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=                              Womanism                              =
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                            Introduction
======================================================================
Womanism is a social theory based on the history and everyday
experiences of women of color, especially black women. It seeks,
according to womanist scholar Layli Maparyan (Phillips), to "restore
the balance between people and the environment/nature and reconcil[e]
human life with the spiritual dimension". Writer Alice Walker coined
the term 'womanist' in a short story, "Coming Apart", in 1979. Since
Walker's initial use, the term has evolved to envelop varied, and
often opposing interpretations of conceptions such as feminism, men,
and blackness.


                               Theory
======================================================================
Womanist theory, while diverse, holds at its core that both femininity
and culture are equally important to the woman's existence. In this
conception one's femininity cannot be stripped from the culture within
which it exists. At first glance, this seems similar to the thought
process of third wave feminism, which embraced the concept of
intersectionality. The difference lies in the valuation placed on
intersectionality within the theoretical frameworks. Womanism supports
the idea that the culture of the woman, which in this case is the
focal point of intersection as opposed to class or some other
characteristic, is not an element of her femininity, but rather is the
lens through which femininity exists. As such, a woman's Blackness is
not a component of her feminism; instead, her Blackness is the lens
through which she understands her femininity.

In discussing womanist theory, one must acknowledge the racism that
was perceived by black women in the feminist movement. This perception
fuels two different conceptions of womanism's relationship with
feminism. Some womanists believe that the experience of Black women
will not be validated by feminists to be equal to the experience of
White women because of the problematic way in which some feminists
treated blackness throughout history. As such, womanists do not see
womanism as an extension of feminism, but rather as a theoretical
framework which exists independent of feminist theory. This is a move
from the thought of Black feminists who have carved their own space in
feminism through academia and activism.

However, not all womanists hold this view of womanism in relation to
feminism. The chronological first conception of womanism can be
captured through Alice Walker's quotation "womanism is to feminism as
purple is to lavender". Under this description, the theories are
seemingly intimately tied, with womanism as the broad umbrella under
which feminism falls.


Alice Walker
==============
Author and poet Alice Walker first used the term "womanist" in her
short story, "Coming Apart", in 1979, and later in' In Search of our
Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose' (1983). Walker defined a "womanist"
as a "black feminist or feminist of color. From the black folk
expression of mothers to female children, 'You acting womanish'",
referring to grown-up behavior. The womanish girl exhibits willful,
courageous, and outrageous behavior that is considered to be beyond
the scope of societal norms. She goes on to say that a womanist is
also:



According to Walker, while feminism is incorporated into womanism, it
is also instinctively pro-humankind; womanism is a broader category
that includes feminism as a subtype. The focus of the theology is not
on gender inequality, but race and class-based oppression. She sees
womanism as a theory/movement for the survival of the black race; a
theory that takes into consideration the experiences of black women,
black culture, black myths, spiritual life, and orality. Walker's much
cited phrase, "womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender",
suggests that feminism is a component beneath the much larger
ideological umbrella of womanism. Walker's definition also holds that
womanists are universalists. This philosophy is further invoked by her
metaphor of a garden where are all flowers bloom equally. A womanist
is committed to the survival of both males and females and desires a
world where men and women can coexist, while maintaining their
cultural distinctiveness. This inclusion of men provides Black women
with an opportunity to address gender oppression without directly
attacking men. A third definition provided by Walker pertains to the
sexuality of the women portrayed in her review of "Gifts of Power: The
Writings of Rebecca Jackson". Here, she argues that the best term to
describe Rebecca Jackson, a black Shaker who leaves her husband and
goes on to live with her white Shaker companion, would be a womanist,
because it is a word that affirms the connection to the world,
regardless of sexuality. The seemingly contrasting interpretations of
womanism given by Walker validates the experiences of African-American
women, while promoting a visionary perspective for the world based on
said experiences.

