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= Nondualism =
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Introduction
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In spirituality, nondualism, also called non-duality, means "not two"
or "one undivided without a second". Nondualism primarily refers to a
mature state of consciousness, in which the dichotomy of I-other is
"transcended", and awareness is described as "centerless" and "without
dichotomies". Although this state of consciousness may seem to appear
spontaneous, it usually follows prolonged preparation through ascetic
or meditative/contemplative practice, which may include ethical
injunctions. While the term "nondualism" is derived from Advaita
Vedanta, descriptions of nondual consciousness can be found within
Hinduism ('Turiya, sahaja'), Buddhism (emptiness, 'pariniṣpanna',
'rigpa'), Islam (Wahdat al Wujud, Fanaa, and Haqiqah) and western
Christian and neo-Platonic traditions (henosis, mystical union).
The Asian idea of nondualism is developed in the Vedic and post-Vedic
Hindu philosophies, as well as in the Buddhist traditions. The oldest
traces of nondualism in Indian thought are found in the earlier Hindu
Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, as well as other
pre-Buddhist Upanishads such as the Chandogya Upanishad, which
emphasizes the unity of individual soul called Atman and the Supreme
called Brahman. In Hinduism, nondualism has more commonly become
associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Adi Shankara.
In the Buddhist tradition non-duality is associated with the teachings
of emptiness ('�ūnyat�') and the two truths doctrine, particularly the
Madhyamaka teaching of the non-duality of absolute and relative truth,
and the Yogachara notion of "mind/thought only" ('citta-matra') or
"representation-only" ('vijñaptim�tra'). These teachings',' coupled
with the doctrine of Buddha-nature have been influential concepts in
the subsequent development of Mahayana Buddhism, not only in India,
but also in East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, most notably in Chán
(Zen) and Vajrayana.
Western Neo-Platonism is an essential element of both Christian
contemplation and mysticism, and of Western esotericism and modern
spirituality, especially Unitarianism, Transcendentalism, Universalism
and Perennialism.
Etymology
======================================================================
When referring to nondualism, Hinduism generally uses the Sanskrit
term 'Advaita,' while Buddhism uses 'Advaya' (Tibetan: 'gNis-med,'
Chinese: 'pu-erh,' Japanese: 'fu-ni')'.'
"Advaita" (�
द�व�त) is from Sanskrit roots 'a', not; 'dvaita', dual,
and is usually translated as "nondualism", "nonduality" and "nondual".
The term "nondualism" and the term "'advaita'" from which it
originates are polyvalent terms. The English word's origin is the
Latin 'duo' meaning "two" prefixed with "non-" meaning "not".
"Advaya" (�
द�वय) is also a Sanskrit word that means "identity, unique,
not two, without a second," and typically refers to the two truths
doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, especially Madhyamaka.
One of the earliest uses of the word Advaita is found in verse 4.3.32
of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (~800 BCE), and in verses 7 and 12 of
the Mandukya Upanishad (variously dated to have been composed between
500 BCE to 200 CE). The term appears in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
in the section with a discourse of the oneness of Atman (individual
soul) and Brahman (universal consciousness), as follows:
The English term "nondual" was also informed by early translations of
the Upanishads in Western languages other than English from 1775.
These terms have entered the English language from literal English
renderings of "advaita" subsequent to the first wave of English
translations of the Upanishads. These translations commenced with the
work of Müller (1823-1900), in the monumental 'Sacred Books of the
East' (1879).
Max Müller rendered "advaita" as "Monism", as have many recent
scholars. However, some scholars state that "advaita" is not really
monism.
Definitions
======================================================================
Nondualism is a fuzzy concept, for which many definitions can be
found.
According to Esp�n and Nickoloff, "nondualism" is the thought in some
Hindu, Buddhist and Taoist schools, which, generally speaking:
However, since there are similar ideas and terms in a wide variety of
spiritualities and religions, ancient and modern, no single definition
for the English word "nonduality" can suffice, and perhaps it is best
to speak of various "nondualities" or theories of nonduality.
David Loy, who sees non-duality between subject and object as a common
thread in Taoism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Advaita
Vedanta,{{refn|group=note|According to Loy, nondualism is primarily an
Eastern way of understanding:
"...[the seed of nonduality] however often sown, has never found
fertile soil [in the West], because it has been too antithetical to
those other vigorous sprouts that have grown into modern science and
technology. In the Eastern tradition [...] we encounter a different
situation. There the seeds of seer-seen nonduality not only sprouted
but matured into a variety (some might say a jungle) of impressive
philosophical species. By no means do all these [Eastern] systems
assert the nonduality of subject and object, but it is significant
that three which do - Buddhism, Vedanta and Taoism - have probably
been the most influential. According to Loy, referred by Pritscher:
}} distinguishes "Five Flavors Of Nonduality":
# The negation of dualistic thinking in pairs of opposites. The
Yin-Yang symbol of Taoism symbolises the transcendence of this
dualistic way of thinking.
# 'Monism', the nonplurality of the world. Although the phenomenal
world appears as a plurality of "things", in reality they are "of a
single cloth".
# 'Advaita', the nondifference of subject and object, or nonduality
between subject and object.
# 'Advaya', the identity of phenomena and the Absolute, the
"nonduality of duality and nonduality", c.q. the nonduality of
relative and ultimate truth as found in Madhyamaka Buddhism and the
two truths doctrine.
# 'Mysticism', a mystical unity between God and man.
The idea of nondualism is typically contrasted with dualism, with
dualism defined as the view that the universe and the nature of
existence consists of two realities, such as the God and the world, or
as God and Devil, or as mind and matter, and so on.
Ideas of nonduality are also taught in some western religions and
philosophies, and it has gained attraction and popularity in modern
western spirituality and New Age-thinking.
Different theories and concepts which can be linked to nonduality are
taught in a wide variety of religious traditions. These include:
* Hinduism:
** In the Upanishads, which teach a doctrine that has been interpreted
in a nondualistic way, mainly tat tvam asi.
** The Advaita Vedanta of Shankara which teaches that a single pure
consciousness is the only reality, and that the world is unreal
(Maya).
** Non-dual forms of Hindu Tantra including Kashmira Shaivism and the
goddess centered Shaktism. Their view is similar to Advaita, but they
teach that the world is not unreal, but it is the real manifestation
of consciousness.
** Forms of Hindu Modernism which mainly teach Advaita and modern
Indian saints like Ramana Maharshi and Swami Vivekananda.
* Buddhism:
** "Shūnyav�da (emptiness view) or the M�dhyamaka school", which holds
that there is a non-dual relationship (that is, there is no true
separation) between conventional truth and ultimate truth, as well as
between samsara and nirvana.
** "Vijn�nav�da (consciousness view) or the Yog�c�ra school", which
holds that there is no ultimate perceptual and conceptual division
between a subject and its objects, or a cognizer and that which is
cognized. It also argues against mind-body dualism, holding that there
is only consciousness.
** Tathagatagarbha-thought, which holds that all beings have the
potential to become Buddhas.
** Vajrayana-buddhism, including Tibetan Buddhist traditions of
Dzogchen and Mahamudra.
** East Asian Buddhist traditions like Zen and Huayan, particularly
their concept of interpenetration.
* Sikhism, which usually teaches a duality between God and humans, but
was given a nondual interpretation by Bhai Vir Singh.
* Taoism, which teaches the idea of a single subtle universal force or
cosmic creative power called Tao (literally "way").
* Subud
* Abrahamic traditions:
** Christian mystics who promote a "nondual experience", such as
Meister Eckhart and Julian of Norwich'.' The focus of this Christian
nondualism is on bringing the worshiper closer to God and realizing a
"oneness" with the Divine.
** Sufism
** Jewish Kabbalah
* Western traditions:
** Neo-platonism which teaches there is a single source of all
reality, The One.
** Western philosophers like Hegel, Spinoza and Schopenhauer'.' They
defended different forms of philosophical monism or Idealism.
** Transcendentalism, which was influenced by German Idealism and
Indian religions.
