Field Manual
HEADQUARTERS
9-207
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Technical Order
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE
36-1-40
Washington, DC, 20 March 1998
OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE OF ORDNANCE MATERIEL IN COLD
WEATHER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ...............................
v
Chapter 1 - Cold Weather Considerations
Section I - The Cold Weather Challenge ..................
1-1
Impact on Military Forces ......................
1-1
Operational Effects ........................
1-1
Section II - Operational Considerations ...................
1-1
Personnel ............................
1-1
Levels of Operation .......................
1-1
Effects on Materiel .........................
1-2
Effects on Mission Functions ...................
1-4
Section III - Logistical Considerations....................
1-5
Factors Impacting Logistics ...................
1-5
Planning ...........................
1-5
Host Nation Support .......................
1-6
Maintenance ...........................
1-6
Maintenance Facilities ......................
1-6
Equipment Recovery ......................
1-9
Section IV - Antifreeze, Fuels, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubricants .........
1-10
Antifreeze .............................
1-10
Fuels ...............................
1-10
Hydraulic Fluids .........................
1-10
Lubricants ............................
1-10
Materials ............................
1-10
Lubrication Orders .......................
1-10
Section V ? Batteries ..........................
1-11
Vehicle Batteries ..........................
1-11
Small Equipment Batteries .....................
1-12
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ......................
1-12
Lithium Sulfur Batteries .....................
1-13
Section VI - Winterization Equipment ...................
1-13
Personnel Heaters .......................
1-13
Power Plant Heaters ......................
1-14
Portable Fuel-Burning Heaters ....................
1-14
Hardtop Closure Kit ........................
1-14
Quick Heat System .........................
1-15
Standby Heat System .......................
1-15
Auxiliary Power (Slave) Receptacle .................
1-15
Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release. Distribution
is unlimited
*This publication supersedes FM 9-207/TO 36-1-40, 10 August 1989.
i
Chapter 2 - Preparation for Operation
Section I - Chassis and Body Components ..................
2-1
Special Considerations .......................
2-1
Before Operations Checks ....................
2-1
Section II - Power Train .........................
2-3
Engines ............................
2-3
Transmissions/Transfer Cases/Differentials/Final Drives........
2-4
Cooling Systems .........................
2-4
Fuel Systems .........................
2-6
Universal and Slip Joints ....................
2-7
Section III - Electrical System .......................
2-8
Special Concerns ........................
2-8
System Preparations ........................
2-8
Section IV - Auxiliary Equipment .....................
2-9
Air Compressors .........................
2-9
Auxiliary Engines and Generators ................
2-9
Power Takeoff Assemblies ....................
2-9
Chapter 3 - Operating and Maintenance Procedures
Section I - Operating Vehicle Engines in Cold Weather ............
3-1
Operating and Idling ......................
3-1
Starting Without Assistance .....................
3-4
Using Auxiliary Power (Slave) Receptacle ..............
3-5
Towing to Start Engine .....................
3-5
Section II - Chassis and Body Components .................
3-6
Operational Considerations ...................
3-6
Section III - Power Train ........................
3-8
Operational Considerations ...................
3-8
Section IV - Engine Lubrication System ..................
3-9
Operational Considerations ...................
3-9
Maintenance..........................
3-9
Section V - Electrical System ........................
3-11
Starting Procedures .......................
3-11
During Operation ........................
3-12
Maintenance ..........................
3-12
Section VI - Fuel System .........................
3-13
Fuel Storage .........................
3-13
Maintenance ..........................
3-14
Section VII - Cooling System ......................
3-15
Starting Considerations .....................
3-15
Maintenance ..........................
3-15
Section VIII - Auxiliary Equipment ...................
3-16
Operational Considerations ...................
3-16
Power Takeoff Assemblies ...................
3-17
Chapter 4 - Weapons, Munitions, and Fire Control Equipment
Section I - Effects of Cold Weather ....................
4-1
Climatic Conditions .......................
4-1
Weapons Functioning .....................
4-2
Section II - Lubrication in Cold Weather .................
4-2
Special Considerations .......................
4-2
Procedures for Lubricating Weapons ................
4-3
ii
Section III - Operation and Maintenance of Weapons ...........
4-3
Use of Covers ..........................
4-3
Dealing with Condensation ...................
4-4
Crewmember Considerations ..................
4-4
Exercising ...........................
4-5
Daily Care. ..........................
4-5
Travel .............................
4-5
Emplacement .........................
4-5
Breech and Firing Mechanisms .................
4-6
Bores .............................
4-7
Recoil Mechanisms ......................
