others it may be as long as 60
secs.).

Prepare the espresso coffee - you may add it directly to the glass
if possible or use a cup and then pour it from the cup on the milk.
According to Jym Dyer: In Italy, the milk is added TO the espresso,
not the other way around, that way the milk is floating; on top,
where you then add the sugar, and stir it up.

Cappuccino tastes better when it is really hot, and has two
teaspoons of sugar. (small teaspoons, like the ones in expensive
silverware).

Then, accompany said cappuccino with a warm tea bisquit or English
muffin with marmalade, or alternatively with a baguette sandwich or
panini.

* Frappe

Frappe coffee is widely consumed in parts of Europe and Latin
America, especially in summer. Originally, it was made with cold
espresso. Nowadays it is prepared in most places by shaking into a
shaker 1-2 teaspoons of instant coffee with sugar, water and
ice-cubes and it is served in a long glass with ice, milk to taste
and a straw. The important thing is the thick froth on top of the
glass.

* How to make the best cup of coffee?

The best coffee I ever tasted was while in the coffee growing
regions of Mexico, in the state of Veracruz, in the town of
Coatepec. The quality of the coffee was mostly due to the method of
preparation rather than the quality of the grains (which is at
about the same level as an average Colombian coffee). Here's how to
make it:

+ Grind the coffee grains from coarse to very coarse.
+ Boil in a pan a liter of water (four cups).
+ When the water is boiling, turn off the stove and add 8-12
tablespoons of coffee (2-3 spoons for each cup).
+ Add 2-3 teaspoons of sugar per cup (for a total of 8-12 spoons
of sugar).
+ Stir very slowly (the water is so hot that the sugar dissolves
mostly on its own).
+ Let the coffee rest for about 5 minutes.
+ Strain the coffee using a metal strainer! Like the ones used
for cooking. The strainer should be like the ones used by
granny for making tea. The diameter is a bit smaller than a
cup, with a semi-sphere shape.
+ This coffee has grit in the bottom, even after being strained.
Therefore do not stir the pot or the cup. If the coffee is
shaken, let it rest for about five minutes. Needless to say,
do not drink the last sip of coffee from the cup: it's all
grit. If you want to add milk, add Carnation.

Warning: This coffee may fool you 'cause it has a very smooth taste
but is extremely strong. Caffeine content per milliliter is right
there with espresso, but you can't tell!

Note: For some strange reason, when preparing this coffee I tend to
have a success ratio of about one out of two attempts. I still
don't know what I'm doing wrong, since, as far as I can tell, I
always repeat the same steps. Perhaps sometimes I don't let the
coffee rest long enough.

This type of coffee is similar in nature to the French press. And
in principle, you could possibly add sugar to the ground coffee,
then pour water, and lastly press with the strainer.

* Turkish Coffee

Turkish coffee is prepared using a little copper pot called a
raqwa.

Use a heaping teaspoon of very finely-ground coffee and,
optionally, one heaping teaspoon of sugar (to taste). Use about 3oz
of coffee. [Add the sugar only just before boiling point.] Turkish
coffee without sugar is called sade, with a little sugar is "orta
s,ekerli" and with lots of sugar is "c,ok s,ekerli".

The trick of it is to heat it until it froths, pour the froth into
the coffee cup and heat it a second time. When it froths again,
pour the rest into the cup.

The grounds will settle to the bottom of the cup as you drink the
coffee and towards the end, it'll start to taste bitter and the
texture will be more like wet coffee grounds than a drink. As soon
as this happens stop or your next sip will taste really, really
bitter. Instead, turn your cup upside down on the saucer, and let
someone read your fortune!

* Irish Coffee

Ingredients
+ Sturdy wine glass or glass with stem
+ 1 teaspoon sugar
+ 1 or 2 tablespoons Irish whiskey
+ black coffee
+ cream, lightly whipped

Instructions
1. Place spoon in glass. Heat glass by pouring in warm water.
When glass is warm, pour out the water. Leave spoon in glass.
2. Put sugar, whiskey and coffee in glass. Stir to dissolve
sugar. Still leave spoon in glass.
3. Now for the tricky bit: Put dollop of cream on top, allow the
cream to slide down the back of spoon (the spoon which was in
the coffee), the tip of the spoon should remain in the coffee.

Be careful not to stir after the cream has been added. The cream
should form a foamy layer about 1 cm (or half an inch) thick on top
of the black coffee.