** Theosophy
** New age
Hinduism
======================================================================
"Advaita" refers to nondualism, non-distinction between realities, the
oneness of Atman (individual self) and Brahman (the single universal
existence), as in Vedanta, Shaktism and Shaivism. Although the term is
best known from the Advaita Vedanta school of Adi Shankara, "advaita"
is used in treatises by numerous medieval era Indian scholars, as well
as modern schools and teachers.
The Hindu concept of 'Advaita' refers to the idea that all of the
universe is one essential reality, and that all facets and aspects of
the universe is ultimately an expression or appearance of that one
reality. According to Dasgupta and Mohanta, non-dualism developed in
various strands of Indian thought, both Vedic and Buddhist, from the
Upanishadic period onward. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian
thought may be found in the Chandogya Upanishad, which pre-dates the
earliest Buddhism. Pre-sectarian Buddhism may also have been
responding to the teachings of the Chandogya Upanishad, rejecting some
of its Atman-Brahman related metaphysics.
Advaita appears in different shades in various schools of Hinduism
such as in Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Vaishnavism),
Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Vaishnavism), non-dual Shaivism and Shaktism.[b]
Jean Filliozat (1991), 'Religion, Philosophy, Yoga: A Selection of
Articles', Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 68-69; [c] Richard Davis
(2014), 'Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in
Medieval India', Princeton University Press, , page 167 note 21, Quote
(page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are
decidedly dualist." In the Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara, advaita
implies that all of reality is one with Brahman, that the Atman (soul,
self) and Brahman (ultimate unchanging reality) are one. The advaita
ideas of some Hindu traditions contrasts with the schools that defend
dualism or Dvaita, such as that of Madhvacharya who stated that the
experienced reality and God are two (dual) and distinct.
Vedanta
=========
Several schools of Vedanta teach a form of nondualism. The best-known
is Advaita Vedanta, but other nondual Vedanta schools also have a
significant influence and following, such as Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
and Shuddhadvaita, both of which are bhedabheda.
Advaita Vedanta
=================
The nonduality of the Advaita Vedanta is of the identity of Brahman
and the Atman. Advaita has become a broad current in Indian culture
and religions, influencing subsequent traditions like Kashmir
Shaivism.
The oldest surviving manuscript on Advaita Vedanta is by Gau�ap�da
(6th century CE), who has traditionally been regarded as the teacher
of Govinda bhagavatp�da and the grandteacher of Adi Shankara. Advaita
is best known from the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Adi Shankara
(788-820 CE), who states that Brahman, the single unified eternal
truth, is pure Being, Consciousness and Bliss ('Sat-cit-ananda').
Advaita, states Murti, is the knowledge of Brahman and
self-consciousness (Vijnana) without differences. The goal of Vedanta
is to know the "truly real" and thus become one with it. According to
Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the highest Reality, The universe,
according to Advaita philosophy, does not simply come from Brahman, it
'is' Brahman. Brahman is the single binding unity behind the diversity
in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is also that which is the
cause of all changes. Brahman is the "creative principle which lies
realized in the whole world".
The nondualism of Advaita, relies on the Hindu concept of �tman which
is a Sanskrit word that means "real self" of the individual,
"essence", and soul.[b] Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and
Buddhism, State University of New York Press, , page 64, Quote: "Atman
as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost
essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the
Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and
macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman". [c]
Chad Meister (2010), 'The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity',
Oxford University Press, , page 63; Quote: "Even though Buddhism
explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of 'Atman' (soul) and Brahman,
Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."
�tman is the first principle, the 'true' self of an individual beyond
identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. Atman is
the Universal Principle, one eternal undifferentiated self-luminous
consciousness, asserts Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism.
Advaita Vedanta philosophy considers Atman as self-existent awareness,
limitless, non-dual and same as Brahman. Advaita school asserts that
there is "soul, self" within each living entity which is fully
identical with Brahman. This identity holds that there is One Soul
that connects and exists in all living beings, regardless of their
shapes or forms, there is no distinction, no superior, no inferior, no
separate devotee soul (Atman), no separate God soul (Brahman). The
Oneness unifies all beings, there is the divine in every being, and
all existence is a single Reality, state the Advaita Vedantins. The
nondualism concept of Advaita Vedanta asserts that each soul is
non-different from the infinite Brahman.
*
* [
http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/26715.htm David Loy,
'Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha
the Same?']
* [
http://vedantahub.org Vedanta Hub] - Resources to help with the
Study and Practice of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta � Three levels of reality
===========================================
Advaita Vedanta adopts sublation as the criterion to postulate three
levels of ontological reality:
* ' ('paramartha', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true
and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that
"which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can
be resolved". This experience can't be sublated (exceeded) by any
other experience.
* ' ('vyavahara'), or 'samvriti-saya', consisting of the empirical or
pragmatic reality. It is ever-changing over time, thus empirically
true at a given time and context but not metaphysically true. It is
"our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every
day when we are awake". It is the level in which both 'jiva' (living
creatures or individual souls) and 'Iswara' are true; here, the
material world is also true.
* ' ('pratibhasika', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on
imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind
constructs its own reality. A well-known example is the perception of
a rope in the dark as being a snake.
Similarities and differences with Buddhism
============================================
Scholars state that Advaita Vedanta was influenced by Mahayana
Buddhism, given the common terminology and methodology and some common
doctrines. Eliot Deutsch and Rohit Dalvi state:
Advaita Vedanta is related to Buddhist philosophy, which promotes
ideas like the two truths doctrine and the doctrine that there is only
consciousness ('vijñapti-m�tra'). It is possible that the Advaita
philosopher Gaudapada was influenced by Buddhist ideas. Shankara
harmonised Gaudapada's ideas with the Upanishadic texts, and developed
a very influential school of orthodox Hinduism.
The Buddhist term 'vijñapti-m�tra' is often used interchangeably with
the term 'citta-m�tra', but they have different meanings. The standard
translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only."
Advaita Vedanta has been called "idealistic monism" by scholars, but
some disagree with this label. Another concept found in both
Madhyamaka Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta is Ajativada ("aj�ta"), which
Gaudapada adopted from Nagarjuna's philosophy. Gaudapada "wove [both
doctrines] into a philosophy of the 'Mandukaya Upanisad', which was
further developed by Shankara.
Michael Comans states there is a fundamental difference between
Buddhist thought and that of Gaudapada, in that Buddhism has as its
philosophical basis the doctrine of Dependent Origination according to
which "everything is without an essential nature ('nissvabhava'), and
everything is empty of essential nature ('svabhava-sunya')", while
Gaudapada does not rely on this principle at all. Gaudapada's
'Ajativada' is an outcome of reasoning applied to an unchanging
nondual reality according to which "there exists a Reality ('sat')
that is unborn ('aja')" that has essential nature ('svabhava'), and
this is the "eternal, fearless, undecaying Self (Atman) and Brahman".
Thus, Gaudapada differs from Buddhist scholars such as Nagarjuna,
states Comans, by accepting the premises and relying on the
fundamental teaching of the Upanishads. Among other things, Vedanta
school of Hinduism holds the premise, "Atman exists, as self evident
truth", a concept it uses in its theory of nondualism. Buddhism, in
contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist (or, An-atman) as
self evident".[b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason
(Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press,
, page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of
not-self (Pali: anatt�, Sanskrit: an�tman, the opposed doctrine of
�tman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is
the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no
unchanging essence."; [c] Edward Roer (Translator), to 'Brihad
Aranyaka Upanishad', pp. 2-4; [d] Katie Javanaud (2013),
[
https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible
_With_Pursuing_Nirvana
Is The Buddhist �No-Self� Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?],
Philosophy Now
Mahadevan suggests that Gaudapada adopted Buddhist terminology and
adapted its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism
adopted Upanishadic terminology and adapted its doctrines to Buddhist
goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new
meanings. Dasgupta and Mohanta note that Buddhism and Shankara's
Advaita Vedanta are not opposing systems, but "different phases of
development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic
period to the time of Sankara."
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
=========================
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta is another main school of Vedanta and teaches
the nonduality of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists,
but is characterized by multiplicity. It can be described as
"qualified monism," or "qualified non-dualism," or "attributive
monism."
