= Journalism ethics and standards =

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= Journalism ethics and standards =
======================================================================

Introduction
======================================================================
Journalistic ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and
good practice applicable to journalists. This subset of media ethics
is known as journalism's professional "code of ethics" and the "canons
of journalism". The basic codes and canons commonly appear in
statements by professional journalism associations and individual
print, broadcast, and online news organizations.

While various codes may have some differences, most share common
elements including the principles of truthfulness, accuracy,
objectivity, impartiality, fairness, and public accountability, as
these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its
subsequent dissemination to the public.

Like many broader ethical systems, the ethics of journalism include
the principle of "limitation of harm". This may involve the
withholding of certain details from reports, such as the names of
minor children, crime victims' names, or information not materially
related to the news report where the release of such information
might, for example, harm someone's reputation.

Some journalistic codes of ethics, notably some European codes, also
include a concern with discriminatory references in news based on
race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental
disabilities. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
approved (in 1993) Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism, which
recommends that journalists respect the presumption of innocence, in
particular in cases that are still 'sub judice'.

Evolution and purpose of codes of journalism
======================================================================
Journalism's codes of ethics are intended to ensure reliability of
reported information by defining acceptable practices; and provide
guidelines about circumstances to avoid that could interfere with, or
appear to interfere with, the reliability of reported information.
Circumstances to avoid include conflicts of interest. The guidelines
assist journalists in identifying and dealing with ethical dilemmas.
When such circumstances cannot be avoided, they should be disclosed so
that recipients of reported information can judge potential bias in
the reporting. The codes and canons provide journalists with a
framework for self-monitoring and self-correction.

Journalism is guided by five values:

# Honesty: journalists must be truthful. It is unacceptable to report
information known to be false, or report facts in a misleading way to
give a wrong impression;
# Independence and objectivity: journalists should avoid topics in
which they have a financial or personal interest that would provide
them a particular benefit in the subject matter, as that interest may
introduce bias into their reporting, or give the impression of such
bias. In cases where a journalist may have a specific financial or
personal interest, the interest should be disclosed;
# Fairness: journalists must present facts with impartiality and
neutrality, presenting other viewpoints and sides to a story where
these exist. It is unacceptable to slant facts;
# Diligence: a journalist should gather and present pertinent facts to
provide a good understanding of the subject reported;
# Accountability: a journalist must be accountable for their work,
prepared to accept criticism and consequences.

Codes of practice
======================================================================
While journalists in the United States and European countries have led
the formulation and adoption of these standards, such codes can be
found in news reporting organizations in most countries with freedom
of the press. The written codes and practical standards vary somewhat
from country to country and organization to organization, but there is
substantial overlap between mainstream publications and societies. The
International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) launched a global
Ethical Journalism Initiative in 2008 aimed at strengthening awareness
of these issues within professional bodies. In 2013 the Ethical
Journalism Network was founded by former IFJ General Secretary Aidan
White. This coalition of international and regional media associations
and journalism support groups campaigns for ethics, good governance
and self-regulation across all platforms of media.

One of the leading voices in the U.S. on the subject of journalistic
standards and ethics is the Society of Professional Journalists. The
Preamble to its Code of Ethics states:

..public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice and the
foundation of democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further
those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive
account of events and issues. Conscientious journalists from all media
and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness and
honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist's
credibility.

The Radio Television Digital News Association, an organization
exclusively centered on electronic journalism, has a code of ethics
centering on public trust, truthfulness, fairness, integrity,
independence, and accountability.

The Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corporation, revealed a new
[https://www.fourthestate.org/journalism-code-of-practice/ Journalism
Code of Practice] designed to reflect the key standards and principles
of modern journalism. The new Code of Practice is particularly notable
for officially recognizing that journalism is no longer solely the
preserve of the professional journalist.

Common elements
======================================================================
The primary themes common to most codes of journalistic standards and
ethics are the following.