4-7
Recoil Slides ..........................
4-8
EquiLibrators .........................
4-9
Elevating and Traversing Mechanisms ..............
4-9
Cradle, Sleigh, Carriage and Mount ...............
4-9
Section IV - Direct Fire Weapons ....................
4-10
Armor Vehicle Main Armament .................
4-10
Section V - Indirect Fire Weapons .....................
4-10
Field Artillery ..........................
4-10
Mortars .............................
4-11
Section VI - Antitank Wire-Guided Missiles/Rockets ............
4-13
Missiles .............................
4-13
Rockets ............................
4-13
Section VII - Field Artillery Missiles/Rockets ...............
4-14
Missiles ...........................
4-14
Section VIII - Air Defense Weapons ...................
4-14
Missiles ............................
4-14
Guns ..............................
4-14
Section IX - Ammunition and Munitions .................
4-14
Ammunition ............................
4-14
Grenades ............................
4-16
Mines .............................
4-17
Demolitions ............................
4-17
Section X - Fire Control Equipment ...................
4-18
Precautions ...........................
4-18
Fogging of Eyepieces .....................
4-19
Purging ............................
4-20
Powered Systems.......................
4-20
Protection of Tube Extensions and Eyepieces ...........
4-21
Level Vials ...........................
4-21
Compensated Sight Picture ..................
4-21
Lasers ............................
4-22
Compasses, Binoculars, and other Optical Instruments ........
4-22
Digitized Equipment ......................
4-23
Chapter 5 - Small Arms
Section I - Cold Weather Problems ...................
5-1
Climatic Conditions ......................
5-1
Functioning Difficulties .....................
5-2
Section II - Effects of Cold on Small Arms and Ammunition ..........
5-3
Precautions ...........................
5-3
Pistols ............................
5-3
Rifles ............................
5-3
Machine Guns ..........................
5-3
Ammunition..........................
5-3
iii
Chapter 6 - Communication and Information Systems Equipment
Section I - Cold Weather Problems ...................
6-1
Phenomena ..........................
6-1
Section II - Operation and Maintenance of Communications and Information
Systems ..........................
6-2
Radio Systems..........................
6-2
Antenna Systems.........................
6-3
Wire and Cable Systems.....................
6-6
Power Sources..........................
6-6
Computers............................
6-7
Appendices
A Antifreeze Materials, Fuels, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubricants for Use
in
Cold Weather (0? to-65? F) .....................
A-1
B Special Materials for use in Cold Weather (0? to -65?F) ...........
B-1
C Environmental Protection Concerns ...................
C-1
D Sample Cold Weather Supplement to Unit Maintenance SOP ........
D-1
E NBC Defense in Cold Conditions ...................
E-1
Glossary ................................
Glossary-1
References ..............................
References-1
Authorization Letter...........................
Authorization
iv
FM 9-207 Preface
PREFACE
As stated in Field Manual (FM) 100-1, The Army, it is the Army's
fundamental purpose to win wars
through land force dominance regardless of location or climate. This FM
provides general doctrinal and
technical guidance for operating equipment and ordnance materiel under
extremely harsh cold weather
conditions (0? to -65? F). Its primary purpose is to familiarize operators
and crews with the special
procedures and techniques for working in sub-zero temperatures. Also, this
manual will assist unit
commanders, supervisors (motor sergeants, battalion motor officers
[BMOs]), and maintenance
personnel in anticipating and planning for the onset of cold weather or an
arctic deployment. Failure to
follow this guidance can cause injury to personnel and damage to
equipment, besides limiting mission
accomplishment.
This FM does not replace applicable technical manuals (TMs) for specific
equipment operations,
servicing, or repair. It is intended to provide an overview of the special
and unique difficulties
encountered in cold weather operations. Refer to the appropriate operator
or higher-level manual for
specific instructions.
The proponent of this publication is Headquarters, United States Army
Training and Doctrine Command
(TRADOC). Much of the information in this manual was provided by the USA
Cold Regions Test
Activity, which is responsible for testing equipment designed for use by
the soldier on the winter
battlefield and the USA Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
which exists largely to
solve technical problems that develop in cold regions, especially problems
related to construction,
transportation, and military operations.. Access to more information can
be obtained though points of
contact on their World Wide Web pages. Submit changes for improving this
publication on DA Form
2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms), directly to:
Commander
US Army Combined Arms Support Command
ATTN: ATCL-A
Fort Lee, Virginia 23801-1713
Note: Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used,
both men and women are
included.
v
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Cold Weather Considerations
?Every mile is two in winter.?