The short story "Everyday Use" by Alice Walker illustrates the voice
of a black rural middle class woman through the relationship that a
black woman shares with her two daughters Dee and Maggie. Dee is
spoiled and believes that her education and experiences make her
better than her mother and her sister. On the other hand, Maggie
envies her sister for her the beauty and arrogance that always gets
her what she wants. Historically, it has been very common for people
of color to have their stories told by Caucasians. However, Walker
attempts to break this tradition by having a black rural middle class
woman tell the story of her relationships with her two daughters. An
important part of the story occurs when the mother in "Everyday Use"
states, "You've no doubt seen those TV shows where the child who has
"made it" is confronted, as a surprise, by her own mother and father,
tottering in weakly from backstage... Sometimes I dream a dream in
which Dee and I are suddenly brought together on a TV program of this
sort...". Here the mother reminisces about a family experience that
she has witnessed on television that she wishes she could have for
herself. A heart-warming scene similar to the one that the mother
witnessed on television does not take place when her daughter Dee
comes to visit. Instead when Dee comes to visit the mother a rough,
awkward tension-filled encounter slowly unfolds. Walker employs this
story and its context to illustrate that a majority of womanism is
characterized by black women telling their stories.

Much of Alice Walker's progeny admits that while she is the creator of
the term, Walker fails to consistently define the term and often
contradicts herself. At some points she portrays womanism as a more
inclusive revision of Black feminism as it is not limited to Black
women and focuses on the woman as a whole. Later in life she begins to
regret this peace seeking and inclusive form of womanism due to the
constant and consistent prejudice inflicted upon Black women,
specifically, whose voices had yet to be validated by both White women
and Black men.


Clenora Hudson-Weems
======================
Clenora Hudson-Weems is credited with coining the term Africana
womanism. In 1995, the publication of her book, 'Africana Womanism:
Reclaiming Ourselves' sent shock waves through the Black nationalism
community and established her as an independent thinker. Hudson-Weems
rejects feminism as the theology of Africana women, that is to say
women of the African diaspora, because it is philosophically rooted in
Eurocentric ideals. Hudson-Weems identifies further differences
between womanism and feminism being; womanism is �family-oriented� and
focuses on race, class, and gender, while feminism is
�female-oriented� and strictly focuses on gender. She further asserts
that it is impossible to incorporate the cultural perspectives of
African women into the feminism ideal due to the history of slavery
and racism in America. Furthermore, Weems rejects feminism's
characterization of the man as the enemy. She claims that this does
not connect with Africana women as they do not see Africana men as the
enemy. Instead the enemy is the oppressive force that subjugates the
Africana man, woman, and child.  She claims that feminism's
masculine-feminine binary comes from a lack of additional hardship
placed on women by their circumstances (i.e. race and socio-economic)
as feminism was founded to appeal to upper-class White women.

She also distances the Africana woman from Black feminism by
demarcating the latter as distinctly African-American which is in turn
distinctly western. She also critiques Black feminism as a subset of
feminism needing the validation of White feminists for their voices to
be heard. She claims that feminism will never truly accept Black
feminists, but instead relegate them to the fringes of the feminist
movement. She ultimately claims that the matriarchs of the Black
feminist movement will never be put into the same conversation as the
matriarchs of the feminist movement.  A large part of her work mirrors
separatist Black Nationalist discourse, because of the focus on the
collective rather than the individual as the forefront of her
ideology. Hudson-Weems refutes Africana womanism as an addendum to
feminism, and asserts that her ideology differs from Black feminism,
Walker's womanism, and African womanism.


Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi
===========================
Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi is a Nigerian literary critic. In 1985, she
published the article "Womanism: The Dynamics of the Contemporary
Black Female Novel in English", and described her interpretation of
womanism. She asserts that the womanist vision is to answer the
ultimate question of how to equitably share power among the races and
between the sexes. She arrived at her interpretation of the term
independently of Alice Walker's definition, yet there are several
overlaps between the two ideologies. In alignment with Walker's
definition focusing on blackness and womanhood, Ogunyemi writes,
"Black womanism is a philosophy that celebrates black roots, the
ideals of black life, while giving a balanced presentation of black
womandom,"  Rather than citing gender inequality as the source of
Black oppression, Ogunyemi takes a separatist stance much like
Hudson-Weems, and dismisses the possibility of reconciliation of white
feminists and black feminists on the grounds of the intractability of
racism. She uses a few examples of how feminists write about Blackness
and African Blackness specifically to make salient the need for an
African conception of womanism. These critiques include the use of
Blackness as a tool to forward feminist ideals without also forwarding
ideals related to blackness, the thought that western feminism is a
tool which would work in African nations without acknowledging
cultural norms and differences, and a co-opting of things that African
women have been done for centuries before the western notion of
feminism into western feminism.