According to this school, the world is real, yet underlying all the
differences is an all-embracing unity, of which all "things" are an
"attribute." Ramanuja, the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita
philosophy contends that the Prasthana Traya ("The three courses") -
namely the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras - are
to be interpreted in a way that shows this unity in diversity, for any
other way would violate their consistency.
Vedanta Desika defines 'Vishishtadvaita' using the statement: 'Asesha
Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam' - "Brahman, as qualified by
the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is the only
reality."
Neo-Vedanta
=============
Neo-Vedanta, also called "neo-Hinduism" is a modern interpretation of
Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and
orientalism, and aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of
Hinduism" with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.
Neo-Vedanta, as represented by Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan, is
indebted to Advaita vedanta, but also reflects Advaya-philosophy. A
main influence on neo-Advaita was :Ramakrishna, himself a bhakta and
tantrika, and the guru of Vivekananda. According to Michael Taft,
Ramakrishna reconciled the dualism of formlessness and form.
Ramakrishna regarded the Supreme Being to be both Personal and
Impersonal, active and inactive:
Radhakrishnan acknowledged the reality and diversity of the world of
experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute
or Brahman. According to Anil Sooklal, Vivekananda's neo-Advaita
"reconciles Dvaita or dualism and Advaita or non-dualism":
Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion of 'maya'.
According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism,
but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real."
According to Sarma, standing in the tradition of Nisargadatta Maharaj,
Advaitav�da means "spiritual non-dualism or absolutism", in which
opposites are 'manifestations' of the Absolute, which itself is
immanent and transcendent:
Unitarian Universalism had a strong impact on Ram Mohan Roy and the
Brahmo Samaj, and subsequently on Swami Vivekananda. Vivekananda was
one of the main representatives of Neo-Vedanta, a modern
interpretation of Hinduism in line with western esoteric traditions,
especially Transcendentalism, New Thought and Theosophy. His
reinterpretation was, and is, very successful, creating a new
understanding and appreciation of Hinduism within and outside India,
and was the principal reason for the enthusiastic reception of yoga,
transcendental meditation and other forms of Indian spiritual
self-improvement in the West.
Narendranath Datta (Swami Vivekananda) became a member of a
Freemasonry lodge "at some point before 1884" and of the Sadharan
Brahmo Samaj in his twenties, a breakaway faction of the Brahmo Samaj
led by Keshab Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore. Ram Mohan Roy
(1772-1833), the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, had a strong sympathy
for the Unitarians, who were closely connected to the
Transcendentalists, who in turn were interested in and influenced by
Indian religions early on. It was in this cultic milieu that Narendra
became acquainted with Western esotericism. Debendranath Tagore
brought this "neo-Hinduism" closer in line with western esotericism, a
development which was furthered by Keshubchandra Sen, who was also
influenced by transcendentalism, which emphasised personal religious
experience over mere reasoning and theology. Sen's influence brought
Vivekananda fully into contact with western esotericism, and it was
also via Sen that he met Ramakrishna.
Vivekananda's acquaintance with western esotericism made him very
successful in western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in
1893 at the Parliament of Religions. Vivekananda adapted traditional
Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of
his western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar
with western esoteric traditions and movements like Transcendentalism
and New thought.
In 1897 he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which was instrumental in
the spread of Neo-Vedanta in the west, and attracted people like Alan
Watts. Aldous Huxley, author of 'The Perennial Philosophy', was
associated with another neo-Vedanta organisation, the Vedanta Society
of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda.
Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood, and other followers
he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual
practices.
Kashmir Shaivism
==================
Advaita is also a central concept in various schools of Shaivism, such
as Kashmir Shaivism and Shiva Advaita.
Kashmir Shaivism is a school of �aivism, described by Abhinavagupta as
"paradvaita", meaning "the supreme and absolute non-dualism". It is
categorized by various scholars as monistic idealism (absolute
idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism, transcendental
physicalism or concrete monism).
Kashmir Saivism is based on a strong monistic interpretation of the
'Bhairava Tantras' and its subcategory the 'Kaula Tantras', which were
tantras written by the Kapalikas. There was additionally a revelation
of the 'Siva Sutras' to Vasugupta. Kashmir Saivism claimed to
supersede the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta. Somananda, the first
theologian of monistic Saivism, was the teacher of Utpaladeva, who was
the grand-teacher of Abhinavagupta, who in turn was the teacher of
Ksemaraja.
The philosophy of Kashmir Shaivism can be seen in contrast to
Shankara's Advaita. Advaita Vedanta holds that Brahman is inactive
('niṣkriya') and the phenomenal world is an illusion ('m�y�'). In
Kashmir Shavisim, all things are a manifestation of the Universal
Consciousness, 'Chit' or 'Brahman'. Kashmir Shavisim sees the
phenomenal world ('�akti') as real: it exists, and has its being in
Consciousness ('Chit').
Kashmir Shaivism was influenced by, and took over doctrines from,
several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical
traditions. These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas,
and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika, but
also Tantra and the Nath-tradition.
Contemporary vernacular Advaita
=================================
'Advaita' is also part of other Indian traditions, which are less
strongly, or not all, organised in monastic and institutional
organisations. Although often called "Advaita Vedanta," these
traditions have their origins in vernacular movements and
"householder" traditions, and have close ties to the Nath, Nayanars
and Sant Mat traditions.
Ramana Maharshi
=================
Ramana Maharshi (30 December 1879 - 14 April 1950) is widely
acknowledged as one of the outstanding Indian gurus of modern times.
Ramana's teachings are often interpreted as Advaita Vedanta, though
Ramana Maharshi never "received diksha (initiation) from any
recognised authority". Ramana himself did not call his insights
advaita:
{{quote|D. Does Sri Bhagavan advocate 'advaita'?
M. 'Dvaita' and 'advaita' are relative terms. They are based on the
sense of duality. The Self is as it is. There is neither 'dvaita' nor
'advaita'. "I Am that I Am." Simple Being is the Self.}}
Neo-Advaita
=============
'Neo-Advaita' is a New Religious Movement based on a modern, western
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta, especially the teachings of Ramana
Maharshi. According to Arthur Versluis, neo-Advaita is part of a
larger religious current which he calls immediatism, "the assertion of
immediate spiritual illumination without much if any preparatory
practice within a particular religious tradition." Neo-Advaita is
criticized for this immediatism and its lack of preparatory practices.
Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja and his students
Gangaji, Andrew Cohen,, and Eckhart Tolle.
According to a modern western spiritual teacher of nonduality, Jeff
Foster, nonduality is: the essential oneness (wholeness,
completeness, unity) of life, a wholeness which exists here and now,
prior to any apparent separation [...] despite the compelling
appearance of separation and diversity there is only one universal
essence, one reality. Oneness is all there is - and we are included.
Natha Sampradaya and Inchegeri Sampradaya
===========================================
The Natha Sampradaya, with Nath yogis such as Gorakhnath, introduced
Sahaja, the concept of a spontaneous spirituality. Sahaja means
"spontaneous, natural, simple, or easy". According to Ken Wilber, this
state reflects nonduality.
Buddhism
======================================================================
There are different Buddhist views which resonate with the concepts
and experiences of non-duality or "not two" ('advaya'). The Buddha
does not use the term 'advaya' in the earliest Buddhist texts, but it
does appear in some of the Mahayana sutras, such as the 'Vimalakīrti'.
While the Buddha taught unified states of mental focus ('samadhi') and
meditative absorption ('dhyana') which were commonly taught in
Upanishadic thought, he also rejected the metaphysical doctrines of
the Upanishads, particularly ideas which are often associated with
Hindu nonduality, such as the doctrine that "this cosmos is the self"
and "everything is a Oneness" (cf. SN 12.48 and MN 22). Because of
this, Buddhist views of nonduality are particularly different than
Hindu conceptions, which tend towards idealistic monism.
In Indian Buddhism
====================
According to Kameshwar Nath Mishra, one connotation of 'advaya' in
Indic Sanskrit Buddhist texts is that it refers to the middle way
between two opposite extremes (such as eternalism and
annihilationism), and thus it is "not two".