George
Herbert
Section 1
The Cold Weather Challenge
IMPACT ON MILITARY FORCES
The cold has been identified as an enemy of military forces and equipment
since the beginning of recorded history.
When employed in a cold region, a force actually faces two enemies--the
tactical enemy and the environment that
also aggressively attacks and can destroy equipment and men. The impact of
cold weather on combat forces can
readily be seen during decisive campaigns in history. Napoleon?s
disasterous march into Russia, Germany?s failed
conquest of Russia during World War II, and the operations of United
Nations forces in Korea are modern examples.
With United States (US) reliance on global force projection, Army forces
must prepare to operate in a variety of
climates, including extreme cold.
OPERATIONAL EFFECTS
Army forces may be required to conduct sustained operations in
temperatures as low as -65 ? Fahrenheit (F). Under
such conditions, personnel are subject to decreased efficiency and cold
casualties, equipment is prone to
breakdowns, supply problems are increased, and operations are restricted
and complicated by the environment.
It is the responsibility of unit leaders to ensure that personnel and
equipment can withstand the challenges of cold
weather. US Army equipment is among the best in the world for use in cold
climates. However, soldiers and their
leaders must understand the effects of cold weather and adapt operations
and maintenance to overcome
environmental conditions.
Section II
Operational Considerations
PERSONNEL
Since most US units are stationed in temperate or tropical climates,
soldiers generally lack adequate training or
experience in cold weather operations and maintenance. If troops stationed
in temperate climates are to be expected
to move to cold climates and perform their missions, they must be prepared
for it.
A large part of a soldier?s time and energy in cold weather is spent in
self-preservation. This naturally reduces the
efficiency of personnel when operating and maintaining materiel. Besides
operating equipment, soldiers must learn
to protect themselves against climatic factors by dressing properly and
improvising protective measures and shelters.
LEVELS OF OPERATION
1-1
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Operating equipment in temperatures no lower than 10 ? F presents few
problems. Conditions are similar to those
experienced during winter in the northern part of the continental United
States (CONUS).
From 10 ? F to -25? F, operations become more difficult (Figure 1-1). At
the warmer end of this range, lack of
winterization results in only a slight loss of operating efficiency.
Proper training prevents many failures of materiel
and injuries to operators. Nevertheless, nonacclimated troops have
difficulty at even the warmer temperatures above
-10 ? F.
When temperatures drop below -25? F, operations become increasingly
difficult. At temperatures nearing -50? F and
lower, the maximum efforts of well-trained personnel are required to
perform even the simplest tasks with
completely winterized materiel.
EFFECTS ON MATERIEL
Since metals contract at lower temperatures and expand at higher
temperatures, improper clearances may result in
either binding or excessive looseness.
Cleaning and Preparing Equipment
Before operating vehicles, crews should review appropriate operator
manuals for cold weather operations. These
manuals all include a section subtitled Operations Under Unusual
Conditions. Also, operators must know other
basic skills, such as working with tire chains and slave-starting.
Soldiers must maintain equipment in the best mechanical condition to
withstand the added difficulties and prevent
failures during sub-zero operations. Commanders must place special
emphasis on maintenance inspections.
1-2
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Placing equipment in proper mechanical condition before the onset of cold
weather requires time for necessary and
careful disassembly, repair, cleaning, and reassembly. Low temperatures
must be anticipated far enough in advance
to permit completion of winterization. Refer to pertinent operator and
unit maintenance technical manuals (TMs) for
operation, lubrication, preventive maintenance checks and services (PMCS),
and maintenance under unusual
conditions. Operators must be very cautious when using equipment that has
been inactive for a long time. For
example, if lubricants congeal in various components, parts can fail.
Metals
Metals become brittle in severe cold temperatures; thus, parts cannot
withstand the shock loads that they sustain at
higher temperatures. Illustrations of such stress are at Figure 1-2. For
example, at -20? F certain steels can withstand
only 50 percent of the shock load that they can sustain at room
temperature. For a given change in temperature,
various metals will expand or contract by different amounts. These
characteristics especially affect bearings in which
the bearings and shaft are of different metals, are of different metals
bolted together, or meshing gears are of
different metals. In cold weather, special care should be taken in
adjusting parts of this type, especially when
adjusting bearing clearances.
Figure 1-2. Effect of cold on
metal
Rubber
Besides natural rubber, there are hundreds of rubber substitutes.
Synthetic rubbers look and usually react the same as
natural rubber, although most do not attain a greater flexibility at high
temperatures. As it cools, natural rubber
gradually stiffens, but retains a large part of its elasticity until
reaching temperatures below -20? F.