* Thai Iced Coffee

Make very strong coffee (50-100% more coffee to water than usual),
use something like Cafe Du Monde which has chicory in it. Pour 6-8
oz into cup and add about 1 Tbs. sweetened condensed milk. Stir,
then pour over ice.

You'll have to experiment with the strength and milk so you get
lots of taste after the ice/water dilutes it.

Alternatively, this version which comes from a newspaper article of
many years ago simply calls for grinding two or three fresh
cardamom pods and putting them in with the coffee grounds. Make a
strong coffee with a fresh dark roast, chill it, sweeten and add
half-and-half to taste.

Lastly, we have the following recipe:

Makes 1 8-cup pot of coffee
+ 6 tablespoons whole rich coffee beans, ground fine
+ 1/4 teaspoon ground coriander powder
+ 4 or 5 whole green cardamom pods, ground

* Place the coffee and spices in the filter cone of your coffee
maker. Brew coffee as usual; let it cool.

* In a tall glass, dissolve 1 or 2 teaspoons of sugar in an ounce of
the coffee (it's easier to dissolve than if you put it right over
ice). Add 5-6 ice cubes and pour coffee to within about 1" of the
top of the glass.

* Rest a spoon on top of the coffee and slowly pour whipping cream
into the spoon. This will make the cream float on top of the coffee
rather than dispersing into it right away.

* To be totally cool, serve with Flexi-Straws and paper umbrellas...

One other fun note: I got a fresh vanilla bean recently and put it to
good use by sealing it in an airtight container with my sugar. The
sugar gets the faintest vanilla aroma and is incredible in Real
Chocolate Milk (TM) and iced coffee.

One final note: this would probably be even better with iced espresso,
because the espresso is so much more powerful and loses its taste less
when it's cold.

Another recipe:

* Strong, black ground coffee
* Sugar
* Evaporated (not condensed) milk
* Cardamom pods

Prepare a pot of coffee at a good European strength (Miriam Nadel
suggests 2 tablespoons per cup, which I'd say is about right). In the
ground coffee, add 2 or 3 freshly ground cardamom pods. (I've used
green ones, I imagine the brown ones would give a slightly different
flavor.) Sweeten while hot, then cool quickly.

Serve over ice, with unsweetened evaporated milk (or heavy cream if
you're feeling extra indulgent). To get the layered effect, place a
spoon atop the coffee and pour the milk carefully into the spoon so
that it floats on the top of the coffee.

The recipe I have calls for:

* 1/4 cup strong French roasted coffee
* 1/2 cup boiling water
* 2 tsp. sweetened condensed milk
* Mix the above and pour over ice.

I'd probably use less water and more coffee and milk.

There is also a stronger version of Thai coffee called "Oliang or
Oleng" which is very strong to me and to a lot of coffee lovers.

6 to 8 tablespoons ground espresso or French roast coffee, 4 to 6 green
cardamom pods, crushed sugar to taste, half-and-half or cream and ice
cubes

Put the cardamom pods and the ground dark-roast coffee into a coffee
press, espresso maker, or the filter of a drip coffee maker (if using a
drip-style coffee maker, use half the water). Brew coffee as for
espresso, stir in sugar.

Fill a large glass with ice and pour coffee over ice, leaving about 1/2
inch at the top. Place a spoon at the surface of the coffee and slowly
pour half-and-half or cream into the spoon, so that it spreads across
the top of the coffee rather than sinking in. (You'll stir it in
yourself anyway, but this is a much prettier presentation and it's as
used in most Thai restaurants.)

As with Vietnamese coffee, the struggle here is to keep from downing
this all in ten seconds.

And now for another look at Thai Iced Coffee

Surely, one can get coffee with condensed milk in Thailand. But when
one speaks of "Thai Iced Coffee", as found in Thai restaurants in
America, one is referring to "Oliang/Oleng" [there is no standard
transliteration of the Thai alphabet, so the spelling varies.] In the
FAQ one reads: "There is also a stronger version of Thai coffee called
"Oleng" which is very strong to me and to a lot of coffee lovers." But
this IS Thai Iced Coffee. And it is only strong if you brew it to be
strong.

Oliang is a blend of coffee and other ingredients. The brand I have
(Pantainorasingh Brand) states the percentages right on the label: 50%
coffee, 25% corn, 20% soya bean, 5% sesame seed. This blend of coffee
and roasted grains is really quite exquisite--a perfect marriage of
flavors!