One of these Sanskrit Mahayana sutras, the 'Vimalakīrti Nirde�a Sūtra'
contains a chapter on the "Dharma gate of non-duality" ('advaya dharma
dvara pravesa') which is said to be entered once one understands how
numerous pairs of opposite extremes are to be rejected as forms of
grasping. These extremes which must be avoided in order to understand
ultimate reality are described by various characters in the text, and
include: Birth and extinction, 'I' and 'Mine', Perception and
non-perception, defilement and purity, good and not-good, created and
uncreated, worldly and unworldly, samsara and nirvana, enlightenment
and ignorance, form and emptiness and so on. The final character to
attempt to describe ultimate reality is the bodhisattva Manjushri, who
states: It is in all beings wordless, speechless, shows no signs, is
not possible of cognizance, and is above all questioning and
answering. Vimalakīrti responds to this statement by maintaining
completely silent, therefore expressing that the nature of ultimate
reality is ineffable ('anabhil�pyatva') and inconceivable
('acintyat�'), beyond verbal designation ('prapañca') or thought
constructs ('vikalpa'). The 'La�
k�vat�ra Sūtra', a text associated
with Yog�c�ra Buddhism, also uses the term "'advaya'" extensively.
In the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy of Madhyamaka, the two truths or
ways of understanding reality, are said to be 'advaya' (not two). As
explained by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, there is a non-dual
relationship, that is, there is no absolute separation, between
conventional and ultimate truth, as well as between samsara and
nirvana. The concept of nonduality is also important in the other
major Indian Mahayana tradition, the Yogacara school, where it is seen
as the absence of duality between the perceiving subject (or
"grasper") and the object (or "grasped"). It is also seen as an
explanation of emptiness and as an explanation of the content of the
awakened mind which sees through the illusion of subject-object
duality. However, it is important to note that in this conception of
non-dualism, there are still a multiplicity of individual mind streams
('citta santana') and thus Yogacara does not teach an idealistic
monism.
These basic ideas have continued to influence Mahayana Buddhist
doctrinal interpretations of Buddhist traditions such as Dzogchen,
Mahamudra, Zen, Huayan and Tiantai as well as concepts such as
Buddha-nature, luminous mind, Indra's net, rigpa and shentong.
Madhyamaka
============
Madhyamaka, also known as '�ūnyav�da' (the emptiness teaching), refers
primarily to a Mah�y�na Buddhist school of philosophy founded by
N�g�rjuna. In Madhyamaka, 'Advaya' refers to the fact that the two
truths are not separate or different., as well as the non-dual
relationship of s'a�s�ra' (the round of rebirth and suffering) and
'nirv��a' (cessation of suffering, liberation). According to Murti, in
Madhyamaka, "Advaya" is an epistemological theory, unlike the
metaphysical view of Hindu Advaita. Madhyamaka advaya is closely
related to the classical Buddhist understanding that all things are
impermanent ('anicca') and devoid of "self" ('anatta') or
"essenceless" ('niḥsvabh�vav�'), and that this emptiness does not
constitute an "absolute" reality in itself..
In Madhyamaka, the two "truths" ('satya') refer to conventional
('sa�v�ti') and ultimate ('param�rtha') truth. The ultimate truth is
"emptiness", or non-existence of inherently existing "things", and the
"emptiness of emptiness": emptiness does not in itself constitute an
absolute reality. Conventionally, "things" exist, but ultimately, they
are "empty" of any existence on their own, as described in Nagarjuna's
magnum opus, the 'Mūlamadhyamakak�rik�' (MMK):{{quote|The Buddha's
teaching of the Dharma is based on two truths: a truth of worldly
convention and an ultimate truth. Those who do not understand the
distinction drawn between these two truths do not understand the
Buddha's profound truth. Without a foundation in the conventional
truth the significance of the ultimate cannot be taught. Without
understanding the significance of the ultimate, liberation is not
achieved.}}
As Jay Garfield notes, for Nagarjuna, to understand the two truths as
totally different from each other is to reify and confuse the purpose
of this doctrine, since it would either destroy conventional realities
such as the Buddha's teachings and the empirical reality of the world
(making Madhyamaka a form of nihilism) or deny the dependent
origination of phenomena (by positing eternal essences). Thus the
non-dual doctrine of the middle way lies beyond these two extremes.
"Emptiness" is a consequence of 'pratītyasamutp�da' (dependent
arising), the teaching that no 'dharma' ("thing", "phenomena") has an
existence of its own, but always comes into existence in dependence on
other 'dharmas'. According to Madhyamaka all phenomena are empty of
"substance" or "essence" () because they are dependently co-arisen.
Likewise it is because they are dependently co-arisen that they have
no intrinsic, independent reality of their own. Madhyamaka also
rejects the existence of absolute realities or beings such as Brahman
or Self. In the highest sense, "ultimate reality" is not an
ontological Absolute reality that lies beneath an unreal world, nor is
it the non-duality of a personal self ('atman') and an absolute Self
(cf. Purusha). Instead, it is the knowledge which is based on a
deconstruction of such reifications and Conceptual proliferations. It
also means that there is no "transcendental ground," and that
"ultimate reality" has no existence of its own, but is the negation of
such a transcendental reality, and the impossibility of any statement
on such an ultimately existing transcendental reality: it is no more
than a fabrication of the mind. Susan Kahn further explains:
However, according to Nagarjuna, even the very schema of ultimate and
conventional, samsara and nirvana, is not a final reality, and he thus
famously deconstructs even these teachings as being empty and not
different from each other in the MMK where he writes: The limit
('koti') of 'nirv��a' is that of 'sa�s�ra' The subtlest difference is
not found between the two. According to Nancy McCagney, what this
refers to is that the two truths depend on each other; without
emptiness, conventional reality cannot work, and vice versa. It does
not mean that samsara and nirvana are the same, or that they are one
single thing, as in Advaita Vedanta, but rather that they are both
empty, open, without limits, and merely exist for the conventional
purpose of teaching the Buddha Dharma. Referring to this verse, Jay
Garfield writes that: to distinguish between samsara and nirvana would
be to suppose that each had a nature and that they were different
natures. But each is empty, and so there can be no inherent
difference. Moreover, since nirvana is by definition the cessation of
delusion and of grasping and, hence, of the reification of self and
other and of confusing imputed phenomena for inherently real
phenomena, it is by definition the recognition of the ultimate nature
of things. But if, as Nagarjuna argued in Chapter XXIV, this is simply
to see conventional things as empty, not to see some separate
emptiness behind them, then nirvana must be ontologically grounded in
the conventional. To be in samsara is to see things as they appear to
deluded consciousness and to interact with them accordingly. To be in
nirvana, then, is to see those things as they are - as merely empty,
dependent, impermanent, and nonsubstantial, not to be somewhere else,
seeing something else.
It is important to note however that the actual Sanskrit term "advaya"
does not appear in the MMK, and only appears in one single work by
Nagarjuna, the 'Bodhicittavivarana'.
The later Madhyamikas, states Yuichi Kajiyama, developed the 'Advaya'
definition as a means to 'Nirvikalpa-Samadhi' by suggesting that
"things arise neither from their own selves nor from other things, and
that when subject and object are unreal, the mind, being not
different, cannot be true either; thereby one must abandon attachment
to cognition of nonduality as well, and understand the lack of
intrinsic nature of everything". Thus, the Buddhist nondualism or
Advaya concept became a means to realizing absolute emptiness.
