= Gender system =

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= Gender system =
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Introduction
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Gender systems are the social structures that establish the number of
genders and their associated gender roles in every society. A 'gender
role' is "everything that a person says and does to indicate to others
or to the self the degree that one is either male, female, or
androgynous. This includes but is not limited to sexual and erotic
arousal and response." Gender identity is one's own personal
experience with gender role and the persistence of one's individuality
as male, female, or androgynous, especially in self-awareness and
behavior.
Gender binary is one example of a gender system. A 'gender binary' is
the classification of sex and gender into two distinct and
disconnected forms of masculine and feminine.

Gender binary
======================================================================
Gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two
distinct, opposite and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine.
Gender binary is one general type of a gender system. Sometimes in
this binary model, "sex", "gender" and "sexuality" are assumed by
default to align.

Non-European gender systems
======================================================================
In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important,
transgender people are a major exception to the societal norms related
to gender. Intersex people, those who cannot be biologically
determined as either male or female, are another obvious deviation.
Other cultures have their own practices independent of the Western
gender binary.

Native American
=================
When European settlers first arrived in North America, they discovered
different Native American tribes had different concepts of sex and
gender. In the Native North American society "berdaches" were given
that name to identify them as gender variants. The Europeans
"attempted to explain the berdache from various functional
perspectives...in terms of the contributions these sex/gender roles
made to social structure or culture." The term "berdache" was deemed
inappropriate and insulting as time passed and awareness increased, so
a new term was coined in 1990, "Two-Spirit." There were many roles for
male and female Two-Spirits, productive specialization, supernatural
sanction and gender variation. Some widespread features of the variety
of gender roles are: transvestism, cross-gender occupation, same sex
(but different gender) sexuality, recruitment to different roles,
special languages, ritual roles, and associations with spiritual
power. Cross-dressing was the most visible marker but has proven a
variable and less reliable indicator of status as a Two-Spirit.
However the main interest is that these people are an accepted portion
of their society. In some cases they were even given special respect
and various honors.
The roles varied greatly between tribes. For example, a male variant
might have to wear male clothing during warfare, but women's clothing
any other time. These gender roles were often decided at a young age.
If a boy was interested in women's activities, or vice versa, a gender
variant role would likely be undertaken in adulthood. "In some
societies, same-sex sexual desire or practice did figure into the
definition of one�s gender variant role, in others, it did not."
In the case of the Navajo, there are four genders: man, woman,
masculine female-bodied nádleeh, and feminine male-bodied nádleeh.
Intercourse between two people of different genders, regardless of
biological sex, was not stigmatized. However, any sexual relationship
between two of the same one gender was considered homosexual, and was
strongly disapproved of. In the majority of Native American societies
however, biological sex played no part in any gender variant role.

The Mohave Alyha
==================
In Mohave society, pregnant women believed they had dreams forecasting
the anatomic sex of their children. These dreams also sometimes
included hints of their child's future gender variant status.
A boy who "acted strangely" before he participated in the boys�
puberty ceremonies in the Mohave tribe would be considered for the
transvestite ceremony. Expressing interest in dolls, the domestic
work of women, women's gambling games, and inquiring about the female
skirt were all ways a boy may be considered for the transvestite
ceremony. Before the ceremony, relatives would try to dissuade him,
but if the boy persists, they would assist in the preparations for the
ceremony.
The ceremony itself was meant to surprise the boy. It was a test of
willingness. Other nearby settlements would receive word to come and
watch. A circle of onlookers would sing special songs. If the boy
danced like a woman, it confirmed his status as an 'alyha'. He was
then taken to a river to bathe, and was given a skirt to wear. The
ceremony would permanently change his gender status within the tribe.
He then took up a female name. The alyha would imitate many aspects
of female life, including menstruation, puberty observations,
pregnancy, and birth. The alyha were considered great healers,
especially in curing sexually transmitted diseases like syphilis.

Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico
==========================
A documentary film entitled 'Blossoms of Fire', produced in 2000,
depicts the people of Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca, Mexico. It follows
the daily lives of the women as they run their businesses, wear
colorfully bold traditional clothing and hold their heads firmly high
as they carry the weight on top. The film clearly depicts the
empowered women and the tolerance of homosexuality and transgender
individuals. The community exemplifies an alternative gender system
unlike the gender binary that has been established throughout the
world. On many occasions this community has been criticized and
labeled as a matriarchy; however, the individuals who are interviewed
throughout the film tend to say otherwise. They strongly believe that
their community is able to function because gender roles are not
placed on individuals but rather that everyone is equal�for example
there is no identifiable "bread winner". Children are taken care of by
whoever can help; food is cooked by anyone who is able to and drinking
beer and smoking is not only okay for the "men" of the community. Gay,
lesbian, and transgender people tend to feel more accepted in this
alternative gender system. Juchitán's society operates under a more
egalitarian gender system in which men and women have different, but
not exclusive roles, and in which these roles are not necessarily
expected. Due to liberal gender performance, third genders also have
more prominence in Juchitán than other parts of the world.

Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile
==================================
The machi are the shamans of the Mapuche people of Chile, and are
viewed to a large extent by both Mapuche and the Chilean state as
keepers of Mapuche political, cultural, and spiritual tradition and
power. In many ways the machi represent an alternative gender system
in that homosexual acts are more accepted, gender switching occurs,
and the practice of polygamy took place. However, though it appears
there is more gender freedom, gender switching occurs based on
different shamanic practices performed, and the gender associated with
the practice is either derived from physical sex based on
reproduction, etc., or from the hegemonic gender system of the nation
of Chile. For example, political participation has become a masculine
practice, while spiritual practices are considered feminine. While one
does not have to be a physical "male" or "female" necessarily to
perform these practices, they must channel that gender to perform
them.

The machi were inevitably influenced by the dominant Western gender
system of Chile through state sponsored evangelization, (most Mapuche
today are Catholic) and by the Indigenous Law. The Indigenous Law
further politicized the machi and further subjected them in national
discourse to the gender norms of the Chilean state, changing the way
that machi perform gender. "Machi juggle various gendered systems of
knowledge and identities according to their intentions, who is
present, and in what context"

Indian Hindu
==============
In Hindu India, there also exists different concepts of what is
socially accepted when gender is in question. When compared to the
native North Americans, the gender system is essentially binary, but
the ideas themselves are quite different from Western thoughts. These
ideas often come from religious contexts. Some Hindu origin myths
feature androgynous or hermaphroditic ancestors. Ancient poets often
showed this idea by presenting images with mixed physical attributes
between the two sexes. These themes still exist in the culture, and
are even still institutionalized. The most prominent group are the
hijras.

Hijras
========
"The recognition of more than two sex/genders is recorded in India as
early as the eighth century BCE". In modern India, the term hijra is
most commonly meant as "eunuch" or intersexed, and is a term of sexual
impotence. In the culture's definition, a hijra is one born as a
male, but adopts the clothing, behavior, and occupations of women.
Their status in society is neither male nor female, neither man nor
woman. When hijras are asked whether or not they are male or female,
most often they respond with comments like "We hijras are like women",
demonstrating their place in culture. Hijras walk, gesture, speak,
and use facial expressions more common to women in India. They even
take feminine names as part of their gender transformation. Becoming a
Hijra however is not outside of Indian society. Being a hijra means
making a commitment that gives social support and some economic
security, as well as a cultural meaning, linking them to the larger
world.

"A male who is not born biologically intersexed who wishes to become a
hijra must transform his sex/gender through an emasculation
operation". This operation is a rebirth for the hijras, and contains
elements of childbirth to symbolize this. The process includes
castration, bloodletting, and special rituals. Among the hijra
society there is a hierarchy of gurus, or teachers, and chelas, or
disciples. In order for one to be accepted into the hijra society they
must be sponsored by a guru, who in turn teaches them and helps them
form a family.

As of November 11, 2013, the country of Bangladesh has decided to
begin a third gender birth certificate.

S�dhin
========
The s�dhin are similar to Hijras culturally. Their development is
quite different however, and their existence is much less prominent.
It is a girl's choice to become a s�dhin. They wear men's clothing
and keep their hair short. They commonly keep their female name and
are still treated as a female in society, although the status of
s�dhin, like hijra, transcends the gender labels of India. A s�dhin
candidate must be a virgin, and swear to celibacy.

Brazil
========
Like in Indian culture, Brazilian culture does follow a gender binary,
just not the traditional western one. Rather than men and women,
certain areas of Brazil have men and 'not-men'. Men are masculine,
and anyone who displays feminine qualities falls under the category of
not-man. This concept is a result of sexual penetration as the
deciding factor of gender. Any one who is penetrated becomes
feminine, and is 'not-male'. Everyone else, regardless of sexual
preference, remains a male in Brazilian society.