Accuracy and standards for factual reporting
==============================================
* Reporters are expected to be as accurate as possible given the time
allotted to story preparation and the space available and to seek
reliable sources.
* Events with a single eyewitness are reported with attribution.
Events with two or more independent eyewitnesses may be reported as
fact. Controversial facts are reported with attribution.
* Independent fact-checking by another employee of the publisher is
desirable.
* Corrections are published when errors are discovered.
* Defendants at trial are treated only as having "allegedly" committed
crimes, until conviction, when their crimes are generally reported as
fact (unless, that is, there is serious controversy about wrongful
conviction).
* Opinion surveys and statistical information deserve special
treatment to communicate in precise terms any conclusions, to
contextualize the results, and to specify accuracy, including
estimated error and methodological criticism or flaws.

Slander and libel considerations
==================================
* Reporting the truth is almost never libel, which makes accuracy very
important.
* Private persons have privacy rights that must be balanced against
the public interest in reporting information about them. Public
figures have fewer privacy rights in U.S. law, where reporters are
immune from a civil case if they have reported without malice. In
Canada, there is no such immunity; reports on public figures must be
backed by facts.
* Publishers vigorously defend libel lawsuits filed against their
reporters, usually covered by libel insurance.

Harm limitation principle
===========================
During the normal course of an assignment a reporter might go about
gathering facts and details, conducting interviews, doing research and
background checks, taking photos, and recording video and sound in
search of justice. Harm limitation deals with the questions of whether
everything learned should be reported and, if so, how. This principle
of limitation means that some weight needs to be given to the negative
consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical
dilemma. The Society of Professional Journalists' code of ethics
offers the following advice, which is representative of the practical
ideas of most professional journalists. Quoting directly:

* Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news
coverage. Use special sensitivity when dealing with children and
inexperienced sources or subjects.
* Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of
those affected by tragedy or grief.
* Recognise that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or
discomfort. Pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance.
* Recognise that private people have a greater right to control
information about themselves than do public officials and others who
seek power, influence or attention. Only an overriding public need can
justify intrusion into anyone's privacy.
* Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.
* Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex
crimes.
* Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing
of charges.
* Balance a criminal suspect's fair trial rights with the public's
right to be informed.

Self-regulation
======================================================================
In addition to codes of ethics, many news organizations maintain an
in-house ombudsman whose role is, in part, to keep news organizations
honest and accountable to the public. The ombudsman is intended to
mediate in conflicts stemming from internal or external pressures, to
maintain accountability to the public for news reported, to foster
self-criticism, and to encourage adherence to both codified and
uncodified ethics and standards. This position may be the same or
similar to the public editor, though public editors also act as a
liaison with readers and do not generally become members of the
Organisation of News Ombudsmen.

An alternative is a news council, an industry-wide self-regulation
body, such as the Press Complaints Commission, set up by UK newspapers
and magazines. Such a body is capable of applying fairly consistent
standards and of dealing with a higher volume of complaints but may
not escape criticisms of being toothless.

Ethics and standards in practice
======================================================================
One of the most controversial issues in modern reporting is media
bias, particularly on political issues, but also with regard to
cultural and other issues. Another is the controversial issue of
checkbook journalism, which is the practice of news reporters paying
sources for their information. In the U.S. it is generally considered
unethical, with most mainstream newspapers and news shows having a
policy forbidding it. While tabloid newspapers and tabloid television
shows, which rely more on sensationalism, regularly engage in the
practice.

There are also some wider concerns, as the media continue to change,
for example, that the brevity of news reports and use of soundbites
has reduced fidelity to the truth, and may contribute to a lack of
needed context for public understanding. From outside the profession,
the rise of news management contributes to the real possibility that
news media may be deliberately manipulated. Selective reporting
(spiking, double standards) are very commonly alleged against
newspapers, and by their nature are forms of bias not easy to
establish, or guard against.

This section does not address specifics of such matters, but issues of
practical compliance, as well as differences between professional
journalists on principles.