* Susan Kahn,
'[
http://emptinessteachings.com/2014/09/11/the-two-truths-of-buddhism-and-the-em
ptiness-of-emptiness/
The Two Truths of Buddhism and The Emptiness of Emptiness]'
* Patrick Jennings,
'[
https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074106/http://thenonbuddhist.com/2014/01/1
2/tsongkhapa-in-praise-of-relativity-the-essence-of-eloquence/
Tsongkhapa: In Praise of Relativity; The Essence of Eloquence]'
* [
http://www.emptiness.co/ Emptiness, Buddhist and Beyond]
Yog�c�ra tradition
====================
In the Mahayana tradition of Yog�c�ra (Skt; "yoga practice"), 'adyava'
(Tibetan: 'gnyis med') refers to overcoming the conceptual and
perceptual dichotomies of cognizer and cognized, or subject and
object. The concept of 'adyava' in Yog�c�ra is an epistemological
stance on the nature of experience and knowledge, as well as a
phenomenological exposition of yogic cognitive transformation. Early
Buddhism schools such as Sarvastivada and Sautr�ntika, that thrived
through the early centuries of the common era, postulated a dualism
('dvaya)' between the mental activity of grasping ('gr�haka',
"cognition", "subjectivity") and that which is grasped ('gr�hya',
"cognitum", intentional object). Yogacara postulates that this
dualistic relationship is a false illusion or superimposition
('samaropa').
Yog�c�ra also taught the doctrine which held that only mental
cognitions really exist ('vijñapti-m�tra'), instead of the mind-body
dualism of other Indian Buddhist schools. This is another sense in
which reality can be said to be non-dual, because it is
"consciousness-only". There are several interpretations of this main
theory, which has been widely translated as 'representation-only,
ideation-only, impressions-only' and 'perception-only.' Some scholars
see it as a kind of subjective or epistemic Idealism (similar to
Kant's theory) while others argue that it is closer to a kind of
phenomenology or representationalism. According to Mark Siderits the
main idea of this doctrine is that we are only ever aware of mental
images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects,
but "there is actually no such thing outside the mind." For Alex
Wayman, this doctrine means that "the mind has only a report or
representation of what the sense organ had sensed." Jay Garfield and
Paul Williams both see the doctrine as a kind of Idealism in which
only mentality exists.
However, it is important to note that even the idealistic
interpretation of Yog�c�ra is not an absolute monistic idealism like
Advaita Vedanta or Hegelianism, since in Yog�c�ra, even consciousness
"enjoys no transcendent status" and is just a conventional reality.
Indeed, according to Jonathan Gold, for Yog�c�ra, the ultimate truth
is not consciousness, but an ineffable and inconceivable "thusness" or
"thatness" ('tathat�'). Also, Yog�c�ra affirms the existence of
individual mindstreams, and thus Kochumuttom also calls it a
'realistic pluralism'.
The Yog�c�rins defined three basic modes by which we perceive our
world. These are referred to in Yog�c�ra as the three natures
('trisvabh�va') of experience. They are:
# 'Parikalpita' (literally, "fully conceptualized"): "imaginary
nature", wherein things are incorrectly comprehended based on
conceptual and linguistic construction, attachment and the subject
object duality. It is thus equivalent to samsara.
# 'Paratantra' (literally, "other dependent"): "dependent nature", by
which the dependently originated nature of things, their causal
relatedness or flow of conditionality. It is the basis which gets
erroneously conceptualized,
# 'Pariniṣpanna' (literally, "fully accomplished"): "absolute nature",
through which one comprehends things as they are in themselves, that
is, empty of subject-object and thus is a type of non-dual cognition.
This experience of "thatness" ('tathat�') is uninfluenced by any
conceptualization at all.
To move from the duality of the 'Parikalpita' to the non-dual
consciousness of the 'Pariniṣpanna,' Yog�c�ra teaches that there must
be a transformation of consciousness, which is called the "revolution
of the basis" ('��raya-par�v�tti).' According to Dan Lusthaus, this
transformation which characterizes awakening is a "radical
psycho-cognitive change" and a removal of false "interpretive
projections" on reality (such as ideas of a self, external objects,
etc).
The 'Mah�y�nasūtr�lamk�ra,' a Yog�c�ra text, also associates this
transformation with the concept of non-abiding nirvana and the
non-duality of samsara and nirvana. Regarding this state of
Buddhahood, it states: Its operation is nondual ('advaya vrtti')
because of its abiding neither in samsara nor in nirvana
('samsaranirvana-apratisthitatvat'), through its being both
conditioned and unconditioned ('samskrta-asamskrtatvena'). This refers
to the Yog�c�ra teaching that even though a Buddha has entered
nirvana, they do no "abide" in some quiescent state separate from the
world but continue to give rise to extensive activity on behalf of
others. This is also called the non-duality between the compounded
('samskrta', referring to samsaric existence) and the uncompounded
('asamskrta', referring to nirvana). It is also described as a "not
turning back" from both samsara and nirvana.
For the later thinker Dignaga, non-dual knowledge or 'advayajñ�na' is
also a synonym for 'prajñaparamita' (transcendent wisdom) which
liberates one from samsara.
Other Indian traditions
=========================
Buddha nature or 'tathagata-garbha' (literally "Buddha womb") is that
which allows sentient beings to become Buddhas. Various Mahayana texts
such as the 'Tath�gatagarbha sūtras' focus on this idea and over time
it became a very influential doctrine in Indian Buddhism, as well in
East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. The Buddha nature teachings may be
regarded as a form of nondualism. According to Sally B King, all
beings are said to be or possess 'tathagata-garbha', which is nondual
Thusness or Dharmakaya. This reality, states King, transcends the
"duality of self and not-self", the "duality of form and emptiness"
and the "two poles of being and non being".
There various interpretations and views on Buddha nature and the
concept became very influential in India, China and Tibet, where it
also became a source of much debate. In later Indian Yog�c�ra, a new
sub-school developed which adopted the doctrine of 'tathagata-garbha'
into the Yog�c�ra system. The influence of this hybrid school can be
seen in texts like the 'Lankavatara Sutra' and the
'Ratnagotravibhaga'. This synthesis of Yog�c�ra tathagata-garbha
became very influential in later Buddhist traditions, such as Indian
Vajrayana, Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Another influential concept in Indian Buddhism is the idea of Luminous
mind which became associated with Buddha nature. Yet another
development in late Indian Buddhism was the synthesis of Madhymaka and
Yogacara philosophies into a single system, by figures such as
��ntarakṣita (8th century). Buddhist Tantra, also known as Vajrayana,
Mantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism, drew upon all these previous Indian
Buddhist ideas and nondual philosophies to develop innovative new
traditions of Buddhist practice and new religious texts called the
Buddhist tantras (from the 6th century onwards). Tantric Buddhism was
influential in China and is the main form of Buddhism in the Himalayan
regions, especially Tibetan Buddhism.
The concept of 'advaya' has various meanings in Buddhist Tantra.
According to Tantric commentator Lilavajra, Buddhist Tantra's "utmost
secret and aim" is Buddha nature. This is seen as a "non-dual,
self-originated Wisdom (jnana), an effortless fount of good
qualities." In Buddhist Tantra, there is no strict separation between
the sacred (nirvana) and the profane (samsara), and all beings are
seen as containing an immanent seed of awakening or Buddhahood. The
Buddhist Tantras also teach that there is a non-dual relationship
between emptiness and compassion ('karuna'), this unity is called
bodhicitta. They also teach a "nondual pristine wisdom of bliss and
emptiness." Advaya is also said to be the co-existence of Prajña
(wisdom) and Upaya (skill in means). These nondualities are also
related to the idea of 'yuganaddha', or "union" in the Tantras. This
is said to be the "indivisible merging of innate great bliss (the
means) and clear light (emptiness)" as well as the merging of relative
and ultimate truths and the knower and the known, during Tantric
practice.
Buddhist Tantras also promote certain practices which are antinomian,
such as sexual rites or the consumption of disgusting or repulsive
substances (the "five ambrosias", feces, urine, blood, semen, and
marrow.). These are said to allow one to cultivate nondual perception
of the pure and impure (and similar conceptual dualities) and thus it
allows one to prove one's attainment of nondual gnosis ('advaya
jñana').
Indian Buddhist Tantra also views humans as a microcosmos which
mirrors the macrocosmos. Its aim is to gain access to the awakened
energy or consciousness of Buddhahood, which is nondual, through
various practices.