Traditionally, oliang is brewed with a "tung tom kah fe"--a metal ring
with a handle to which is attached a muslin-like cloth bag. It is much
like those cloth tea-strainers one finds in Europe, only larger, like a
sock. One puts the coffee in the bag and pours over it water that has
come to a boil - into a carafe. Let the bag full of coffee steep in the
carafe for 10 minutes. Then add sugar and stir. Let it cool. Pour into
a glass with ice, and add the dairy product of your choice on top. I
use fresh half-and- half, but you can use condensed milk, evaporated
milk, or a mix of the two, or of the three. The proportions of coffee -
water - sugar, vary. I use 2/3 part oliang to 1 1/4 parts sugar to 6
parts water.

[The tung tom kah fe can be found at SE Asian grocery stores--after a
bit of searching. In Seattle at Viet Wah or Mekong Ranier.]

Alternately, one can bring water to a boil in a pot, add the coffee,
and remove from heat. Let the coffee steep for 10 minutes. Then strain
through cheesecloth, a coffee filter, or a fine metal strainer. And
continue as above.

Vietnamese Iced Coffee

Same coffee as above. Sweetened condensed (not evaporated) milk, ice

Make even stronger coffee, preferably in a Vietnamese coffee maker.
(This is a metal cylinder with tiny holes in the bottom and a
perforated disc that fits into it; you put coffee in the bottom of the
cylinder, place the disc atop it, then fill with boiling water and a
very rich infusion of coffee drips slowly from the bottom.)

If you are using a Vietnamese coffee maker, put two tablespoons of
sweetened condensed milk in the bottom of a cup and put the coffee
maker on top of the cup. If you are making espresso or cafe filter (the
infusion method where you press the plunger down through the grounds
after several minutes of infusion), mix the sweetened condensed milk
and the coffee any way you like.

When the milk is dissolved in the coffee (yes, dissolved *is* the right
word here!), pour the combination over ice and sip.

Thai and Vietnamese coffees are very different.

Ca phe sua da (Vietnamese style iced coffee)

* 2 to 4 tablespoons finely ground dark roast coffee (preferably with
chicory)
* 2 to 4 tablespoons sweetened condensed milk (e.g., Borden Eagle
Brand, not evaporated milk!)
* Boiling water
* Vietnamese coffee press [see notes]
* Ice cubes

Place ground coffee in Vietnamese coffee press and screw lid down on
the grounds. Put the sweetened condensed milk in the bottom of a coffee
cup and set the coffee maker on the rim. Pour boiling water over the
screw lid of the press; adjust the tension on the screw lid just till
bubbles appear through the water, and the coffee drips slowly out the
bottom of the press.

When all water has dripped through, stir the milk and coffee together.
You can drink it like this, just warm, as ca phe sua neng, but I prefer
it over ice, as ca phe sua da. To serve it that way, pour the
milk-coffee mixture over ice, stir, and drink as slowly as you can
manage. I always gulp mine too fast. :-)

Notes:

A Vietnamese coffee press looks like a stainless steel top hat. There's
a "brim" that rests on the coffee cup; in the middle of that is a
cylinder with tiny perforations in the bottom. Above that rises a
threaded rod, to which you screw the top of the press, which is a disc
with similar tiny perforations. Water trickles through these, extracts
flavor from the coffee, and then trickles through the bottom
perforations. It is excruciatingly slow. Loosening the top disc speeds
the process, but also weakens the resulting coffee and adds sediment to
the brew.

If you can't find a Vietnamese coffee press, regular-strength espresso
is an adequate substitute, particularly if made with French-roast beans
or with a dark coffee with chicory. I've seen the commonly available
Medaglia d'Oro brand coffee cans in Vietnamese restaurants, and it
works, though you'll lose some of the subtle bitterness that the
chicory offers. Luzianne brand coffee comes with chicory and is usable
in Vietnamese coffee, though at home I generally get French roast from
my normal coffee provider. My father tells me that when he visits
Vietnamese friends in Florida that Luzianne and a local blend are the
coffees sold in the local Vietnamese-run/shopped stores.

Of these two coffees, Vietnamese coffee should taste more or less like
melted Haagen-Dazs coffee ice cream, while Thai iced coffee has a more
fragrant and lighter flavor from the cardamom and half-and-half rather
than the condensed milk. Both are exquisite, and not difficult to make
once you've got the equipment.