Below -20? F, certain peculiarities occur. When cooled gradually but
continuously over a short time, rubber remains
flexible until it reaches approximately -60? F. It then quickly loses its
elasticity and becomes brittle. Also, if rubber
is consistently kept at the relatively higher temperature of -20? F for a
long time, an effect similar to crystallization
occurs, causing it to become brittle. For example, hoses for fueling may
crack, increasing the potential for spills.
Rubber-Covered Cables
Extreme care must be taken in handling cables at low temperatures. If the
rubber jackets become hard, the cables
must be protected from shock loads and bending to prevent short circuits
caused by breaks in the covering. If cables
are to be bent, they must first be warmed. Neoprene jackets on cables
become brittle and break readily at low
temperatures.
Tires
Tires become rigid in cold, causing flat spots on parts that come in
contact with the ground during shutdown. At
severe cold temperatures, sidewalls become brittle and crack.
Tires must be inflated to the appropriate pressure at cold temperatures. A
tire inflated to 40 pounds per square inch
1-3
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
(PSI) indoors will change to 25 PSI when moved outside at -50? F. Failure
to properly inflate tires can result in tires
slipping off rims. Generally, tires should be inflated 10 PSI over the
normal pressure for winter operations.
Plastics
Plastics expand and contract much more than metal or glass, causing them
to be brittle in cold weather. Vehicular
canvas covers with plastic windows may break due to a combination of cold
and vibration.
Glass
Glass, porcelain, and other ceramics perform normally at low temperatures
if handled carefully. However, cracking
may result if heat is applied directly to cold windshields or other
vehicle glass.
Fabrics
If kept dry, fabrics generally retain their flexibility, even at extremely
low temperatures. However, tarpaulins may
shrink, and wrinkles are extremely difficult to smooth out at sub-zero
temperatures. Whenever possible, tarpaulins
should be unfolded in heated enclosures or kept installed on equipment.
EFFECTS ON MISSION FUNCTIONS
Severe cold adversely affects the capability of a unit to accomplish its
mission. Understanding the specific impacts
can assist a unit in planning measures to counter these effects.
Movement/Maneuver
Units are less maneuverable in icy conditions or deep snow. Deep snow
reduces vehicle traction on hills and
increases the chances of breakdown/damage caused by hidden obstacles.
Motorized units are restricted almost
exclusively to roads. Also, personnel have a tendency to operate close to
vehicles, which is tactically unwise.
Trailers and towed artillery pieces further reduce mobility. Emplacement
of artillery pieces for fire missions is very
difficult.
When planning for battle, leaders must realistically evaluate the impact
that physical factors have on operations.
Ammunition
There is an increased need for ammunition in cold weather. This is because
cold temperatures adversely affect firing,
responsiveness, effectiveness, and accuracy. Also, it is often necessary
to fire several light-to medium-zone rounds
prior to maximum propellant charges to avoid stressing the hydraulic
recoil mechanisms of howitzers. Support units
must be prepared to handle and transport the added volume of ammunition.
Because of the harsh conditions, it is also
more difficult to prepare ammunition storage areas.
Fuel/Lubrication
Units operating in a cold environment can expect a dramatic increase in
petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) and
fuel requirements due to movement difficulty, extended idling, and heating
requirements. Special fuel and lubricants
must also be used to prevent freezing and jelling.
Always consult the appropriate TM or lubrication order (LO). Remember to
use antifreeze in coolant systems.
Different grades of hydraulic fluids are also necessary. If vehicles come
into theater with temperate grade automatic
transmission fluids and become cold-soaked (when vehicle temperatures drop
as low as the existing ambient
temperatures), seals are likely to blow when transmissions are engaged.
Units may also consult the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) publication,
Environmental Products, Chemical
Alternatives, Recyclers, Aircraft Cleaners and More, to choose
environmentally preferred substitutes.
Operators and maintenance personnel must be proficient in the use of all
winterization and arctic kit items, which
1-4
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
include heating devices, insulated grill covers, and sometimes engine
exhaust restrictors. When authorized,
stationary engagement of hydromechanical transmissions can be used to
facilitate engine warming.