It is also important to note that Ogunyemi finds her conception of
womanism's relationship with men at the cross roads of Walker's and
Hudson Weems' conceptions. Walker's expresses a communal opportunity
for men while acknowledging how they can be dangerous to the womanist
community. While Hudson-Weems' conception refuses to see the Africana
man as an enemy, disregarding the harm that Africana men have imparted
on to the community.


                             Ideologies
======================================================================
Womanism has various definitions and interpretations. At its broadest
definition, it is a universalist ideology for all women, regardless of
color. A womanist is, according to Walker's 1979 story 'Coming Apart',
an African-American heterosexual woman willing to utilize wisdom from
African-American lesbians about how to improve sexual relationships
and avoid being sexually objectified.  In the context of men's
destructive use of pornography and their exploitation of Black women
as pornographic objects, a womanist is also committed to "the survival
and wholeness of an entire people, male and female" through
confronting oppressive forces. Walker's much cited phrase, "womanist
is to feminist as purple is to lavender" suggests that Walker
considers feminism as a component of the wider ideological umbrella of
womanism. It focuses on the unique experiences, struggles, needs, and
desires of not just Black women, but all women of color in addition to
critically addressing the dynamics of the conflict between the
mainstream feminist, the Black feminist, the African feminist, and the
Africana womanist movement. However, there is Black nationalist
discourse prevalent within womanist work and for this reason scholars
are divided between associating womanism with other similar ideologies
such as Black feminism and Africana womanism or taking the stance that
the three are inherently incompatible.


Black feminism
================
The Black feminist movement was formed in response to the needs of
women who were racially underrepresented by the Women's Movement and
sexually oppressed by the Black Liberation Movement. Black feminist
scholars assert that African-American women are doubly disadvantaged
in the social, economic, and political sphere, because they face
discrimination on the basis of both race and gender. Black women felt
that their needs were being ignored by both movements and they
struggled to identify with either based on race or gender.
African-American women who use the term Black feminism attach a
variety of interpretations to it. One such interpretation is that
Black feminism addresses the needs of African-American women that the
feminism movement largely ignores. Feminism, as Black feminist
theorist Pearl Cleage defines it, is "the belief that women are full
human beings capable of participation and leadership in the full range
of human activities�intellectual, political, social, sexual,
spiritual, and economic". With this definition, the feminist agenda
can be said to encompass different issues ranging from political
rights to educational opportunities within a global context. The Black
feminist agenda seeks to streamline these issues and focuses on those
that are the most applicable to African-American women.


Africana womanism
===================
Clenora Hudson-Weems's Africana womanism arose from a nationalist
Africana studies concept. In 'Africana Womanism: Reclaiming
Ourselves', Hudson-Weems explores the limitations of feminist theory
and explains the ideas and activism of different African women who
have contributed to womanist theory. At its core, Africana womanism
rejects feminism because it is set up in a way as to promote the
issues of white women over the issues of Black women. Hudson-Weems
argues that feminism will never be okay for black women due to the
implications of slavery and prejudice. Weems professes womanism is
separate from other feminism in that it has a different agenda,
different priorities, and "focuses on the unique experiences,
struggles, needs, and desires of Africana women.�  She further asserts
that the relationship between a Black man and a Black woman is
significantly different from the relationship between a White man and
a White woman, because the white woman battles the white man for
subjugating her, but the black women battles all oppressive forces
that subjugate her, her children, and the black man. She further
asserts that racism forced African-American men and African-American
women to assume unconventional gender roles. In this context, the
desire of mainstream feminism to dismantle traditional gender roles
becomes inapplicable to the black experience. Unlike womanism, though
closely related, Africana womanism is an ideology designed
specifically with women of African descent in mind. It is grounded in
African culture and focuses on the unique struggles, needs, and
desires of African women. Based on this reasoning, Africana womanism
posits race- and class-based oppression as far more significant than
gender-based oppression.


                         Womanist identity
======================================================================
In her introduction to 'The Womanist Reader', Layli Phillips contends
that despite womanism's characterization, its main concern is not the
black woman per se but rather the black woman is the point of
origination for womanism. The basic tenets of womanism includes a
strong self-authored spirit of activism that is especially evident in
literature. Womanism has been such a polarizing movement for women
that it has managed to step outside of the black community and extend
itself into other non-white communities. "Purple is to Lavender"
illustrates this through experiences that Dimpal Jain and Caroline
Turner discuss. Some scholars view womanism as a subcategory of
feminism while others argue that it is actually the other way around.
Purple is to Lavender explores the concept that womanism is to
feminism as purple is to lavender, that feminism falls under the
umbrella of womanism. In "Purple is to Lavender", Dimpal Jain and
Caroline Turner discuss their experiences as non-white women in
faculty.They experienced a great deal of discrimination because they
were minorities. Jain is south Asian, while Caroline identifies as
Filipino.

