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= Tao =
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Introduction
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Tao (, ) or Dao ( ; from ) is a Chinese word signifying "way",
"path", "route", "road" or sometimes more loosely "doctrine",
"principle" or "holistic beliefs". In the context of East Asian
philosophy and East Asian religions, Tao is the natural order of the
universe whose character one's human intuition must discern in order
to realize the potential for individual wisdom. This intuitive knowing
of "life" cannot be grasped as a concept; it is known through actual
living experience of one's everyday being.
Laozi in the 'Tao Te Ching' explains that the Tao is not a "name" for
a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose
ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being
non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness. The Tao is
"eternally nameless" (Tao Te Ching-32. Laozi) and to be distinguished
from the countless "named" things which are considered to be its
manifestations, the reality of life before its descriptions of it.
The Tao lends its name to the religious tradition (Wade-Giles, 'Tao
Chiao'; Pinyin, 'Daojiao') and philosophical tradition (Wade-Giles,
'Tao chia'; Pinyin, 'Daojia') that are both referred to in English
with the single term Taoism.
Description and uses of the concept
======================================================================
The word "Tao" () has a variety of meanings in both ancient and modern
Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use to mean road,
channel, path, principle, or similar, the word has acquired a variety
of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical and
religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically
in its sense of 'way' as the 'right' or 'proper' way of existence, or
in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full
coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual
perfection that is the outcome of such practices.
Some scholars make sharp distinctions between moral or ethical usage
of the word "Tao" that is prominent in Confucianism and religious
Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in
philosophical Taoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism; others
maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them
as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the
principle. The original use of the term was as a form of praxis rather
than theory - a term used as a convention to refer to something that
otherwise cannot be discussed in words - and early writings such as
the Tao Te Ching and the I Ching make pains to distinguish between
'conceptions of' the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and
the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or
understood in language. Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly
understood as an experiential and evolving concept, and that there are
not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of
the Tao, but personal differences that reflect the character of
individual practitioners.
The Tao can be roughly thought of as the 'flow of the Universe', or as
some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the
Universe balanced and ordered. It is related to the idea of qi, the
essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic
principle - it is the greater whole from which all the individual
elements of the Universe derive. Keller considers it similar to the
negative theology of Western scholars, but the Tao is rarely an object
of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma
or dharma than as a divine object. The Tao is more commonly expressed
in the relationship between 'wu' (void or emptiness, in the sense of
wuji) and yinyang (the natural dynamic balance between opposites),
leading to its central principle of wu wei (inaction, or inexertion).
The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in
particular as similar to water. Like water it is undifferentiated,
endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful,
and impassively generous. Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the
cyclical continuity of the natural world, and its contrast to the
linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings.
In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities
that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can,
however, be 'known' or 'experienced', and its principles (which can be
discerned by observing Nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of
East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to
the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to
do so.
The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chán and Zen Buddhism and more
broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In
Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism, the object of spiritual
practice is to 'become one with the Tao' (Tao Te Ching) or to
harmonise one's will with Nature (cf. Stoicism) in order to achieve
'effortless action' (Wu wei). This involves meditative and moral
practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of De (;
virtue). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are
often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while
Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the
natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The
Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts yin and yang (pinyin:
yīnyáng), where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable
movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice
variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these
natural developments.
De
====
De ( "power; virtue; integrity") is the term generally used to refer
to proper adherence to the Tao; De is the active living or cultivation
of the way. Particular things (things with names) that manifest from
the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow, in accordance
with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is De. Wuwei
(Pinyin: wúwéi), or "naturalness", is contingent on understanding and
conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a
personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human
nature within the greater Universe.
Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists
and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing
the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so
conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified
social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic/metaphysical
view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe, and
considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the
natural and spontaneous interactions between people, and at worst
calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict.
This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists
and Confucians. Several sections of the works attributed to Chuang Tzu
are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.
Taoist interpretations
========================
[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does
something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for
example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of
its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means,
among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from
the Way of Man'. 'Chu Tao' is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art
of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its 'tao', its doctrine of
the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular
school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, 'tao'
meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like
God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.
The Tao is what gives Taoism its English name, in both its
philosophical and religious forms. The Tao is the fundamental and
central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao
as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the
Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively
in Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm
of differentiation and linguistic constraints.