As a final tip, I often use my old-fashioned on-the-stove espresso
maker (the one shaped like an hourglass, where you put water in the
bottom, coffee in the middle, and as it boils the coffee comes out in
the top) for Thai iced coffee. The simplest way is merely to put the
cardamom and sugar right in with the coffee, so that what comes out the
top is ready to pour over ice and add half-and-half. It makes a
delicious and very passable version of restaurant-style Thai iced
coffee.

Melya

* Espresso
* Honey
* Unsweetened cocoa

Brew espresso; for this purpose, a Bialetti-style stovetop will work.
In a coffee mug, place 1 teaspoon of unsweetened powdered cocoa; then
cover a teaspoon with honey and drizzle it into the cup. Stir while the
coffee brews; this is the fun part. The cocoa seems to coat the honey
without mixing, so you get a dusty, sticky mass that looks as though it
will never mix. Then all at once, presto! It looks like dark chocolate
sauce. Pour hot espresso over the honey, stirring to dissolve. Serve
with cream (optional). I have never served this cold but I imagine it
would be interesting; I use it as a great hot drink for cold days,
though, so all my memories are of gray skies, heavy sweaters, damp feet
and big smiles.

Caffe Latte

A Latte is usually a 3:1 ratio of steamed milk and espresso, but YMMV.
Do what you like best.

Here's how I make a latte. First, I grind my beans to fill my shot
filter. Those are the removable components in your portafilter (that
arm thing). If you don't have a grinder, buy one, and buy a burr
grinder - not one of those cheapo blade things.

So I grind my beans, fill my filter, and tamp it down tightly - that's
the act of compressing the grind in the filter. Note: you can't really
do this with the steam espresso filters because they are not designed
for any real pressure (less than one bar I believe). If you do tamp a
steam toy, the pressure release valve should kick in to save the day
but if it does not work you are taking a chance with a very hot
exploding machine. Don't tamp steam machines.

I load the espresso machine with the grinds, then turn on the machine,
but to the steaming ready stage - not the espresso stage. Once it is
ready, I steam my milk first.

Lattes are steamed milk, not frothed. Though again, it's your choice -
if you want froth, go for it. Steam your milk to about 150F or so (you
will notice a change in the steaming sound - it starts to rumble once
it hits 150 or so). If you want froth, about midway, pull the steam
nozzle to hover right at the surface - you want to hear a deep frothing
sound - if the sound you hear is like blowing bubbles through a straw,
you're too high.

Once the milk is steamed, I then take a small 4 oz. cup I have and
place it under the portafilter. I switch over to making my espresso,
and I brew the espresso.

I then pour the espresso into the cup with the milk. Most of my
"coffee" cups are actually glass or stainless steel, or a combo of
both, so I pour my espresso slowly and it creates a cool looking
drink... the espresso sits near the top, just below the foam.

Add sugar, sprinkle the top with cinnamon and/or chocolate, and drink!

Oh, don't forget to clean your wand before you brew the espresso. It's
quick - just grab a washcloth and scrub it clean, then run the wand
once more to "flush it out" - this keeps milk from turning into harmful
bacteria that makes your milk taste bad.

Once you've had your latte, dislodge the portafilter, dump your beans,
give the brewhead a quick wipe, a good rinse on your filters, etc., and
you're ready for your next one - less cleaning!

Note: Many people brew espresso then steam their milk. Many do it the
way described here. The arguments go like this:
If you brew then steam the milk while you are waiting for the machine
to reach steaming temperature, the espresso is getting old. On the
other hand, if you steam then brew, you either have to let the machine
cool a bit before making your shot, thus allowing the milk to cool, or
you will be hitting the coffee grounds with steam and not hot water.
Which is correct? I can not tell you. I rarely drink anything at home
except straight shots so I don't worry myself with it too much. On a
side note: if you really want the best I believe some home machines may
have dual water reservoirs which will allow you to brew and steam
simultaneously, or at least nearly simultaneously.

Flavoring

NOTE: Flavorings really should not be needed in good coffee but we all
want something a little different every now and again. As a general
rule, adding your own flavoring is a better approach to drinking
flavored coffee than buying pre-flavored coffee. Commercially-flavored
coffee usually uses a low quality bean since most of the flavor will be
masked by the chemical flavorings anyway. So be warned - in many cases
you are paying a lot for cheap beans that have had a chemical added to
them to make them more palatable. It is my opinion that if you start
with a good quality coffee, there is very little need for external
flavoring except as an occasional change of pace. As in all things
coffee, go with your taste. If you like flavored coffee by all means
drink it!