Chinese Buddhism
==================
Chinese Buddhism was influenced by the philosophical strains of Indian
Buddhist nondualism such as the Madhymaka doctrines of emptiness and
the two truths as well as Yogacara and 'tathagata-garbha'. For
example, Chinese Madhyamaka philosophers like Jizang, discussed the
nonduality of the two truths. Chinese Yogacara also upheld the Indian
Yogacara views on nondualism. One influential text in Chinese Buddhism
which synthesizes 'Tathagata-garbha' and Yogacara views is the
Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, which may be a Chinese
composition.
In Chinese Buddhism, the polarity of absolute and relative realities
is also expressed as "essence-function". This was a result of an
ontological interpretation of the two truths as well as influences
from native Taoist and Confucian metaphysics. In this theory, the
absolute is essence, the relative is function. They can't be seen as
separate realities, but interpenetrate each other. This interpretation
of the two truths as two ontological realities would go on to
influence later forms of East Asian metaphysics.
As Chinese Buddhism continued to develop in new innovative directions,
it gave rise to new traditions like Huayen, Tiantai and Chan (Zen),
which also upheld their own unique teachings on non-duality.
The Tiantai school for example, taught a threefold truth, instead of
the classic "two truths" of Indian Madhyamaka. Its "third truth" was
seen as the nondual union of the two truths which transcends both.
Tiantai metaphysics is an immanent holism, which sees every
phenomenon, moment or event as conditioned and manifested by the whole
of reality. Every instant of experience is a reflection of every
other, and hence, suffering and nirvana, good and bad, Buddhahood and
evildoing, are all "inherently entailed" within each other. Each
moment of consciousness is simply the Absolute itself, infinitely
immanent and self reflecting.
Another influential Chinese tradition, the Huayan school (Flower
Garland) flourished in China during the Tang period. It is based on
the Flower Garland Sutra (S. 'Avata�saka Sūtra', C. 'Huayan Jing').
Huayan doctrines such as the Fourfold Dharmadhatu and the doctrine of
the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena
('dharmas') or "perfect interfusion" ('yuanrong', ��) are classic
nondual doctrines. This can be described as the idea that all
phenomena "are representations of the wisdom of Buddha without
exception" and that "they exist in a state of mutual dependence,
interfusion and balance without any contradiction or conflict."
According to this theory, any phenomenon exists only as part of the
total nexus of reality, its existence depends on the total network of
all other things, which are all equally connected to each other and
contained in each other. The Huayan patriarchs used various metaphors
to express this view, such as Indra's net.
Zen Buddhism
==============
The Buddha-nature and Yogacara philosophies have had a strong
influence on Chán and Zen. The teachings of Zen are expressed by a set
of polarities: Buddha-nature - sunyata; absolute-relative; sudden and
gradual enlightenment.
The Lankavatara-sutra, a popular sutra in Zen, endorses the
Buddha-nature and emphasizes purity of mind, which can be attained in
gradations. The Diamond-sutra, another popular sutra, emphasizes
sunyata, which "must be realized totally or not at all". The
Prajnaparamita Sutras emphasize the non-duality of form and emptiness:
form is emptiness, emptiness is form, as the Heart Sutra says.
According to Chinul, Zen points not to mere emptiness, but to
'suchness' or the dharmadhatu.
The idea that the ultimate reality is present in the daily world of
relative reality fitted into the Chinese culture which emphasized the
mundane world and society. But this does not explain how the absolute
is present in the relative world. This question is answered in such
schemata as the Five Ranks of Tozan and the Oxherding Pictures.
The continuous pondering of the break-through k�an ('shokan') or Hua
Tou, "word head", leads to kensho, an initial insight into "seeing the
(Buddha-)nature". According to Hori, a central theme of many koans is
the "identity of opposites", and point to the original nonduality.
Victor Sogen Hori describes kensho, when attained through koan-study,
as the absence of subject-object duality. The aim of the so-called
break-through koan is to see the "nonduality of subject and object",
in which "subject and object are no longer separate and distinct."
Zen Buddhist training does not end with kensh�. Practice is to be
continued to deepen the insight and to express it in daily life, to
fully manifest the nonduality of absolute and relative. To deepen the
initial insight of kensho, shikantaza and k�an-study are necessary.
This trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and
ripening is expressed by Linji Yixuan in his Three Mysterious Gates,
the Four Ways of Knowing of Hakuin, the Five Ranks, and the Ten
Ox-Herding Pictures which detail the steps on the Path.
Essence-function in Korean Buddhism
=====================================
The polarity of absolute and relative is also expressed as
"essence-function". The absolute is essence, the relative is function.
They can't be seen as separate realities, but interpenetrate each
other. The distinction does not "exclude any other frameworks such as
'neng-so' or 'subject-object' constructions", though the two "are
completely different from each other in terms of their way of
thinking". In Korean Buddhism, essence-function is also expressed as
"body" and "the body's functions". A metaphor for essence-function is
"a lamp and its light", a phrase from the 'Platform Sutra', where
Essence is lamp and Function is light.
Adyava: Gelugpa school Prasangika Madhyamaka
==============================================
The Gelugpa school, following Tsongkhapa, adheres to the adyava
Prasa�
gika M�dhyamaka view, which states that all phenomena are
sunyata, empty of self-nature, and that this "emptiness" is itself
only a qualification, not a concretely existing "absolute" reality.
Shentong
==========
In Tibetan Buddhism, the essentialist position is represented by
'shentong', while the nominalist, or non-essentialist position, is
represented by 'rangtong'.
Shentong is a philosophical sub-school found in Tibetan Buddhism. Its
adherents generally hold that the nature of mind, the substratum of
the mindstream, is "empty" () of "other" (), i.e., empty of all
qualities other than an inherently existing, ineffable nature.
Shentong has often been incorrectly associated with the Cittam�tra
(Yogacara) position, but is in fact also Madhyamaka, and is present
primarily as the main philosophical theory of the Jonang school,
although it is also taught by the Sakya and Kagyu schools. According
to Shentongpa (proponents of shentong), the emptiness of ultimate
reality should not be characterized in the same way as the emptiness
of apparent phenomena because it is 'prabh��vara-sa�t�na', or
"luminous mindstream" endowed with limitless Buddha qualities. It is
empty of all that is false, not empty of the limitless Buddha
qualities that are its innate nature.
The contrasting Prasa�
gika view that all phenomena are sunyata, empty
of self-nature, and that this "emptiness" is not a concretely existing
"absolute" reality, is labeled rangtong, "empty of self-nature."
The shentong-view is related to the Ratnagotravibh�ga sutra and the
Yogacara-Madhyamaka synthesis of ��ntarakṣita. The truth of sunyata is
acknowledged, but not considered to be the highest truth, which is the
empty nature of mind. Insight into sunyata is preparatory for the
recognition of the nature of mind.
Dzogchen
==========
Dzogchen is concerned with the "natural state" and emphasizes direct
experience. The state of nondual awareness is called 'rigpa'. This
primordial nature is clear light, unproduced and unchanging, free from
all defilements. Through meditation, the Dzogchen practitioner
experiences that thoughts have no substance. Mental phenomena arise
and fall in the mind, but fundamentally they are empty. The
practitioner then considers where the mind itself resides. Through
careful examination one realizes that the mind is emptiness.
Karma Lingpa (1326-1386) revealed "Self-Liberation through seeing with
naked awareness" ('rigpa ngo-sprod',) which is attributed to
Padmasambhava. The text gives an introduction, or pointing-out
instruction ('ngo-spro'), into rigpa, the state of presence and
awareness. In this text, Karma Lingpa writes the following regarding
the unity of various terms for nonduality:
Other eastern religions
======================================================================
Apart from Hinduism and Buddhism, self-proclaimed nondualists have
also discerned nondualism in other religious traditions.
Sikhism
=========
Sikh theology suggests human souls and the monotheistic God are two
different realities (dualism), distinguishing it from the monistic and
various shades of nondualistic philosophies of other Indian religions.
However, Sikh scholars have attempted to explore nondualism exegesis
of Sikh scriptures, such as during the neocolonial reformist movement
by Bhai Vir Singh of the Singh Sabha. According to Mandair, Singh
interprets the Sikh scriptures as teaching nonduality.