Section III
Logistical Considerations
FACTORS IMPACTING LOGISTICS
Vast distances, major climatic or terrain obstacles to air or ground
movement, or a combination of these factors often
separate combat service support (CSS) elements from supported forces. As a
result, logistical planning must be
continuous and aggressive, making use of all modes of transportation. Unit
standard operating procedures (SOPs)
and training plans should address the following:
q Unit distribution is the rule and not the exception.
q Many munitions have known firing and/or function limitations as a
result of cold temperatures, snow, and soft
ground conditions. Multioption fuzes should be selected whenever
available to provide for seasonal changes.
q Economic order quantities (EOQ) and ammunition required supply rates
(RSR) should be computed on a
seasonal basis rather than on the standard 180-day demand
criterion.
q Special training and emphasis is required for using heat sources and
keeping water and other liquids
(especially medical items) in a liquid state when temperatures drop
below 32 ? F.
At temperatures below 32 ? F, heated storage must be provided for power
sources, command and control centers,
dining facilities, aid stations, maintenance shelters, and critical
supplies (i.e., medicines, batteries, and POL).
When preparing for sustained operations in remote, cold regions,
logistical planners must understand the following
environmental characteristics:
q Unrelenting hostile climate.
q Formidable and virgin terrain.
q Great distances.
q Extensive water obstacles.
q Acute movement problems.
q Poor lines of communication.
q Low population densities.
q Lack of shelter and developed resources.
PLANNING
Planning is critical to the success and survival of units operating in
cold weather. Planners should consider the
following:
q Plans must be both detailed and flexible.
q Personnel must be properly trained and prepared.
q A potential increase in medical problems (i.e., injuries from
frostbite and hypothermia) must be anticipated.
q Prolonged exposure to cold and extended hours of darkness will lead
to increased psychological stress.
q All units, especially mechanized and motorized, will require more
time to accomplish tasks; cold will increase
fuel consumption and the demand for lead acid and dry cell
batteries.
q Although equipment is designed to function in the cold, it will be
less reliable, thereby increasing
maintenance, time, and supply problems. Maintenance, supply, and
engineer units may require augmentation.
q Cold conditions tend to increase security problems because soldiers
want to keep warm and sleep indoors.
1-5
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Cold will also make command and control more difficult. Flank units
must work harder to keep up with the
main body and require frequent rotation.
HOST NATION SUPPORT
Logistics support can be decisive to mission accomplishment during cold
weather operations. Host nation (HN)
personnel are critical to identifying sources of food, shelter, warmth,
supplies, and services. Leaders must
incorporate all available HN support into their planning to reduce the
impact of cold weather on logistics operations.
HN personnel should identify specific environmental restrictions pertinent
to cold weather operations (i.e., specific
chemical substitutions, spill response, and corrective actions).
MAINTENANCE
The importance of maintenance, especially PMCS, must be impressed on all
cold region soldiers. Maintenance of
mechanical equipment is exceptionally difficult in the field during cold
weather. Added time is needed to complete
tasks. Even shop maintenance cannot be completed at normal speed.
Mechanics must allow equipment to thaw out
and warm up before making repairs. This time lag cannot be overemphasized
and must be included in all planning.
Personnel efficiency also is reduced by the bulky and clumsy clothing worn
in extremely cold areas. Because it is
dangerous to handle cold metal with bare hands, operators/mechanics must
wear mittens or gloves at all times.
Losing the sense of touch further reduces the soldier?s efficiency. Even
the most routine operations, such as handling
latches or opening engine compartments, become frustrating and
time-consuming when performed with protected
hands.
At temperatures below -20 ? F, maintenance may take five times as long.
Complete winterization, diligent
maintenance, and well-trained crews are the keys to reducing the adverse
effects of cold weather.
Listed below are several requirements that affect maintenance directly and
require planning and preparation before a
cold weather operation:
q Heated shelter for equipment maintenance.
q Proper clothing and tools for mechanics.
q Adequate portable heaters.
q Capability to store and issue antifreeze materials, fuels, hydraulic
fluids, and lubricants.
q Adequate lighting.
q Supply of repair parts.
q Sufficient equipment for snow and ice removal.
WARNING
PROVIDE PROPER VENTILATION IN HEATED SHELTERS TO AVOID THE DANGER OF
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING CAUSED BY EXHAUST GASES FROM RUNNING ENGINES
AND CONTAMINATED HOT AIR FROM DEFECTIVE
MAINTENANCE FACILITIES
The availability of maintenance facilities can be critical to the
maintenance mission. Without some type of
permanent or temporary shelter, even routine maintenance can become
extremely difficult.
Buildings and Shelters
Heated buildings or shelters are necessary for cold weather maintenance.
Proper and satisfactory servicing is
difficult unless personnel are working in reasonably comfortable
temperatures. Maintenance of many components
1-6
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
requires careful and precise servicing. Without the use of heaters, the
increase in maintenance man-hours is from 25
percent to 200 percent above normal.