Standards and reputation
==========================
Among the leading news organizations that voluntarily adopt and
attempt to uphold the common standards of journalism ethics described
herein, adherence and general quality vary considerably. The
professionalism, reliability, and public accountability of a news
organization are three of its most valuable assets. An organization
earns and maintains a strong reputation in part through the consistent
implementation of ethical standards, which influence its position with
the public and within the industry.

Genres, ethics, and standards
===============================
Advocacy journalists�a term of some debate even within the field of
journalism�by definition tend to reject "objectivity", while at the
same time maintaining many other common standards and ethics.

Civic journalism adopts a modified approach to objectivity; instead of
being uninvolved spectators, the press is active in facilitating and
encouraging public debate and examining claims and issues critically.
This does not necessarily imply advocacy of a specific political party
or position.

Creative nonfiction and literary journalism use the power of language
and literary devices more akin to fiction to bring insight and depth
into the often book-length treatment of the subjects about which they
write. Such devices as dialogue, metaphor, digression and other such
techniques offer the reader insights not usually found in standard
news reportage. However, authors in this branch of journalism still
maintain ethical criteria such as factual and historical accuracy as
found in standard news reporting. They venture outside the boundaries
of standard news reporting in offering richly detailed accounts. One
widely regarded author in the genre is Joyce Carol Oates, as with her
book on boxer Mike Tyson.

Investigative journalism often takes an implicit point of view on a
particular public interest, by asking pointed questions and intensely
probing certain questions. With outlets that otherwise strive for
neutrality on political issues, the implied position is often
uncontroversial�for example, that political corruption or abuse of
children is wrong and perpetrators should be exposed and punished,
that government money should be spent efficiently, or that the health
of the public or workers or veterans should be protected. Advocacy
journalists often use investigative journalism in support of a
particular political position, or to expose facts that are only
concerning to those with certain political opinions. Regardless of
whether or not it is undertaken for a specific political faction, this
genre usually puts a strong emphasis on factual accuracy, because the
point of an in-depth investigation of an issue is to expose facts that
spur change. Not all investigations seek to expose facts about a
particular problem; some data-driven reporting does deep analysis and
presents interesting results for the general edification of the
audience which might be interpreted in different ways or which may
contain a wealth of facts concerned with many different potential
problems. A factually-constrained investigation with an implied public
interest point of view may also find that the system under
investigation is working well.

New Journalism and Gonzo journalism also reject some of the
fundamental ethical traditions and will set aside the technical
standards of journalistic prose in order to express themselves and
reach a particular audience or market segment. These favor a
subjective perspective and emphasize immersive experiences over
objective facts.

Tabloid journalists are often accused of sacrificing accuracy and the
personal privacy of their subjects in order to boost sales. The 2011
News International phone hacking scandal is an example of this.
Supermarket tabloids are often focused on entertainment rather than
news. A few have "news" stories that are so outrageous that they are
widely read for entertainment purposes, not for information. Some
tabloids do purport to maintain common journalistic standards but may
fall far short in practice. Others make no such claims.

Some publications deliberately engage in satire, but give the
publication the design elements of a newspaper, for example, 'The
Onion', and it is not unheard of for other publications to offer the
occasional, humorous articles appearing on April Fool's Day.

Relationship with freedom of the press
========================================
In countries without freedom of the press, the majority of people who
report the news may not follow the above-described standards of
journalism. Non-free media are often prohibited from criticizing the
national government, and in many cases are required to distribute
propaganda as if it were news. Various other forms of censorship may
restrict reporting on issues the government deems sensitive. In the
United States, freedom of the press is protected under the First
Amendment in the Bill of Rights. Under the First Amendment, the
government is not allowed to censor the press. The government does not
have the right to try to control what is published and cannot prevent
certain things from being published by the press. Prior constraint is
an attempt by the government to prevent the expression of ideas before
they are published. Some countries that have freedom of the press are
the U.S., Canada, Western Europe and Scandinavia, Australia, New
Zealand, Japan, Taiwan and a handful of countries in South America.