Taoism
========
Taoism's 'wu wei' (Chinese 'wu', not; 'wei', doing) is a term with
various translations and interpretations designed to distinguish it
from passivity. The concept of Yin and Yang, often mistakenly
conceived of as a symbol of dualism, is actually meant to convey the
notion that all apparent opposites are complementary parts of a
non-dual whole.
Western traditions
======================================================================
A modern strand of thought sees "nondual consciousness" as a universal
psychological state, which is a common stratum and of the same essence
in different spiritual traditions. It is derived from Neo-Vedanta and
neo-Advaita, but has historical roots in neo-Platonism, Western
esotericism, and Perennialism. The idea of nondual consciousness as
"the central essence" is a universalistic and perennialist idea, which
is part of a modern mutual exchange and synthesis of ideas between
western spiritual and esoteric traditions and Asian religious revival
and reform movements.
Central elements in the western traditions are Neo-Platonism, which
had a strong influence on Christian contemplation c.q. mysticism, and
its accompanying apophatic theology; and Western esotericism, which
also incorporated Neo-Platonism and Gnostic elements including
Hermeticism. Western traditions are, among others, the idea of a
Perennial Philosophy, Swedenborgianism, Unitarianism, Orientalism,
Transcendentalism, Theosophy, and New Age.
Eastern movements are the Hindu reform movements such as Vivekananda's
Neo-Vedanta and Aurobindo's Integral Yoga, the Vipassana movement, and
Buddhist modernism.
Gnosticism
============
Since its beginning, Gnosticism has been characterized by many
dualisms and dualities, including the doctrine of a separate God and
Manichaean (good/evil) dualism. Ronald Miller interprets the Gospel of
Thomas as a teaching of "nondualistic consciousness".
Neoplatonism
==============
The precepts of Neoplatonism of Plotinus (2nd century) assert
nondualism. Neoplatonism had a strong influence on Christian
mysticism.
Some scholars suggest a possible link of more ancient Indian
philosophies on Neoplatonism, while other scholars consider these
claims as unjustified and extravagant with the counter hypothesis that
nondualism developed independently in ancient India and Greece. The
nondualism of Advaita Vedanta and Neoplatonism have been compared by
various scholars, such as J. F. Staal, Frederick Copleston, Aldo
Magris and Mario Piantelli, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Gwen
Griffith-Dickson, John Y. Fenton and Dale Riepe.
Christian contemplation and mysticism
=======================================
In Christian mysticism, contemplative prayer and Apophatic theology
are central elements. In contemplative prayer, the mind is focused by
constant repetition a phrase or word. Saint John Cassian recommended
use of the phrase "O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to
help me". Another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus. or the
Jesus Prayer, which has been called "the mantra of the Orthodox
Church", although the term "Jesus Prayer" is not found in the Fathers
of the Church. The author of 'The Cloud of Unknowing' recommended use
of a monosyllabic word, such as "God" or "Love".
Apophatic theology is derived from Neo-Platonism via Pseudo-Dionysius
the Areopagite. In this approach, the notion of God is stripped from
all positive qualifications, leaving a "darkness" or "unground." It
had a strong influence on western mysticism. A notable example is
Meister Eckhart, who also attracted attention from Zen-Buddhists like
D.T. Suzuki in modern times, due to the similarities between Buddhist
thought and Neo-Platonism.
The Cloud of Unknowing - an anonymous work of Christian mysticism
written in Middle English in the latter half of the 14th century -
advocates a mystic relationship with God. The text describes a
spiritual union with God through the heart. The author of the text
advocates centering prayer, a form of inner silence. According to the
text, God can not be known through knowledge or from intellection. It
is only by emptying the mind of all created images and thoughts that
we can arrive to experience God. Continuing on this line of thought,
God is completely unknowable by the mind. God is not known through the
intellect but through intense contemplation, motivated by love, and
stripped of all thought.
Thomism, though not non-dual in the ordinary sense, considers the
unity of God so absolute that even the duality of subject and
predicate, to describe him, can be true only by analogy. In Thomist
thought, even the Tetragrammaton is only an approximate name, since "I
am" involves a predicate whose own essence is its subject.
The former nun and contemplative Bernadette Roberts is considered a
nondualist by Jerry Katz.
Jewish Hasidism and Kabbalism
===============================
According to Jay Michaelson, nonduality begins to appear in the
medieval Jewish textual tradition which peaked in Hasidism. According
to Michaelson:
One of the most striking contributions of the Kabbalah, which became a
central idea in Chasidic thought, was a highly innovative reading of
the monotheistic idea. The belief in "one G-d" is no longer perceived
as the mere rejection of other deities or intermediaries, but a denial
of any existence outside of G-d.
Western esotericism
=====================
Western esotericism (also called esotericism and esoterism) is a
scholarly term for a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements
which have developed within Western society. They are largely distinct
both from orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and from Enlightenment
rationalism. The earliest traditions which later analysis would label
as forms of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean
during Late Antiquity, where Hermetism, Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism
developed as schools of thought distinct from what became mainstream
Christianity. In Renaissance Europe, interest in many of these older
ideas increased, with various intellectuals seeking to combine "pagan"
philosophies with the Kabbalah and with Christian philosophy,
resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian
theosophy.
Perennial philosophy
======================
The Perennial philosophy has its roots in the Renaissance interest in
neo-Platonism and its idea of The One, from which all existence
emanates. Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) sought to integrate
'Hermeticism' with Greek and Jewish-Christian thought, discerning a
Prisca theologia which could be found in all ages. Giovanni Pico della
Mirandola (1463-94) suggested that truth could be found in many,
rather than just two, traditions. He proposed a harmony between the
thought of Plato and Aristotle, and saw aspects of the 'Prisca
theologia' in Averroes, the Koran, the Cabala and other sources.
Agostino Steuco (1497-1548) coined the term 'philosophia perennis'.
Orientalism
=============
The western world has been exposed to Indian religions since the late
18th century. The first western translation of a Sanskrit text was
made in 1785. It marked a growing interest in Indian culture and
languages. The first translation of the dualism and nondualism
discussing Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802 and
influenced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them "the consolation of my
life". Early translations also appeared in other European languages.
Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism
==============================================
Transcendentalism was an early 19th-century liberal Protestant
movement that developed in the 1830s and 1840s in the Eastern region
of the United States. It was rooted in English and German Romanticism,
the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the
skepticism of Hume.
The Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach
of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individual's intuition of
truth was taken as the criterion for truth. In the late 18th and early
19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which
were read by the Transcendentalists and influenced their thinking. The
Transcendentalists also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas,
leading to Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth
in other religions as well, since a loving God would redeem all living
beings, not just Christians.
Among the transcendentalists' core beliefs was the inherent goodness
of both people and nature. Transcendentalists believed that society
and its institutions�particularly organized religion and political
parties�ultimately corrupted the purity of the individual. They had
faith that people are at their best when truly "self-reliant" and
independent. It is only from such real individuals that true community
could be formed.
The major figures in the movement were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry
David Thoreau, John Muir, Margaret Fuller and Amos Bronson Alcott.
Theosophical Society
======================
A major force in the mutual influence of eastern and western ideas and
religiosity was the Theosophical Society. It searched for ancient
wisdom in the east, spreading eastern religious ideas in the west. One
of its salient features was the belief in "Masters of Wisdom",
"beings, human or once human, who have transcended the normal
frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to
others". The Theosophical Society also spread western ideas in the
east, aiding a modernisation of eastern traditions, and contributing
to a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.
New Age
=========
The 'New Age movement' is a Western spiritual movement that developed
in the second half of the 20th century. Its central precepts have been
described as "drawing on both Eastern and Western spiritual and
metaphysical traditions and infusing them with influences from
self-help and motivational psychology, holistic health,
parapsychology, consciousness research and quantum physics".
The New Age aims to create "a spirituality without borders or
confining dogmas" that is inclusive and pluralistic. It holds to "a
holistic worldview", emphasising that the Mind, Body and Spirit are
interrelated and that there is a form of monism and unity throughout
the universe. It attempts to create "a worldview that includes both
science and spirituality" and embraces a number of forms of mainstream
science as well as other forms of science that are considered fringe.