They go on to describe the concept of "The Politics of Naming" which
shapes the reason for why they prefer womanism as opposed to feminism
Jain states: "I knew that the term feminism was contested and that I
did not like how it fit in my mouth. It was uncomfortable and
scratchy, almost like a foreign substance that I was being forced to
consume as the White women continued to smile with comforting looks of
familiarity and pride"  Here Turner makes it well known that she feels
as though feminism is something that is forced upon her. She feels
like she cannot completely identify with feminism. It is also
important to note Jain's statement that, "The crux of the politics of
naming is that names serve as identifiers and are not neutral when
attached to social movements, ideas, and groups of people. Naming and
labeling become politicized acts when they serve to determine any type
of membership at a group level."  This statement illustrates that if
an individual identifies with feminism they may do so for particular
reasons. However, those reasons may not be evident to the general
public because of the connotation that the word feminism brings with
it in terms of social movements, ideas, and groups of people.
Individuals want something to identify with that expresses and
supports their beliefs holistically. They want something that they can
embrace to the fullest without any hint of regret. Similarly, Alice
Walker even states: "I don't choose womanism because it is "better"
than feminism ... I choose it because I prefer the sound, the feel,
the fit of it... because I share the old ethnic-American habit of
offering society a new word when the old word it is using fails to
describe behavior and change that only a new word can help it more
fully see"

For a majority of black women feminism has failed to accurately and
holistically describe them as individuals to the world that surrounds
them. They feel as though it takes something new that is not already
bound to a predetermined master in order to capture this new movement.
Womanism is something that Alice Walker can completely identify with
without having second thoughts; it feels natural to her. Feminism does
not. When distinguishing between feminism and womanism it is important
to remember that many women find womanism easier to identify with. In
addition, a key component of a womanist discourse is the role that
spirituality and ethics has on ending the interlocking oppression of
race, gender, and class that circumscribes the lives of
African-American women.


Literature and activism
=========================
Womanist literature and activism are two areas that are largely
interpolated, with each having a considerable effect on the other. A
major tenet of womanist literature and activism is the idea that Black
activists and Black authors should separate themselves from the
feminist ideology. This stems from assertions by Kalenda Eaton,
Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi, and numerous other womanist theologians
that the goal of a womanist should be to promote the issues affecting
not just Black women, but black men and other groups that have been
subjected to discrimination or impotence. In the words of Chikwenye
Okonjo Ogunyemi, a white woman writer may be a feminist, but a black
woman writer is likely to be a womanist. That is, she recognizes that
along with battling for sexual equality, she must also incorporate
race, economics, culture, and politics within her philosophy.

In Kalenda Eaton's, 'Womanism, Literature and the Transformation of
the Black Community', black women writers are portrayed as both
activists and visionaries for change in the Black Community following
the Civil Rights Movement.  She interweaves the historical events of
African-American history with the development of Afro-Politico
womanism in a bid to create a haven for Black female activism within
the black community. This Afro-Politico womanism veers from the
traditional feminist goal of gender equality within a group and rather
seeks to fight for the men and women whose civil rights are infringed
upon. While Eaton takes the stance that Black women were largely
excluded from the more prominent positions within the Black Movement,
she argues that black women activists had the greatest effect in
small-scale grassroots protests within their communities. Using
various characters from Toni Morrison's 'Song of Solomon', Alice
Walker's 'Meridian', Toni Cade Bambara's 'The Salt Eaters', and Paule
Marshall's 'The Chosen Place, the Timeless People' as symbols of the
various political agendas and issues that were prevalent within The
Black Movement, Eaton draws upon the actions of the protagonists to
illustrate solutions to the problems of disgruntlement and
disorganization within the movement.  Often the main task of these
literary activists was to empower the impoverished masses�defined by
Eaton as mainly Southern African-Americans, and they used the black
middle class as a model for the possibility of social mobility within
the African-American community. A common theme within womanist
literature is the failure of Black women writers to identify with
feminist thought. Womanism becomes the concept that binds these
novelists together.