Variations, violations, and controversies
===========================================
There are a number of finer points of journalistic procedure that
foster disagreements in principle and variation in practice among
"mainstream" journalists in the free press. Laws concerning libel and
slander vary from country to country, and local journalistic standards
may be tailored to fit. For example, the United Kingdom has a broader
definition of libel than does the United States.

Accuracy is important as a core value and to maintain credibility, but
especially in broadcast media, audience share often gravitates toward
outlets that are reporting new information first. Different
organizations may balance speed and accuracy in different ways. 'The
New York Times', for instance, tends to print longer, more detailed,
less speculative, and more thoroughly verified pieces a day or two
later than many other newspapers. 24-hour television news networks
tend to place much more emphasis on getting the "scoop." Here, viewers
may switch channels at a moment's notice; with fierce competition for
ratings and a large amount of airtime to fill, fresh material is very
valuable. Because of the fast turn-around, reporters for these
networks may be under considerable time pressure, which reduces their
ability to verify information.

Laws with regard to personal privacy, official secrets, and media
disclosure of names and facts from criminal cases and civil lawsuits
differ widely, and journalistic standards may vary accordingly.
Different organizations may have different answers to questions about
when it is journalistically acceptable to skirt, circumvent, or even
break these regulations. Another example of differences surrounding
harm reduction is the reporting of preliminary election results. In
the United States, some news organizations feel that it is harmful to
the democratic process to report exit poll results or preliminary
returns while voting is still open. Such reports may influence people
who vote later in the day, or who are in western time zones, in their
decisions about how and whether or not to vote. There is also some
concern that such preliminary results are often inaccurate and may be
misleading to the public. Other outlets feel that this information is
a vital part of the transparency of the election process, and see no
harm (if not considerable benefit) in reporting it.

Objectivity as a journalistic standard varies to some degree depending
on the industry and country. For example, the government-funded BBC in
the United Kingdom places a strong emphasis on political neutrality,
but British newspapers more often tend to adopt political affiliations
or leanings in both coverage and audience, sometimes explicitly. In
the United States, major newspapers usually explicitly claim
objectivity as a goal in news coverage, though most have separate
editorial boards that endorse specific candidates and publish opinions
on specific issues. Adherence to a claimed standard of objectivity is
a constant subject of debate. For example, mainstream national cable
news channels in the United States claim political objectivity but to
various degrees, Fox News has been accused of conservative bias and
MSNBC accused of liberal bias. The degree to which these leanings
influence cherry-picking of facts, factual accuracy, the predominance
of non-news opinion and commentators, audience opinion of the issues
and candidates covered, visual composition, tone and vocabulary of
stories is hotly debated.

News value is generally used to select stories for print, broadcast,
blogs, and web portals, including those that focus on a specific
topic. To a large degree, news value depends on the target audience.
For example, a minor story in the United States is more likely to
appear on CNN than a minor story in the Middle East which might be
more likely to appear on Al Jazeera simply due to the geographic
distribution of the channels' respective audiences. It is a matter of
debate whether this means that either network is less than objective,
and that controversy is even more complicated when considering
coverage of political stories for different audiences that have
different political demographics (as with Fox News vs. MSNBC).

Some digital media platforms can use criteria to choose stories which
are different than traditional news value. For example, while the
Google News portal essentially chooses stories based on news value
(though indirectly, through the choices of large numbers of
independent outlets), users can set Google Alerts on specific terms
which define personal subjective interests. Search engines, news
aggregators, and social network feeds sometimes change the
presentation of content depending on the consumer's expressed or
inferred preferences or leanings. This has both been cheered as
bypassing traditional "gatekeepers" and whatever biases they may have
in favor of audience-centric selection criteria, but criticized as
creating a dangerous filter bubble which intentionally or
unintentionally hides dissenting opinions and other content which
might be important for the audience to see in order to avoid exposure
bias and groupthink.