The most commonly discussed group of people when discussing gender in
Brazil are the travesti, or transgender prostitutes. Unlike in native
North America and India, the existence of the travesti is not from a
religious context. It is an individual's choice to become a travesti.
Born as males, they go to extensive measures to try to appear female.
Some inject female hormones and get silicone implants to more closely
imitate the curves of the Brazilian female body. The travesti
recognize they are not female, and that they cannot ever become
female. Instead, their culture is based on this man/not-man premise.
Unlike hijras, the travestis do not want to get rid of their penises.
They do, however, manipulate themselves to hide their genitalia. They
feel that castration would not get them any closer to becoming a
woman.
Homosexuality also follows the man/not-man binary. If a travesti has
a boyfriend, that man is not considered a homosexual, because the
travesti is not a man. If, at any time, the boyfriend expresses
interest in the travesti penis, the travesti will immediately lose
interest in him as a partner because he has also become a "not-man".

[[Naples]] and [[Southern Italy]]
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'Femminielli' or 'femmenielli' (singular 'femminiello', cf. Standard
Italian 'femmina', "a female", '-ello', masculine diminutive suffix)
is a slur used to refer to a population of males with markedly
feminine gender expression in traditional Neapolitan culture. It may
be hard to define this term within modern Western notions of "gay men"
versus "trans women" since both these categories overlap to a degree
in the case of 'femminielli' It has been noted that this term is not
derogatory and does not carry stigma, with 'femminielli' instead
traditionally believed to bring luck.

It is often considered reductive to insert the Neapolitan
'femminiello' within the macro-category of transgender usually adopted
in Anglo-Saxon and North American contexts. The 'femminiello',
instead, could be considered as a peculiar gender expression, despite
a widespread sexual binarism. The cultural roots of this phenomenon
confer to the 'femminiello' a cultural and even socially legitimized
status. For the historical and symbolic coordinates of Naples, the
identity construct of the 'femminiello' is not superimposable to more
common European and euro-centric transgender clusters.

The 'femminiello' in Campania may enjoy a relatively privileged
position thanks to their participation in some traditional events,
such as 'Candelora al Santuario di Montevergine' (Candlemas at the
Sanctuary of Montevergine) in Avellino or the 'Tammurriata', a
traditional dance performed at the feast of Madonna dell'Arco in
Sant'Anastasia. Generally, 'femminielli' are considered good luck. For
this reason, it is popular in the neighborhoods for a 'femminiello' to
hold a newborn baby, or participate in games such as bingo.
'Feminielli' participate in games of Tombola or 'Tombolata dei
femminielli', a popular game performed every year on the 2nd of
February, as the conclusive part of the Candlemas at the Sanctuary of
Montevergine. Achille della Ragione suggests that recent surveys have
shown that Neapolitans have a generally negative view of what he calls
"the politically correct model of homosexuality of a hypocritical
do-gooder society" (implying the mainstream Western gay culture), yet
he contrasts 'femminielli' as enjoying a favorable attitude from part
of Neapolitan society.

Polynesia
===========
In Polynesia there are many different terms for gender roles, for
example in Tahiti the role is called m�hū. In Samoa the male gender
variant is called fa�afafine which means "like a woman." Tuva and
Tonga have terms also. In Tonga the term is fakaleiti and in Tuva the
term is pinapinnaine. All of these terms are used when a male engages
in women's work, clothes, speech tones, and nonverbal gestures.
However, in Polynesia when a man crosses genders and "acts like a
woman" he is not viewed as becoming a woman, but is suspended between
male and female, being neither at the same time, but having the
elements of both. They tend to be effeminate and interested in
women's household tasks, but do not dress exclusively as women. They
often seek oral sex with men, who may ridicule them in public, but
seek them out for pleasure in private.

Thailand
==========
Kathoeys on the stage of a cabaret show in Pattaya.
Kathoey is the term used by both males and females that allows them to
be alongside the normative masculine and feminine identities. Up until
the 1970s hermaphrodites and cross-dressing men and women could all
come under the term kathoey, however the term has been dropped for the
cross-dressing masculine females who are now referred to as 'tom'. As
a result of the shifts, kathoey today is most commonly understood as a
male transgender category. Kathoey is derived from the Buddhist myth
that describes three original human sex/genders, male, female, and a
biological hermaphrodite or kathoey. Kathoey is not defined as merely
being a variant between male or female but as an independently
existing third sex.