Diversity of views
====================
There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of
Taoism center around Tao and De, but there is a broad variety of
distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals in the same
sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns
and trends in Taoism and its branches.
The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across
four texts representative of major streams of thought in Taoism. All
four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and
emphasis among sects. The 'Tao Te Ching' is the oldest text and
representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao.
The 'Tao T'i Lun' is an eighth century exegesis of the 'Tao Te Ching',
written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint, that represents
the traditional scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of
the Tao is expressed in the 'Ch'ing Ching Ching', a liturgical text
that was originally composed during the Han dynasty and is used as a
hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites. The 'Zhuangzi'
(also spelled Chuang Tzu) uses literary devices such as tales,
allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader,
illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.
The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse.
They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic,
supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a
multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected
the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the
Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard
the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus,
outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an
accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of the Tao.
A central tenet in most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao
is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected
in order to be realized. It is the source of the Universe and the seed
of its primordial purity resides in all things. The manifestation of
the Tao is De, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the
Tao's radiance.
Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious
concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical
Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu Brahman. Joseph Wu
remarked of this conception of the Tao, "Dao is not religiously
available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Lao
Tzu and Chang Tzu are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism
and naturalism as paradoxes. In contrast to the esotericism typically
found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self
nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical
Taoism. The self steeped in the Tao is the self grounded in its place
within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels
in themselves and their activities.
However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive)
difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and
movements. Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between
'Daojia' and 'Daojiao'. According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have
seriously studied Daoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally
abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of 'D� oji�' and 'D� oji� o',
'philosophical Daoism' and 'religious Daoism.'"
Confucian interpretations
===========================
The 'Dao', or Way, of Confucius can be said to be 'Truth'.
Confucianism regards the Way, or Truth, as concordant with a
particular approach to life, politics, and tradition. It is held as
equally necessary and well regarded as 'De' (virtue) and 'ren'
(humanity). Confucius presents a humanistic 'Dao'. He only rarely
speaks of the t'ien Dao (Way of Heaven). An influential early
Confucian, Hsiin Tzu, explicitly noted this contrast. Though he
acknowledged the existence and celestial importance of the Way of
Heaven, he insisted that the Dao principally concerns human affairs.
As a formal religious concept in Confucianism, Dao is the Absolute
towards which the faithful move. In 'Zhongyong' (The Doctrine of the
Mean), harmony with the Absolute is equivalent to integrity and
sincerity. The 'Great Learning' expands on this concept explaining
that the Way illuminates virtue, improves the people, and resides
within the purest morality. During the Tang dynasty, Han Yu further
formalized and defined Confucian beliefs as an apologetic response to
Buddhism. He emphasized the ethics of the Way. He explicitly paired
'Dao' and 'De', focusing on humane nature and righteousness. He also
framed and elaborated on a "d� ot�ng" (tradition of the Way) in order
to reject the traditions of Buddhism.
Buddhist interpretations
==========================
Buddhism first started to spread in China during the first century AD
and was experiencing a golden age of growth and maturation by the
fourth century AD. Hundreds of collections of Pali and Sanskrit texts
were translated into Chinese by Buddhist monks within a short period
of time. Dhyana was translated as ch'an (and later as zen), giving Zen
Buddhism its name. The use of Chinese concepts, such as Dao, that were
close to Buddhist ideas and terms helped spread the religion and make
it more amenable to the Chinese people. However, the differences
between the Sanskrit and Chinese terminology led to some initial
misunderstandings and the eventual development of East Asian Buddhism
as a distinct entity. As part of this process, many Chinese words
introduced their rich semantic and philosophical associations into
Buddhism, including the use of 'Dao' for central concepts and tenets
of Buddhism.
Pai-chang Huai-hai told a student who was grappling with difficult
portions of suttas, "Take up words in order to manifest meaning and
you'll obtain 'meaning'. Cut off words and meaning is emptiness.
Emptiness is the Dao. The Dao is cutting off words and speech." Ch'an
(Zen) Buddhists regard the Dao as synonymous with both the Buddhist
Path ('marga') and the results of it; the Eightfold Path and Buddhist
enlightenment ('satori'). Pai-chang's statement plays upon this usage
in the context of the fluid and varied Chinese usage of 'Dao'. Words
and meaning are used to refer to rituals and practice. The 'emptiness'
refers to the Buddhist concept of 'sunyata'. Finding the Dao and
Buddha-nature is not simply a matter of formulations, but an active
response to the Four Noble Truths that cannot be fully expressed or
conveyed in words and concrete associations. The use of 'Dao' in this
context refers to the literal 'way' of Buddhism, the return to the
universal source, dharma, proper meditation, and nirvana, among other
associations. 'Dao' is commonly used in this fashion by Chinese
Buddhists, heavy with associations and nuanced meanings.
Neo-Confucian interpretations
===============================
During the Song dynasty, Neo-Confucians regarded Dao as the purest
thing-in-itself. Shao Yong regarded the Dao as the origin of heaven,
earth, and everything within them. In contrast, Zhang Zai presented a
vitalistic Dao that was the fundamental component or effect of ch'i,
the motive energy behind life and the world. A number of later
scholars adopted this interpretation, such as Tai Chen during the Qing
Dynasty.
Zhu Xi, Cheng Ho, and Cheng Yi perceived the Dao in the context of li
(Principle) and t'ien li (the Principle of Heaven). Cheng Hao regarded
the fundamental matter of li, and thus Dao, to be humaneness.
Developing compassion, altruism, and other humane virtues is the
following of the Way. Cheng Yi followed this interpretation,
elaborating on this perspective of Dao through teachings about
yin-yang interactions, the cultivation and preservation of life; and
the axiom of a morally just universe.
In total, the Dao is equated with the Absolute. Wang Fuzhi expressed
the Dao as the tai chi, The Great Ultimate, as well as the road
leading to it. Nothing exists apart from the Principle of Heaven in
Neo-Confucianism. The Way is contained within all things. Thus, the
religious life is not an elite or special journey for Neo-Confucians.
The normal, mundane life is the path that leads to the Absolute,
because the Absolute is contained within the mundane objects and
events of daily life.
Christian Interpretations
===========================
Noted Christian author C.S. Lewis used the word Tao to describe "the
doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are
really true, and others really false, the kind of thing the Universe
is and the kind of things we are." He asserted that every religion and
philosophy contains foundations of universal ethics as an attempt to
line up with the Tao�the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis'
thinking, God created the Tao and fully displayed it through the
person of Jesus Christ.
Also the Greek word used in the New Testament for the Way is (hodos).
Here the Way refers to the path of righteousness and salvation as
revealed through Christ.
In Chinese translations of the New Testament, (logos) is translated
with the Chinese word dao () (e.g. John 1:1), indicating that the
translators considered the concept of Tao to be somewhat equivalent to
logos in Greek philosophy.
Linguistic aspects
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The term 'dao' is analyzable in terms of Chinese characters,
alternate 'd� o' "way" or 'd�o' "guide" pronunciations and meanings, a
possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, and loanwords such as English
'Dao' or 'dao'.
Characters
============
'Dao' is written with the Chinese character in both Traditional
Chinese and Simplified Chinese. It typifies the most common Chinese
character classification of "radical-phonetic" or "phono-semantic"
graphs, which compound a "radical" or "signific" (roughly providing
semantic information) with a "phonetic" (suggesting ancient
pronunciation).
'Dao' graphically combines the 'chuo' (or ) "go" radical and 'shou'
"head" phonetic. Furthermore, 'dao' is the phonetic element in 'dao'
"guide; lead" (with the 'cun' "thumb; hand" radical) and 'dao' "a
tree name" (with the 'mu' "tree; wood" radical).
The traditional interpretation of the character, dating back to the
(121 CE) 'Shuowen Jiezi' dictionary, was a rare 'huiyi' "compound
ideogram" or "ideogrammic compound". The combination of 'chuo' "go"
and 'shou' "head" (numbers 162 and 185 in the Kangxi radicals)
signified a "head going" or "to lead the way".
'Dao' is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal
meaning of 'dao' "way; road; path;" and the later verbal sense of
"say". It should also be contrasted with 'dao' "lead the way; guide;
conduct; direct; ". The Simplified character for 'dao' has 'si'
"6th of the 12 Earthly Branches" in place of 'dao' .
The earliest written forms of 'dao' are bronzeware script and seal
script characters from Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BCE) bronzes and
writings. These ancient 'dao' characters more clearly depict the
'shou' "head" element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange
the 'chuo' "go; advance" radical with the 'xing' "go; road" radical,
with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal
character with two and "footprints".
Bronze scripts for 'dao' occasionally include an element of 'shou'
"hand" or 'cun' "thumb; hand", which occurs in 'dao' "lead". The
linguist Peter A. Boodberg explained,
This "'tao' with the hand element" is usually identified with the
modern character 'tao' < 'd'ôg', "to lead," "guide," "conduct,"
and considered to be a 'derivative' or verbal cognate of the noun
'tao', "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate
rather that "'tao' with the hand" is but a 'variant' of the basic
'tao' and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal
aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the
use of the primary 'tao' in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g.,
'Analects' 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption
implied in the common translation of 'Tao' as "way" that the concept
is essentially a nominal one. 'Tao' would seem, then, to be
etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it
translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead
way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance";
cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal
noun from "to lead."
These Confucian 'Analects' citations of 'dao' verbally meaning "to
guide; to lead" are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a
thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be
trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by
edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will
stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame."
Pronunciation
===============
In Modern Standard Chinese, 'dao' 's pronunciations are tonally
differentiated between 4th falling tone 'd� o' "way; path" and 3rd
dipping tone 'd�o' (usually written ) "guide; lead".
Besides these common 4th and 3rd tonal specifications 'd� o' "way" and
'd�o' (or ) "guide", has a rare 1st level tone 'd�o' pronunciation
in the regional idiomatic expression 'shénshend�od�o' "odd; bizarre".
This reduplication of 'shen' "spirit; god" and 'dao' occurs in
Northeast China speech.
In Middle Chinese (ca. 6th-10th centuries CE) tone name categories,
and were 'qusheng' "departing tone" and 'shangsheng' "rising tone".
Historical linguists have reconstructed Middle "way" and "guide" as
'd'âu-' and 'd'âu:' (Bernhard Karlgren), 'dau' and 'dau' 'daw'' and
'dawh' 'dawX' and 'daws' (William H. Baxter), and 'dâu'B and 'dâu'C.
In Old Chinese (ca. 7th-3rd centuries BCE) pronunciations,
reconstructions for "way" and "guide" are *'d'ôg' (Karlgren), *'d�w'
(Zhou), *'d�gwx' and *'d�gwh', *'lu�', and *'lû�' and *'lûh'.
Meanings
==========
The word 'dao' has many meanings. For example, the Chinese 'Hanyu Da
Zidian' dictionary defines 39 meanings for 'd� o' "way; path" and 6
for 'd�o' () "guide; lead".
John DeFrancis's Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for
'd� o' "way; path; say", three for 'd�o' (or ) "guide; lead", and one
for 'd�o' in an "odd, bizarre" idiomatic expression. Note that
brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage
examples.
2d� o N. [noun] road; path �M. [nominal measure word] � (for
rivers/topics/etc.) � (for a course (of food); a streak (of light);
etc.) �V. [verb] � say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel
style) � � think; suppose �B.F. [bound form, bound morpheme] � channel
� way; reason; principle � doctrine � Daoism � line ��hist.� [history]
� district; circuit canal; passage; tube � say (polite words) � See
also '4d�o', '4d�o'
4d�o B.F. [bound form] � guide; lead � � transmit; conduct � �
instruct; direct �
4d�o in 'shénshend�od�o' � R.F. [reduplicated form]
�topo.�[non-Mandarin form] odd; fantastic; bizarre
Etymologies
=============
The etymological linguistic origins of 'dao' "way; path" depend upon
its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively
reconstructed as *'d'ôg', *'d�gwx', *'d�w', *'lu�', and *'lû�'.
Boodberg noted that the 'shou' "head" phonetic in the 'dao'
character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with
English 'to head' meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain
direction," "ahead," "headway".
Paronomastically, 'tao' is equated with its homonym 'tao' <
'd'ôg', "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is
nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is
also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible
cognate) 'ti' < 'd'iôk', "follow a road," "go along," "lead,"
"direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical
overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, 'yu'
< 'djôg'," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 [] "walk" in
'ti' with the support of C157 [] "foot" in 'tao', "to trample,"
"tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the
headworking functions implied in 'tao' in preference to those of the
lower extremities.