Nondual consciousness and mystical experience
===============================================
Insight ('prajna', 'kensho', 'satori', 'gnosis', 'theoria',
'illumination'), especially 'enlightenment' or the realization of the
illusory nature of the autonomous "I" or self, is a key element in
modern western nondual thought. It is the personal realization that
ultimate reality is nondual, and is thought to be a validating means
of knowledge of this nondual reality. This insight is interpreted as a
psychological state, and labeled as religious or mystical experience.
Development
=============
According to Hori, the notion of "religious experience" can be traced
back to William James, who used the term "religious experience" in his
book, 'The Varieties of Religious Experience'. The origins of the use
of this term can be dated further back.
In the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, several historical figures put
forth very influential views that religion and its beliefs can be
grounded in experience itself. While Kant held that moral experience
justified religious beliefs, John Wesley in addition to stressing
individual moral exertion thought that the religious experiences in
the Methodist movement (paralleling the Romantic Movement) were
foundational to religious commitment as a way of life.
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious
experience" to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher
(1768-1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the
infinite. The notion of "religious experience" was used by
Schleiermacher and Albert Ritschl to defend religion against the
growing scientific and secular critique, and defend the view that
human (moral and religious) experience justifies religious beliefs.
Such religious empiricism would be later seen as highly problematic
and was - during the period in-between world wars - famously rejected
by Karl Barth. In the 20th century, religious as well as moral
experience as justification for religious beliefs still holds sway.
Some influential modern scholars holding this liberal theological view
are Charles Raven and the Oxford physicist/theologian Charles Coulson.
The notion of "religious experience" was adopted by many scholars of
religion, of which William James was the most influential.
Criticism
===========
The notion of "experience" has been criticised. Robert Sharf points
out that "experience" is a typical Western term, which has found its
way into Asian religiosity via western influences.
Insight is not the "experience" of some transcendental reality, but is
a cognitive event, the (intuitive) understanding or "grasping" of some
specific understanding of reality, as in kensho or anubhava.
"Pure experience" does not exist; all experience is mediated by
intellectual and cognitive activity. A pure consciousness without
concepts, reached by "cleaning the doors of perception", would be an
overwhelming chaos of sensory input without coherence.
The "common-core thesis" is criticised by "diversity theorists" such
as S.T Katz and W. Proudfoot. They argue that
The idea of a common essence has been questioned by Yandell, who
discerns various "religious experiences" and their corresponding
doctrinal settings, which differ in structure and phenomenological
content, and in the "evidential value" they present. Yandell discerns
five sorts:
# Numinous experiences - Monotheism (Jewish, Christian, Vedantic)
# Nirvanic experiences - Buddhism, "according to which one sees that
the self is but a bundle of fleeting states"
# Kevala experiences - Jainism, "according to which one sees the self
as an indestructible subject of experience"
# Moksha experiences - Hinduism, Brahman "either as a cosmic person,
or, quite differently, as qualityless"
# Nature mystical experience
The specific teachings and practices of a specific tradition may
determine what "experience" someone has, which means that this
"experience" is not the 'proof' of the teaching, but a 'result' of the
teaching. The notion of what exactly constitutes "liberating insight"
varies between the various traditions, and even within the traditions.
Bronkhorst for example notices that the conception of what exactly
"liberating insight" is in Buddhism was developed over time. Whereas
originally it may not have been specified, later on the Four Truths
served as such, to be superseded by 'pratityasamutpada', and still
later, in the Hinayana schools, by the doctrine of the non-existence
of a substantial self or person. And Schmithausen notices that still
other descriptions of this "liberating insight" exist in the Buddhist
canon.
Common essence
================
A main modern proponent of perennialism was Aldous Huxley, who was
influenced by Vivekanda's Neo-Vedanta and Universalism. This popular
approach finds supports in the "common-core thesis". According to the
"common-core thesis", different descriptions can mask quite similar if
not identical experiences:
According to Elias Amidon there is an "indescribable, but definitely
recognizable, reality that is the ground of all being." According to
Renard, these are based on an experience or intuition of "the Real".
According to Amidon, this reality is signified by "many names" from
"spiritual traditions throughout the world":
According to Renard, nondualism as common essence prefers the term
"nondualism", instead of monism, because this understanding is
"nonconceptual", "not graspapable in an idea". Even to call this
"ground of reality", "One", or "Oneness" is attributing a
characteristic to that ground of reality. The only thing that can be
said is that it is "not two" or "non-dual": According to Renard, Alan
Watts has been one of the main contributors to the popularisation of
the non-monistic understanding of "nondualism".
See also
======================================================================
Various
* Abheda
* Acosmism (belief that the world is illusory)
* Anatta (Belief that there is no self)
* Cosmic Consciousness
* Emanationism
* Henosis (Union with the absolute)
* Holism
* Kenosis (Self-emptying)
* Maya (illusion) (Cosmic illusion)
* Monad (philosophy)
* Neo-Advaita
* Nihilism
* Nirguna Brahman
* Oceanic feeling
* Open individualism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism (Belief that God and the world are identical)
* Pluralism (metaphysics)
* Process Psychology
* Rigpa
* Shuddhadvaita
* Sunyata (Emptiness).
* The All
* Turiya
* Yanantin (Complementary dualism in Native South American culture)
Metaphors for nondualisms
* Jewel Net of Indra, 'Avatamsaka Sutra'
* Blind men and an elephant
* Eclipse
* Garden of Eden
* Hermaphrodite, e.g. Ardhan�rī�vara
* Mirror and reflections, as a metaphor for the continuum of the
subject-object in the mirror-the-mind and the interiority of
perception and its illusion of projected exteriority
* Great Rite
* Sacred marriage
Further reading
======================================================================
General
*
*
*
*
Orientalism
*
Buddhism
*
*
Advaita Vedanta
*
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Rangtong-shentong
===================
*
* Acharya Mahayogi Sridhar Rana Rinpoche,
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20150311142817/http://www.byomakusuma.org/Teachings
/VedantaVisAVisShentong.aspx
Vedanta vis-a-vis Shentong]
* Alexander Berin,
[
https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/lam-rim/vipashyana/self-voidness-
and-other-voidness
'Self-Voidness and Other Voidness']
Comparison of Advaita and Buddhism
====================================
*
[
http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/study/asian_non-buddhist_traditions/in
dian_non-buddhist_traditions/nonduality_buddhism_advaita_vedanta.html
Alexander Berzin, Study Buddhism, 'Nonduality in Buddhism and Advaita
Vedanta']
*
[
http://davidpaulboaz.org/wordpress/unbounded-wholeness-dzogchen-and-advaita-ved
anta-in-a-postmodern-world/
David Paul Boaz, 'Unbounded Wholeness: Dzogchen and Advaita Vedanta in
a Postmodern World']
* [
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/19643 Eric T. Reynolds, 'On the
relationship of Advaita Ved�nta and M�dhyamika Buddhism']
Hesychasm
===========
*
[
http://nondualcafe.blogspot.nl/2014/02/on-hesychasm-and-eastern-christian.html
On Hesychasm and Eastern Christian mysticism]
Nondual consciousness
=======================
Resources
* [
http://nonduality.com/index.html nonduality.com]
* [
http://www.nondualitymagazine.org/nondualitymagazine.2/index.htm
Non-duality Magazine]
* [
http://undividedjournal.com/ Undivided. The Online Journal of
Nonduality and Psychology]
* [
http://www3.telus.net/public/sarlo/RatingsN.htm Sarlo's Guru Rating
Service: list of nondual teachers]
* [
http://www.advaita.org.uk/resources/western.htm advaita.org.uk,
'Western Teachers and Writers']
* [
http://www.swamij.com/pdf/nondualism-paper-101105.pdf Swami
Jnaneshvara, 'Faces of Nondualism']
Criticism
* [
http://afternonduality.com/ After Non Duality]
* [
http://jedmckenna.wordpress.com/non-dualist-fundamentalism/ Jed
McKenna, 'Non-Dualist Fundamentalism']
* [
http://www.integralworld.net/desilet2.html Gregory Desilet,
'Derrida and Nonduality']
License
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondualism
