======================================================================
= Branches of science =
======================================================================
Introduction
======================================================================
The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, "scientific
fields", or "scientific disciplines," are commonly divided into three
major groups:
*Formal sciences: the study of logic, mathematics and linguistics,
which use an 'a priori', as opposed to empirical, methodology.
*Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including
cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors
of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main
branches: physical science and life science (or biological science).
*Social sciences: the study of human behavior and societies.
Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, meaning that the
knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of
being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.
This verifiability may well vary even 'within' a scientific discipline
Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences,
which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as
engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that
exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific
disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.
Formal sciences
======================================================================
The 'formal sciences' are the branches of science that are concerned
with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer
science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory,
statistics, and theoretical linguistics.
Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the
validity of theories based on observations in the real world
(empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal
systems based on definitions and rules. Methods of the formal sciences
are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific
models dealing with observable reality, and major advances in formal
sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.
Decision theory
=================
'Decision theory' in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics,
and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties
and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and
the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the
field of game theory.
Logic
=======
'Logic' (from the Greek 'λογική' logik�) is the formal systematic
study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning.
Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied
primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics,
and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments
may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. In
philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas:
epistemology, ethics, metaphysics. In mathematics and computer
science, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal
language.
Logic is also studied in argumentation theory.
Mathematics
=============
'Mathematics', first of all, known as The Science of numbers which is
classified in Arithmetic and Algebra, is classified as a formal
science, has both similarities and differences with the empirical
sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical
sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic
study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method
of verifying its knowledge, using 'a priori' rather than empirical
methods.
Statistics
============
'Statistics' is the study of the collection, organization, and
interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including
the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and
experiments.
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways
of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical
analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through
working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline
called 'mathematical statistics', which is concerned with the
theoretical basis of the subject.
The word 'statistics', when referring to the scientific discipline, is
singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused
with the word 'statistic', referring to a quantity (such as mean or
median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is 'statistics'
("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
Systems theory
================
'Systems theory' is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general,
to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in
all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established,
precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a
specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems
science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory
(GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action
theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.
In this context the word 'systems' is used to refer specifically to
self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through
feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the
physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and
climate.
Theoretical computer science
==============================
'Theoretical computer science' (TCS) is a division or subset of
general computer science and focuses on more abstract or mathematical
aspects of computing.
These divisions and subsets include analysis of algorithms and formal
semantics of programming languages. Technically, there are hundreds of
divisions and subsets besides these two. Each of the multiple parts
has its leaders (of popularity) and there are many associations and
professional social groups and publications of distinction.
Natural/Pure Science
======================================================================
Natural science is a branch of science that seeks to elucidate the
rules that govern the natural world by applying an empirical and
scientific method to the study of the universe. The term natural
sciences is used to distinguish it from the social sciences, which
apply the scientific method to study human behavior and social
patterns; the humanities, which use a critical, or analytical approach
to the study of the human condition; and the formal sciences.
Physical science
==================
'Physical science' is an encompassing term for the branches of natural
science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the
life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended,
somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical
science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between
physical science and physics.
Physics
=========
'Physics' (from ) is a natural science that involves the study of
matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts
such as energy and force.
More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in
order to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest
through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia,
physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain
branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific
Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique
research programs in their own right. Certain research areas are
interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which
means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major
unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides
fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New
ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other
sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and
philosophy.
Chemistry
===========
'Chemistry' (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the
science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter
is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general
and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being
concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and
properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during
chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies various
substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based);
biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms;
physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical
concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical
chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding
of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized
disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the
chemical study of the nervous system.
Earth science
===============
'Earth science' (also known as 'geoscience', 'the geosciences' or 'the
Earth sciences') is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to
the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science,
the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both
reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal
discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, oceans, and biosphere, as well as the solid earth.
Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry,
biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative
understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its
current state.
Ecology
=========
Ecology (from Greek: οἶκο�, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is the
scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with
each other and with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to
ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount (biomass),
number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems.
Oceanography
==============
Oceanography, or marine biology, is the branch of Earth science that
studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine
organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and
geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the
seafloor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical
properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse
topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to
further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes
within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as
well as geography.
Geology
=========
Geology (from the Greek γ�, gê, "earth" and λ�γο�, logos, "study") is
the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it
is composed, and the processes by which they change.
Meteorology
=============
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the
atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though
significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th
century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing
networks developed across several countries. After the development of
the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in
weather forecasting were achieved.
Space Science or Astronomy
============================
Space science or Astronomy is the study of everything in outer space.
This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has
come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has
grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related
to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine),
space archaeology and science performed in outer space (see space
research).
Science of living things
==========================
The science of living things comprises the branches of science that
involve the scientific study of living organisms, like plants,
animals, and human beings. However, the study of behavior of
organisms, such as practiced in ethology and psychology, is only
included in as much as it involves a biological aspect. While biology
remains the centerpiece of the science of living things, technological
advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a
burgeoning of specializations and new, often interdisciplinary,
fields.
Biology
=========
'Biology' is the branch of natural science concerned with the study of
life and living organisms, including their structure, function,
growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a
vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines.
Zoology
=========
Zoology, occasionally spelled zoölogy, is the branch of science that
relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology,
evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals,
both living and extinct. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον
(z�on, "animal") + λ�γο� (logos, "knowledge"). Some branches of
zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology,
embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology,
ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology,
ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology,
taxonomy, and zoogeography.
Human biology
===============
Human biology is an interdisciplinary academic field of biology,
biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine which focuses on
humans; it is closely related to primate biology, and a number of
other fields.
Botany
========
Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that
involves the scientific study of plant life. Botany covers a wide
range of scientific disciplines including structure, growth,
reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties,
and evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups. Botany began
with early human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous
plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. Today botanists study
over 550,000 species of living organisms.
The term "botany" comes from Greek βο�άνη, meaning "pasture, grass,
fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know
which plants are safe for livestock to eat.
Mycology
==========
Mycology, the study of fungi, is a branch of biology that focuses on
fungi.
Social sciences
======================================================================
The 'social sciences' are the fields of scholarship that study
society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term for
empirical fields outside of the natural sciences. These include:
anthropology, archaeology, criminology, economics, linguistics,
international relations, political science (aka government), public
health, sociology, some branches of psychology (results of which can
not be replicated or validated easily - e.g. social psychology), and
certain aspects of business administration, communication, education,
geography, history, and law.
Applied sciences
======================================================================
'Applied science' is the application of scientific knowledge
transferred into a physical environment. Examples include testing a
theoretical model through the use of formal science or solving a
practical problem through the use of natural science.
Applied science differs from fundamental science, which seeks to
describe the most basic objects and forces, having less emphasis on
practical applications. Applied science can be like biological science
and physical science.
Example fields of applied science include
* Engineering
* Applied mathematics
* Applied physics
* Medicine
* Computer science
Fields of engineering are closely related to applied sciences. Applied
science is important for technology development. Its use in industrial
settings is usually referred to as research and development (R&D).
See also
======================================================================
* Index of branches of science
* Outline of science
** Exact science
** Fundamental science
** Hard and soft science
* Branches of philosophy
** Philosophy of science
*Engineering science
*Moral science
License
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