Philippines
=============
The notable gender variant role in the Philippines is the bakla.
Bakla are males with a feminine spirit, or core identity, who
cross-dress and are assumed to take the receiving role in sex. In the
Philippines, a "real man" is simply one who is not bakla. Since there
are negative connotations of local terms for gender diversity, many
bakla prefer to self-identify as gay, rather than a new gender. The
baklas' partners are not considered homosexual by Filipino society.
Over time, baklas have tried to gain status as a third sex or gender
as an attempt to normalize their nonconformity and be equal to males
and females in society.

Nigeria
=========
Oyewumi observes that among the Yoruba people there was no concept of
gender and no gender system at all before colonialism. She argues that
colonial powers used a gender system as a tool for domination and
fundamentally changing social relations among the indigenous.

The cultural definition of homosexuality
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In cultures where the difference between male and female in the gender
binary is masculine and feminine, it is important to look at how
same-sex sexuality changes between cultures. In some cultures, like
the travesti, homosexual behavior moves one from one part of a gender
binary to another.

Homosexuality, and its effects on the individual's place in society is
sometimes drastically different in various other cultures. In certain
Sambia people of New Guinea for example, it is believed that a boy is
unable to reach puberty or maturity without first ingesting the semen,
considered 'life-force', of an older male. In addition, these Sambian
people believe that a man is unable to replenish his semen on his own,
so the ritual continues until a certain time, usually marriage, when
he is told of a tree that exudes a milky semen-like sap he may ingest
instead.

In Basotho society in contemporary Lesotho, girls and women may
exchange long kisses, engage in cunnilingus, and even fall in love and
form a marriage-like union. In this society however, sex requires
penetration, and marriage requires a man as a husband. Therefore, in
this context, there is no concept of lesbianism.

The Alternative Model of Gender
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In "The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough", Anne
Fausto-Sterling explores the possibilities of the intersex and how
these individuals fit into the traditional labeling of "male" and
"female". Her "Alternative Model of Gender," is a proposition that
allows for the inclusion of intersexual individuals into the
traditional gender labeling system. Anne Fausto-Sterling proposes that
a body does not necessarily have to fit into the orthodox gender
binary set by a society, but rather can be categorized under the
possibility of male, female, merm, ferm, and herm, which are labels
given to individuals born with a variation in sex characteristics.
Fausto-Sterling's "Of Gender and Genitals" discuses the fate of the
individuals born with "ambiguous" genitalia and the need to surgically
correct the deviations these individuals propel into a male-female
society.
She explores the need for allowing the body to be labeled as is,
rather than configuring it into the expectations of society, as the
traditional binary gender labeling calls for. The Alternative Model
allows for this type of gender labeling.

Gendered violence
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Gendered violence is an important worldwide issue that can take place
in different forms with varying consequences. It can be similar to a
hate crime in which physical violence is specifically targeting the
victim's gender. Transgender people and women experience the most
gender violence but anyone can be a victim. Women are particularly at
risk of gender violence in intimate relationships. Women are 10 times
more likely to be a victim of intimate partner violence. This act of
violence occurs in the public as well as the private domain and can
sometimes be overlooked. Countless deaths have resulted from these
severe crimes as seen in the film 'Two Spirits'. Organizations
nationwide such as California Coalition Against Sexual Assault help to
support and aid the Latino communities in particular to put an end to
domestic violence. It is also a matter related to the dominant gender
system, which often underlies the motives for gendered violence. The
dominant gender system also creates structural violence.

See also
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* Gender and Sexual Diversity
* Transsexualism
* Transgender
* Transgenderism (social movement)
* Intersexuality

Bibliography
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* Duberman, Martin. "Gender Diversity in Native North America: Notes
toward a Unified Analysis". A Queer World. New York And London: New
York University Press, 1997. 65. Print.
* Kulick, D. "The Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes."
American Anthropologist 99.3 (1997): 574-85.
* Nanda, Serena. Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations. Waveland
Press, 1999. Print.
* Nanda, Serena. Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Pub., 1990. Print.
* Peoples, James G. "The Cultural Construction of Gender and Manhood."
Men and Masculinity. 1st Edition ed.Cengage Learning, 2001. 9-18.
Print.
* Rupp, Leila J. "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality."
Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.2 (2001): pp. 287-302. Web.

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