Taste, decency, and acceptability
===================================
Audiences have different reactions to depictions of violence, nudity,
coarse language, or to people in any other situation that is
unacceptable to or stigmatized by the local culture or laws (such as
the consumption of alcohol, homosexuality, illegal drug use,
scatological images, etc.). Even with similar audiences, different
organizations and even individual reporters have different standards
and practices. These decisions often revolve around what facts are
necessary for the audience to know.

When certain distasteful or shocking material is considered important
to the story, there are a variety of common methods for mitigating
negative audience reaction. Advance warning of explicit or disturbing
material may allow listeners or readers to avoid content they would
rather not be exposed to. Offensive words may be partially obscured or
bleeped. Potentially offensive images may be blurred or narrowly
cropped. Descriptions may be substituted for pictures; graphic detail
might be omitted. Disturbing content might be moved from a cover to an
inside page, or from daytime to late evening when children are less
likely to be watching.

There is often considerable controversy over these techniques,
especially concern that obscuring or not reporting certain facts or
details is self-censorship that compromises objectivity and fidelity
to the truth, and which does not serve the public interest.

For example, images and graphic descriptions of war are often violent,
bloody, shocking and profoundly tragic. This makes certain content
disturbing to some audience members, but it is precisely these aspects
of war that some consider to be the most important to convey. Some
argue that "sanitizing" the depiction of war influences public opinion
about the merits of continuing to fight, and about the policies or
circumstances that precipitated the conflict. The amount of explicit
violence and mutilation depicted in war coverage varies considerably
from time to time, from organization to organization, and from country
to country.

Reporters have also been accused of indecency in the process of
collecting news, namely that they are overly intrusive in the name of
journalistic insensitivity. War correspondent Edward Behr recounts the
story of a reporter during the Congo Crisis who walked into a crowd of
Belgian evacuees and shouted, "Anyone here been raped and speaks
English?"

Campaigning in the media
==========================
Many print publications take advantage of their wide readership and
print persuasive pieces in the form of unsigned editorials that
represent the official position of the organization. Despite the
ostensible separation between editorial writing and news gathering,
this practice may cause some people to doubt the political objectivity
of the publication's news reporting. (Though usually unsigned
editorials are accompanied by a diversity of signed opinions from
other perspectives.)

Other publications and many broadcast media only publish opinion
pieces that are attributed to a particular individual (who may be an
in-house analyst) or to an outside entity. One particularly
controversial question is whether media organizations should endorse
political candidates for office. Political endorsements create more
opportunities to construe favoritism in reporting, and can create a
perceived conflict of interest.

Investigative methods
=======================
Investigative journalism is largely an information-gathering exercise,
looking for facts that are not easy to obtain by simple requests and
searches, or are actively being concealed, suppressed or distorted.
Where investigative work involves undercover journalism or use of
whistleblowers, and even more if it resorts to covert methods more
typical of private detectives or even spying, it brings a large extra
burden on ethical standards.

Anonymous sources are double-edged�they often provide especially
newsworthy information, such as classified or confidential information
about current events, information about a previously unreported
scandal, or the perspective of a particular group that may fear
retribution for expressing certain opinions in the press. The downside
is that the condition of anonymity may make it difficult or impossible
for the reporter to verify the source's statements. Sometimes news
sources hide their identities from the public because their statements
would otherwise quickly be discredited. Thus, statements attributed to
anonymous sources may carry more weight with the public than they
might if they were attributed.