Spirituality
==============
Spirituality concerns the desire for a connection with the sacred, the
unseen, the superhuman, or the nonexistent. Patricia Hill Collins
offers this definition:

Spirituality is not merely a system of religious beliefs similar to
logical systems of ideas. Rather, spirituality comprises articles of
faith that provide a conceptual framework for living everyday life

Whereby religion is an institutional mechanism, spirituality is a
personal one. Unlike religion, spirituality cannot be abandoned or
switched. It is an integral component of one's consciousness. Womanist
spirituality has six identifying characteristics�it is eclectic,
synthetic, holistic, personal, visionary, and pragmatic. It draws from
its resources and uses the summation of said resources to create a
whole from multiple parts. Although it is ultimately defined by self,
womanist spirituality envisions the larger picture and exists to solve
problems and end injustice. Emilie Townes, a womanist theologian,
further asserts that womanist spirituality grows out of individual and
communal reflection on African American faith and life. She explains
that it is not grounded in the notion that spirituality is a force but
rather a practice separate from who we are moment by moment.

One of the main characteristics of womanism is its religious aspect,
commonly thought of as Christian. This connotation paints the picture
of spiritual black womanists being "church going" women that play a
vital role in the operation of the church. In William's article
"Womanist Spirituality Defined" she discusses how womanist
spirituality is directly connected to an individual's experiences with
God. For instance, Williams declares, "the use of the term
spirituality in this paper speaks of the everyday experiences of life
and the way in which we relate to and interpret God at work in those
experiences". However, this connotation is disputed in Monica
Coleman's Roundtable Discussion: "Must I Be a Womanist?" where she
focuses on the shortcomings of womanism that result from how
individuals have historically described womanism. This holistic
discussion of womanism is the result of a roundtable discussion.
Coleman, who initiated the discussion, describes her thoughts on why
she prefers black feminism as opposed to womanism, and she also
discusses the limited scope that womanist religious scholarship
embodies. Coleman offers deep insight into the spiritual aspect of
womanism when she declares that, "Intentionally or not, womanists have
created a Christian hegemonic discourse within the field". Here
Coleman explains that the majority of womanists have painted the
spiritual aspect of womanism to be spiritual in terms of Christianity.
A specific example of this occurs in Walker's "Everyday Use", in the
instance when the mother suddenly gains the courage to take a stand
against her spoiled daughter as she declares, "When I looked at her
like that something hit me in the top of my head and ran down to the
soles of my feet. Just like when I'm in church and the spirit of God
touches me and I get happy and shout". This could be categorized as an
example of the spiritual aspect of womanism because of the mention of
relation to the Christian God. However, Coleman provides a counter
example to this assumption when she states: "How, for example, might a
womanist interpret the strength Tina Turner finds in Buddhism and the
role her faith played in helping her to leave a violent relationship?"
Here Coleman pokes a hole in the pre-conceived notions of womanist
scholarship. Coleman believes that the notorious sector of
spirituality that womanism is most known for referring to is limited
in its scope. Womanist religious scholarship has the ability to spread
across a variety of paradigms and represent and support radical
womanist spirituality. Considering womanism as a whole, it is also
important to understand how it relates to feminism.


Ethics
========
Womanist ethics is a religious discipline that examines the ethical
theories concerning human agency, action, and relationship. At the
same time, it rejects social constructions that have neglected the
existence of a group of women that have bared the brunt of injustice
and oppression. Its perspective is shaped by the theological
experiences of African-American women. With the use of analytic tools,
the effect of race, class, gender, and sexuality on the individual and
communal perspective is examined. Womanist ethic provides an
alternative to Christian and other religious ethics while utilizing
the elements of critique, description, and construction to assess the
power imbalance and patriarchy that has been used to oppress women of
color and their communities. The publication of Katie Cannon's 'The
Emergence of Black Feminist Consciousness' was the first to directly
speak on womanist ethics. In this article, Cannon argues that the
perspectives of Black women are largely ignored in various religious
and academic discourses. Jacquelyn Grant expands on this point by
asserting that Black women concurrently experience the three
oppressive forces of racism, sexism, and classism. Black feminist
theory has been used by womanist ethics to explain the lack of
participation of African-American women and men in academic discourse.
Patricia Collins, credits this phenomenon to prevalence of white men
determining what should or should not be considered valid discourse
and urges for an alternative mode of producing knowledge that includes
the core themes of Black female consciousness.