When buildings are not available, maintenance tents are a temporary
expedient. If possible, tents should have wood
flooring and be heated by portable duct heaters or tent stoves.
WARNING
WHEN VEHICLES, GENERATORS, AND POL CONTAINERS ARE BROUGHT INTO WARM
STORAGE FROM THE COLD, THE FUEL TANKS/CONTAINERS SHOULD ONLY BE FILLED
THREE QUARTERS FULL. IF THIS PROCEDURE IS NOT FOLLOWED, THE EXPANSION OF
THE
COLD POL PRODUCTS IN THE FUEL CONTAINERS COULD CAUSE SPILLAGE AND CREATE
A
SERIOUS FIRE HAZARD.
In the absence of buildings or maintenance tents, tarpaulins may be used
to create overhead shelter and windbreaks.
A framework of poles erected around a vehicle can support the tarpaulin.
Parachutes can also make temporary shelters. The parachute should be
deployed over the vehicle, securely staked
down at the bottom, and then inflated by the air from a portable duct
heater. If parachute shelters are used, extreme
care should be taken to avoid the danger of carbon monoxide poisoning by
ensuring proper ventilation.
WARNING
PERSONNEL MUST BE CONSTANTLY ON THE ALERT TO DETECT VEHICLE DEFICIENCIES
THAT EXPOSE PERSONNEL TO CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING. PASSENGER AND CREW
COMPARTMENTS OF WHEELED AND TRACKED CARRIERS MUST BE INSPECTED AND
TESTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH (IAW) TECHNICAL BULLETIN (TB) MED 269 AT
REGULAR
INTERVALS. THE PURPOSE OF THE INSPECTION AND TEST IS TO DETECT ANY SIGN
OF AIR
CONTAMINATION FROM EXHAUST GASES CAUSED BY LEAKING GASKETS, IMPROPER
EXHAUST INSTALLATIONS, CRACKED EXHAUST PIPES, DEFECTIVE PERSONNEL
HEATERS,
AND AUXILIARY GENERATORS. WHEN VEHICLES ARE IDLING, ALLOW FOR FRESH AIR
ACCESS TO PREVENT CARBON MONOXIDE HAZARD.
Lighting Equipment
Daylight can be scarce in cold climates. Lighting equipment must be
available to furnish adequate illumination for
maintenance services. Lights with ample cable extensions, attachment
plugs, connectors, and spare bulbs are
essential.
Maintenance Personnel, Tools, and Equipment
More mechanics are needed to maintain equipment in cold weather operations
(Figure 1-3). At a minimum, a highly
organized, more intensive effort is required of mechanics. Providing
heated buildings or shelters for maintenance of
materiel increases work efficiency and morale.
1-7
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Figure 1-3. Normal vs cold weather
maintenance
An added supply of battery chargers must be available to meet the heavy
requirements for battery maintenance in
sub-zero temperatures. Soldiers must check battery charges using
hydrometers and testers.
Handwear may become saturated with fluids when soldiers perform
maintenance on fuel and cooling systems.
Saturation reduces the insulating value of the handwear, causing cold
injuries. Soldiers should carry extra handwear
when performing maintenance under arctic winter conditions.
Personnel should avoid leaning on cold-soaked equipment (equipment that
has been standing in sub-zero
temperatures for an extended period) or kneeling and lying on the ground.
Rapid body cooling caused by heat
transfer to the equipment or ground may result in cold injury.
Mechanics should place insulating material--such as fiber packing
material, corrugated cardboard, rags, or
tarpaulins--between themselves and cold-soaked equipment.
When performing maintenance under arctic winter conditions, a box or pan
should be used to hold small parts. A
tarpaulin should be placed under each vehicle to catch parts that may be
dropped. This prevents the parts from
becoming lost in the snow (Figure 1-4).
1-8
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Figure 1-4. Tarps used to protect from cold and to
catch dropped parts
EQUIPMENT RECOVERY
Vehicle recovery in cold, snowy conditions can be extremely dangerous.
Every precaution must be taken to maintain
soldier safety and ensure equipment is functioning properly.
Winches
When using the winch, operate the vehicle engine at a reasonable speed IAW
the operator?s manual. High engine
speeds are likely to damage the winch mechanism. Use a snatch block
whenever possible to reduce the load on the
winch.
Operation
Read all caution plates and estimate a 25-percent reduction in capacity
when determining load. EXAMPLE: If
capacity of the winch is specified as 5,000 pounds on ?Winch Caution
Plate,? lower the rated capacity for cold
weather operations by 25 percent, making capacity 3,750 pounds. This
safety factor is essential to prevent damage to
the winch.