The Washington press has been criticized in recent years for excessive
use of anonymous sources, in particular to report information that is
later revealed to be unreliable. The use of anonymous sources
increased markedly in the period before the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Examples of ethical dilemmas
==============================
One of the primary functions of journalism ethics is to aid
journalists in dealing with many ethical dilemmas they may encounter.
From highly sensitive issues of national security to everyday
questions such as accepting a dinner from a source, putting a bumper
sticker on one's car, publishing a personal opinion blog, a journalist
must make decisions taking into account things such as the public's
right to know, potential threats, reprisals and intimidations of all
kinds, personal integrity, conflicts between editors, reporters and
publishers or management, and many other such conundra. The following
are illustrations of some of those.
*The Pentagon Papers dealt with extremely difficult ethical dilemmas
faced by journalists. Despite government intervention, The Washington
Post, joined by The New York Times, felt the public interest was more
compelling and both published reports. The cases went to the Supreme
Court where they were merged and are known as 'New York Times Co. v.
United States', 403 U.S. 713.
*The Washington Post also once published a story about a listening
device that the United States had installed over an undersea Soviet
cable during the height of the cold war. The device allowed the United
States to learn where Soviet submarines were positioned. In that case,
Post Executive Editor Ben Bradlee chose not to run the story on
national security grounds. However, the Soviets subsequently
discovered the device and, according to Bradlee, "It was no longer a
matter of national security. It was a matter of national
embarrassment." However, the U.S. government still wanted 'The
Washington Post' not to run the story on the basis of national
security, yet, according to Bradlee, "We ran the story. And you know
what, the sun rose the next day."
* The Center for International Media Ethics, an international
non-profit organisation "offers platform for media professionals to
follow current ethical dilemmas of the press" through its blog.
Besides highlighting the ethical concerns of recent stories,
journalists are encouraged to express their own opinion. The
organisation "urges journalists to make their own judgments and
identify their own strategies."
*The Ethics AdviceLine for Journalists, a joint venture, public
service project of Chicago Headline Club Chapter of the Society of
Professional Journalists and Loyola University Chicago's Center for
Ethics and Social Justice, provides some examples of typical ethical
dilemmas reported to their ethical dilemma hotline and are typical of
the kinds of questions faced by many professional journalists.

A partial listing of questions received by The Ethics AdviceLine:
*Is it ethical to make an appointment to interview an arsonist sought
by police, without informing police in advance of the interview?
*Is lack of proper attribution plagiarism?
*Should a reporter write a story about a local priest who confessed to
a sex crime if it will cost the newspaper readers and advertisers who
are sympathetic to the priest?
*Is it ethical for a reporter to write a news piece on the same topic
on which he or she has written an opinion piece in the same paper?
*Under what circumstances do you identify a person who was arrested as
a relative of a public figure, such as a local sports star?
*Freelance journalists and photographers accept cash to write about,
or take photos of, events with the promise of attempting to get their
work on the AP or other news outlets, from which they also will be
paid. Is that ethical?
*Can a journalist reveal a source of information after guaranteeing
confidentiality if the source proves to be unreliable?

Criticisms
======================================================================
Jesse Owen Hearns-Branaman of the National Institute of Development
Administration, Thailand, argued that journalistic professionalism is
a combination of two factors, secondary socialization of journalists
in the workplace and the fetishization of journalistic norms and
standards. In this way, undesirable traits in new journalists can be
weeded out, and remaining journalists are free to cynically criticize
journalistic professional norms as long as they keep working and
following them. This criticism is adapted from interviews of twenty
political journalists from BBC News, Sky News, 'The Guardian', 'The
New York Times', 'The Washington Post' and MSNBC/NBC News, and from
philosopher Slavoj Žižek's concept of ideology.

See also
======================================================================
* Brown envelope journalism
* Citizen journalism
* Ethical Journalism Initiative
* Ethical Journalism Network
* Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corporation
* History of American Newspapers
* History of Journalism
* International Federation of Journalists
* New York Press Club
* Objectivity (journalism)
* Order of the Occult Hand
* Organisation of News Ombudsmen
* Parachute journalism
* Reporters Without Borders
* Code of ethics in media
* Code of ethics in media#Society of Professional Journalists: Code of
Ethics
* International Council for Press and Broadcasting
* International Council for Press and Broadcasting#Media Ethics Code