                             Critiques
======================================================================
A major ongoing critique about womanist scholarship is the failure of
many scholars to critically address homosexuality within the black
community.  Walker's protagonist in 'Coming Apart' uses writings from
two African-American lesbians, Audre Lorde and Louisah Teish, to
support her argument that her husband should stop consuming
pornography. She posts quotes from Audre Lorde above her kitchen sink.
'In Search of Our Mother's Garden' states that a womanist is "a woman
who loves another woman, sexually and/or non-sexually",  yet despite
'Coming Apart' and 'In Search of Our Mother's Garden', there is very
little literature linking womanism to the lesbian and bisexual issue.
Womanist theologian Renee Hill cites Christian influences as a source
of the heterosexism and homophobia. Black feminist critic Barbara
Smith blames it on the Black community's reluctance to come to terms
with homosexuality.  On the other hand, there is an increase in the
criticism of heterosexism within womanist scholarship. Christian
womanist theologian Pamela R. Lightsey, in her book 'Our Lives Matter:
A Womanist Queer Theology' (2015), writes, "To many people, we are
still 'perverts'.  To many, the Black pervert is the most dangerous
threat to the American ideal.  Because the Black conservative
bourgeoisie has joined the attack on our personhood, Black LGBTQ
persons cannot allow the discourse to be controlled such that our
existence within the Black community is denied or made invisible." An
additional critique lies within the ambivalence of womanism. In
Africana womanism and African womanism, the term is associated with
black nationalist discourse and the separatist movement. Patricia
Collins argues that this exaggerates racial differences by promoting
homogeneous identity. This is a sharp contrast to the universalist
model of womanism that is championed by Walker. The continued
controversy and dissidence within the various ideologies of womanism
serves only to draw attention away from the goal of ending race and
gender-based oppression.


                              See also
======================================================================
* Africana womanism
* Black feminism
* 'Daughters of Africa'
* Katie Geneva Cannon
* Patricia Hill Collins
* Stacey M. Floyd-Thomas
* Triple oppression


                          Further reading
======================================================================
* Alexander-Floyd, N. G., & Simien, E. M. (2006). "Revisiting
'What's in a Name?' Exploring the Contours of Africana Womanist
Thought". 'Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies', 27 (1), 67-89. doi:
10.1353/fro.2006.0011
* Silva-Wayne, Susan.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/feminisms-and-womanisms-a-womens-studies-reader/
oclc/55147009&referer=brief_results
'Feminisms and Womanisms: A Women's Studies Reader'], Women's Press
Ltd, 2003.
* Walker, Alice.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/in-search-of-our-mothers-gardens-womanist-prose/
oclc/9557895&referer=brief_results
'In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose'], Mariner Books,
2003.
* Douglas, Kelly Brown.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/sexuality-and-the-black-church-a-womanist-perspe
ctive/oclc/40354539&referer=brief_results
'Sexuality and the Black Church: A Womanist Perspective'], Orbis
Books, 1999.
* Cannon, Katie Geneva.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/katies-canon-womanism-and-the-soul-of-the-black-
community/oclc/32891307&referer=brief_results
'Katie's Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community'],
Continuum, 1998.
* Cannon, Katie G.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/black-womanist-ethics/oclc/17353392&referer=
brief_results
'Black Womanist Ethics' (AAR Academy Series)], An American Academy of
Religion Book, 1988.
* Thomas, Linda E.
[https://www.worldcat.org/title/womanist-theology-epistemology-and-a-new-anthrop
ological-paradigm/oclc/207564711&referer=brief_results
"Womanist Theology, Epistemology, and a New Anthropological"],
'Paradigm Cross Currents', Summer 1998 Vol. 48, Issue 4.
* Lightsey, Pamela R. 'Our Lives Matter: A Womanist Queer Theology,'
PICKWICK Publications, 2015.
*Phillips, Layli, and Barbara Mccaskill. "Who's Schooling Who? Black
Women and the Bringing of the Everyday into Academe, or Why We Started
'The Womanist'". Signs 20.4 (1995)
*


                           External links
======================================================================
* [http://www.aril.org/thomas.htm Aril.org: Womanist Theology]
* [http://www.womanist-musings.com/ "Womanist Musings"] � 'a Womanist
blog'.


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