Preparation for Operation
In preparing a winch for operation, the following steps should be taken:
q Remove mud, dirt, and rust from exterior of winch.
q Inspect cable for rust and apply lubricating oil (PL-S).
q Flush and clean gear housing, and fill to level with recommended
seasonal gear oil (GO75W).
q Inspect safety brake for satisfactory operation.
q Check drum brake and adjust if necessary.
q Check for iced bleeder and selector valves, controls and linkage,
and winch cable sheaves.
Recovery in Cold Weather
A cold-soaked/inoperable vehicle can present a maintenance challenge.
Vehicle recovery is often extremely difficult
due to reduced mechanical capacity, ice, snow, and limited approach
routes. Exercise care when towing cold-soaked
vehicles. Drive trains may have to be disconnected to prevent further
damage.
1-9
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Section IV
Antifreeze, Fuels, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubricants
ANTIFREEZE
The proper antifreeze materials are critical for cold operations.
Antifreeze materials specified for protection of
liquid-cooling systems are listed in Appendix A. Units can also consult
DLA?s publication (see DLA publication in
references) for environmentally preferred antifreeze substitutes.
FUELS
Arctic fuels for gasoline or diesel engines are selected to obtain the
proper atomization necessary for a combustible
fuel-air mixture. These fuels are listed in Appendix A.
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Hydraulic fluids must be able to work in cold conditions. Hydraulic fluids
specified for hydraulic systems, recoil
mechanisms, and equilibrates are listed in Appendix A.
LUBRICANTS
Lubrication required for Army equipment is specified in the LO or TM
pertinent to the equipment. LOs are based on
three anticipated ranges: above 32? F, from +40 to -10 ? F, and from 0 to
-65 ? F.
NOTE: Oil, engine, arctic (OEA), is a synthetic SAE OW-20 lubricant
intended for temperature range 40 ?
F to -65 ? F for engine systems and 120 ? F to -65? F for transmission
and hydraulic systems. This lubricant
is approved for use in engines, power steering systems, and both
automatic and standard transmissions.
Although OEA can be used in most automatic transmissions, it is necessary
to consult the LO prior to use.
The use of OEA may void the warranty in some transmission applications.
MATERIALS
The materials normally required to prepare equipment for operation in cold
weather are listed in Appendix B. These
items are listed in Department of Defense (DOD) Federal Supply Catalogs
(FSC), FSC Groups 68 and 92. Consult
these catalogs when requisitioning. Other items--with specification
numbers, unit of issue, stock numbers, and
issuing services--are listed herein for requisition through supply
channels.
LUBRICATION ORDERS
The provisions of Department of the Army (DA) LOs are mandatory and will
be adhered to at all times, unless DA
authorizes deviation.
Increased service scheduling from that specified on LOs is necessary to
compensate for cold conditions that destroy
the protective qualities of the lubricant. The incomplete combustion of
fuels in a cold engine, and the piston rings not
sealing tightly until the engine reaches operating temperatures, causes
rapid fuel dilution of the oil. The commander
may extend intervals during inactive periods, provided adequate
preservation continues. During prolonged periods of
extreme cold weather, it may be necessary to take oil samples more
frequently for equipment registered in the Army
Oil Analysis Program (AOAP). This precaution ensures the protection
provided by the lubricating oils is adequate.
Military symbols for petroleum and related products indicated in the ?KEY?
on LOs are standardized in Military
Standard (MIL-STD) 290. To identify the contents, container markings for
these items include the North Atlantic
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FM 9-207 Chapter 1
Treaty Organization (NATO) and military symbols, the national stock number
(NSN), and specification
nomenclature.
Contaminated petroleum products and coolants must be disposed of in an
environmentally safe manner IAW US and
HN laws and regulations and unit SOPs. Units must identify US and HN
requirements in advance.
Section V
Batteries
One of the greatest hindrances to successful military operations in a
winter environment is the effect of cold on
batteries.
VEHICLE BATTERIES
The storage battery?s available energy decreases sharply when temperatures
fall. Power requirements for starting an
engine increase when the battery is least capable of delivering power.
Current delivered at 15 ? F is only 50 percent
of that produced at normal temperatures. The amount delivered at -30 ? F
is only a little over 10 percent of that
produced at room temperature (Figure 1-5).
Figure 1-5. Battery efficiency at varying
temperatures
At -40 ? F and below, the available current is practically zero. A fully
charged battery does not freeze in extreme
cold climates, but a battery with specific gravity 1.100 freezes at 10? F.