Victor H. Mair proposes a Proto-Indo-European etymology for 'dao' ,
supported by numerous cognates in Indo-European languages, and
semantically similar Arabic and Hebrew words.
The archaic pronunciation of Tao sounded approximately like 'drog' or
'dorg'. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root 'drogh' (to run
along) and Indo-European 'dhorg' (way, movement). Related words in a
few modern Indo-European languages are Russian 'doroga' (way, road),
Polish 'droga' (way, road), Czech 'dráha' (way, track), Serbo-Croatian
'draga' (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect 'drog' (trail
of animals; valley). �. The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to
Tao ('drog') are 'dhrajas' (course, motion) and 'dhraj' (course). The
most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while
"trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European
roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even
more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Tao
('drog') is the Hebrew root 'd-r-g' for the same word and Arabic
't-r-q', which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing
things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.
Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities
for the tonal morphology of 'd� o' "road; way; method" < Middle
Chinese 'dâu'B < Old Chinese *'lû�' and 'd� o' or "to go along;
bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle 'dâu'C < Old
*'lûh'. Either 'd� o' "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a
Tone B ('shangsheng' "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from
'd� o' "conduct", or 'd� o' is a Later Old Chinese (Warring States
period) "general tone C" ('qusheng' "departing tone") derivation from
'd� o' "way". For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes
the ancient 'Fangyan' dictionary defines 'yu' < *'lokh' and 'lu'
< *'lu' as Eastern Qi State dialectal words meaning 'd� o' <
*'lû�' "road".
Loanwords
===========
Many languages have borrowed and adapted Chinese 'dao' "the way" as a
loanword.
In Chinese, this character is pronounced as Cantonese 'dou6' and
Hokkian 'to7'. In Sino-Xenic languages, is pronounced as Japanese
'd�', 't�', or 'michi'; Korean 'do' or 'to'; and Vietnamese '�ạo',
'dạo', or 'nhạo'.
Since 1982, when the International Organization for Standardization
adopted Pinyin as the standard romanization of Chinese, many Western
languages have changed from spelling this loanword 'tao' in national
systems (e.g., French EFEO Chinese transcription and English
Wade-Giles) to 'dao' in Pinyin.
The 'tao'/'dao' "the way" English word of Chinese origin has three
meanings, according to the 'Oxford English Dictionary'.
1. a. In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the
universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.
1. b. = 'Taoism', 'taoist'
2. In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the
right conduct; doctrine or method.
The earliest recorded usages were 'Tao' (1736), 'Tau' (1747), 'Taou'
(1831), and 'Dao' (1971).
A derivative, 'Daoshi' (, "Daoist priest"), was used already by the
Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault in their 'De Christiana
expeditione apud Sinas', rendered as 'Tausu' in the original Latin
edition (1615), and 'Tausa' in an early English translation published
by Samuel Purchas (1625).
See also
======================================================================
* Daoism-Taoism romanization issue
* Dharma
* Logos
* Fard
* Rta
* God
* Absolute (philosophy)
Further reading
======================================================================
*[
http://taoism.net/tao/tao-te-ching-online-translation/ Translation
of the Tao te Ching by Derek Lin]
*[
http://www.tao-te-king.org �� L�oz� �德� D� odéjīng Verbatim,
Analogous, Poetic (Chinese, English, German)]
*[
http://ctext.org/dao-de-jing http://ctext.org/dao-de-jing]
Translation of the Dao de Jing by James Legge
*[
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/216
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/216] Legge translation of the Tao Teh
King at Project Gutenberg
*Feng, Gia-Fu & Jane English (translators). 1972. 'Laozi/Dao De
Jing'. New York: Vintage Books.
*Komjathy, Louis. 'Handbooks for Daoist Practice.' 10 vols. Hong Kong:
Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008.
*Mitchell, Stephen (translator). 1988. 'Tao Te Ching: A New English
Version'. New York: Harper & Row.
*Robinet, Isabelle. 'Taoism: Growth of a Religion' (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]) page 14,20. .
* Sterckx, Roel. 'Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'
London: Penguin, 2019.
*[
https://web.archive.org/web/20100726134842/http://www.daoistcenter.org/dao.htm
l
Dao entry from Center for Daoist Studies]
*The Tao of Physics, Fritjof Capra, 1975
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