Further reading
======================================================================
*Global Journalism Ethics. Ward, Stephen J.A. Montreal: McGill-Queen's
University Press, 2010.
*Media Ethics Beyond Borders: A Global Perspective. Ward, Stephen J.A.
and Herman Wasserman, eds. New York: Routledge, 2010.
*The Invention of Journalism Ethics: The Path to Objectivity and
Beyond. Ward, Stephen J.A. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press,
2005.
*Good News, Bad News - Journalism Ethics and the Public Interest
(Critical Studies in Communication and in the Cultural Industries) by
Jeremy Iggers (New York, Westview Press, 1998)
*Journalism Ethics - A Reference Handbook (Contemporary Ethical
Issues) edited by Elliot D. Cohen and Deni Elliott (Abc-Clio, 1998)
*Media Ethics and Accountabilityprogress.
*Crisis of Conscience - Perspectives on Journalism Ethics. Carl
Hausman. New York, Harper Collins, 1992.
*Ethics & Journalism, Sanders, Karen. London, Sage Publications,
2003.
*[http://ethicaljournalisminitiative.org/pdfs/EJI_book_en.pdf To Tell
You the TRUTH - The Ethical Journalism Initiative by Aidan White (IFJ,
2008)]
*[http://llibreria.gencat.cat/product_info.php?products_id=4584 The
Ethical Values of Journalists. Field Research among Media
Professionals in Catalonia]. Alsius, Salvador, ed. (2010). Generalitat
de Catalunya.
*Ethics and Media Culture: Practices and Representations, David Berry,
Focal Press, 2000.
*Journalism, Ethics and Society, David Berry, Ashgate Publications,
2008.
*Journalism Ethics and Regulation (3rd edtn) Frost, Chris London:
Pearson Education 2011.

External links
======================================================================
*
[https://stacks.fourthestate.org/books/the-journalism-code-of-practice/
A New Journalism Code of Practice]
* http://www.accountablejournalism.org
* [http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp Code of Ethics] - Society of
Professional Journalists (SPJ)
* [http://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/ Center for Journalism Ethics]
* [http://www.cimethics.org/ Center for International Media Ethics
CIME]
* [http://www.ethicaljournalismnetwork.org Ethical Journalism Network]
* [http://www.ethicaljournalisminitiative.org Ethical Journalism
Initiative] A global campaign of the International Federation of
Journalists
*[https://cbc.radio-canada.ca/en/vision/governance/journalistic-standards-and-pr
actices
Journalistic Standards and Practices] of the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/ BBC Editorial
Guidelines: code of ethics for content producers]
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20060615025620/http://www.uta.fi/ethicnet/
Databank for European Codes of Journalism Ethics]
* [http://www.caj.ca/?cat=9 Canadian Association of Journalists Ethics
Committee]
* [http://www.pressnet.or.jp/english/about/canon.htm The Japan
Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association "Canon of Journalism"]
* [http://www.medialaw.com.sg/ethics/jcode.htm Medialaw.com's review
"Code of Ethics of Various Journalists' Unions in Asia"]
* [http://journalism.indiana.edu/resources/ethics/ Journalism Ethics
Cases Online]
* [https://www.facebook.com/vanessa.otero.9619/posts/10155006385626062
Chart - Real and Fake News (2016)/Vanessa Otero]
([http://www.allgeneralizationsarefalse.com/?p=65 basis])
([https://boingboing.net/2016/12/14/an-attempt-to-chart-new-source.html
Mark Frauenfelder])
*
[http://www.journalism.org/2014/10/21/political-polarization-media-habits/pj_14-
10-21_mediapolarization-08/
Chart - Real and Fake News (2014)]
([http://www.pewresearch.org/pj_14-10-21_mediapolarization-08-2/
2016])/Pew Research Center
*
[https://www.fourthestate.org/journalism-principles-standards-and-practices
Fourth Estate - Core Journalism Principles, Standards and Practices]
* [https://www.fourthestate.org/journalism-code-of-practice/ Fourth
Estate - The Ethical Standards of Journalism]

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Original Article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism_ethics_and_standards