One last note. If you buy flavored coffee wash all your coffee
equipment thoroughly after brewing flavored coffee. The flavoring
agents used will stick to anything used with them. Do not use the same
grinder to grind flavored and unflavored coffee. It will take
approximately 20 grinding of coffee to remove all the flavoring agents
that stick to the internal part of the grinder.

1. Chicory

Chicory became popular in the United States as a coffee additive
during the Union blockade of the South during the Civil War. It was
also used again During World War II to "stretch" coffee (just ask
your grandmother). It has lost popularity in the US as a coffee
additive in recent years. Chicory is also used in Vietnamese coffee
blends as well.

As a flavoring, chicory has a tendency to mellow bitter coffee.
Today chicory blend coffee is available canned with various ratios
of coffee to chicory. There are several brands available today. I
counted three when I went to the grocery store last. Chicory is
also available by itself in many grocery stores, and I am told some
health food stores carry chicory root as well. I recommend going
with the method of buying your chicory and mixing it with fresh
roasted coffee; by default any coffee you buy pre-ground and
premixed will be stale when you get it. Concentration varies from
10-30% in most commercial blends.

2. Italian Syrups

Italian syrups are popular as flavorings for espresso drinks and to
a lesser extent other forms of coffee. Essentially what they are is
sugar water with a flavoring added. In this they serve a dual
purpose of flavoring the drink while sweetening. They also have a
side role in weakening the drink they are added to. Over all I do
not like Italian syrups for this last reason.

Use your own judgement - they are very popular, so obviously many
people do like them.

3. Other

Chocolate syrup makes a great mocha. Much better than Italian
syrups.

Hot chocolate mix makes for a nice mocha and has sugar already
added. I sometimes will give friends who do not like coffee a cup
with a packet of instant hot chocolate mixed in to let them acquire
a taste for coffee.

Altoids make a nice peppermint coffee.

Cinnamon is easy: just put it in the bottom of a filter for drip
coffee. You can do the same for press coffee but you will have some
extra sediment.

For nut coffee: grind roasted nut of the variety you want and put
it in with the coffee as it brews. Generally speaking this will not
be as strong as chemical flavorings.

Any extract you can buy can be used as a flavoring although I feel
many extracts will give coffee a chemical flavor so you may get bad
coffee with this method.

* Espresso Drink Names/Terms

1. Caffe Latte aka Cafe au Lait

A Caffe Latte is a single shot of espresso with steamed milk.
There is not frothed milk in this drink. A Caffe Latte should
have approximately 6 to 8 ounces of milk in it. (Note:
ordering a Latte in an Italian restaurant may get you a glass
of milk so be sure to order Caffe latte.)

2. Cappuccino

Cappuccino is traditionally equal parts espresso, steamed milk
and frothed milk. Many coffee shops will add much more milk
than this in the belief that bigger is better. This is not the
case stick with the above proportions for good cappuccino.

3. Americano

An Americano is a single shot of espresso with 6 to 8 ounces
of hot water added. Not as bad as it sounds.

4. Hammerhead

A hammerhead is a shot of espresso in a coffee cup that is
then filled with drip coffee. I highly recommend this drink.

5. Mocha

This is usually a cappuccino or a Caffe Latte with chocolate
syrup added. This term actually has very little meaning so you
might want to ask what it is in a given coffee house before
you order one.

6. Espresso Con Panna

This is a shot with whipped cream.

7. Double

Two shots of espresso with the same amount of all other
ingredients.

8. Ristretto

This is a restricted shot. Less water is allowed to come
through the coffee. This is approximately a .75 ounce pull.

9. Lungo

This is an extra long pull allowing approximately twice as
much water through the same amount of coffee as normally used
for a single shot. This will be bitter and I do not recommend
trying it. It's about a 2-3 ounce shot.

* Administrivia
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o Copyright
This FAQ is Copyright (C) 1994,1995 by Alex Lopez-Ortiz.
This FAQ is Copyright ©1998 by Daniel Owen. This text,
in whole or in part, may not be sold in any medium,
including, but not limited to, electronic, CD-ROM, or
published in print, without the explicit, written
permission of Daniel Owen [email protected].
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Copyright (C) 1994, Alex Lpez-Ortiz.
Copyright ©1998 Daniel Owen. [email protected].
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From: https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~alopez-o/Coffee/coffaq.html