It is essential to keep batteries fully charged.
Frozen batteries rupture and break internally and externally. Table 1-1
shows freezing points of batteries at various
specific gravities. Unless a storage battery is warmed to about 35? F, it
does not receive an adequate charge from the
generator. In constant cold weather, storage batteries should be tested
for state of charge every three days. Recharge
batteries if the specific gravity is less that 1.1250.
Specific Gravity of Electrolyte Freezing Points
(Corrected to 80 ? F) of Electrolyte (? F)
1.280 -90
1.250 -62
1.200 -16
1.150 5
1.100 19
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FM 9-207 Chapter 1
1.000 32
Table 1-1. Freezing points of batteries at
various specific gravities
If the vehicle is equipped with a battery preheater, it should be used IAW
the operator?s TM. If the vehicle does not
have a preheater, an insulated battery box can help maintain specific
gravity at higher levels for longer periods.
Batteries should be filled with 1.280 specific gravity electrolyte, not
the tropical electrolyte of 1.250. Deployment of
tactical vehicles from a hot to a cold region requires a change in
electrolyte for maximum battery effectiveness.
For more information on operations and maintenance of lead-acid storage
batteries, refer to TM 9-6140-200-14.
CAUTION
BATTERIES PRODUCE HYDROGEN GAS. HYDROGEN GAS CAN CAUSE A BATTERY CASING TO
EXPLODE DUE TO BLOCKAGE OF THE BATTERY VENT BY ICE. SEE FIGURE 1-6 FOR
PROPER
JUMP-STARTING PROCEDURE.
Figure 1-6. Proper jump-start
procedure
SMALL EQUIPMENT BATTERIES
For small equipment, alkaline batteries are far superior to carbon
batteries. For example, flashlights (essential items
in regions with long periods of darkness) using size D batteries should
use the BA-3030/U rather than the BA-30.
These same batteries should be used in artillery, mortar, and tank
night-aiming post lights along with tactical
telephones such as the TA-312/PT (see TB 43-PS-491. The Preventive
Maintenance Monthly, October 1993, for
more information).
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
1-12
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
When properly maintained, the nickel-cadmium (NICAD) batteries used in
some Army equipment (such as range
finders, some night vision sights, and ground surveillance radars) are
very effective low-temperature power sources.
To get maximum effectiveness when charging NICAD batteries, one must
destroy the charging memory
characteristic of the battery. For example, if a NICAD battery is
continually called upon to deliver an average of
only 25 percent of its capacity before it is recharged, it will eventually
?memorize? this fact and become incapable of
supplying the remaining 70 percent capacity. Operators must discharge
NICAD batteries down to their lowest
operating levels, then recharge them fully, then discharge them again to
their lowest operating levels, then once
again recharge them fully to destroy the ?memory?.
The preferred cold weather batteries are lithium-based, but precautions
must be taken in their storage and disposal.
Mercury batteries should not be used below 0 ? F.
LITHIUM SULFUR DIOXIDE BATTERIES
The lithium sulfur dioxide battery is recommended for use in the AN/PRC-77
and single-channel ground and
airborne radio subsystem (SINCGARS) radio sets when used in extreme cold
weather areas. The lithium battery has
unique characteristics that provide improved operational capabilities and
extended battery life. Lithium sulfur
dioxide batteries require special handling. Turn-in instructions must be
followed carefully IAW host nation, federal,
state, and local environmental laws and regulations.
Section VI
Winterization Equipment
Special equipment is provided for a vehicle when protection against cold
weather is required. This equipment is
issued in specific kits. Geographic location and ambient temperatures
dictate the use of winterization equipment as
per Supply Bulletin (SB) 9-16.
Where the temperature falls only a few degrees below freezing for a short
period, only ordinary preparations are
needed; for example, changing engine oil to a lighter grade and adding
antifreeze to the cooling system.
For anticipated temperatures of -25 ? F or lower, personnel heater kits
and hardtop closures are installed. Operations
will not be attempted without winterization kits in areas where
temperatures from -25 ? F to -65 ? F are likely. Since
some winterization kits require use at temperatures warmer than -25 ? F,
consult the TM for the correct starting
procedure.
PERSONNEL HEATERS
Generally, vehicles using gasoline as fuel provide ample heat through
personnel hot-water heaters until the ambient
temperature drops below -25 ? F. Below this temperature, fuel-burning
heaters are normally used to provide more
heat. Personnel heaters in military vehicles are only required to maintain
a temperature of 41 ? F IAW
MIL-STD-1472C.
Present personnel heaters have pot-type vaporizing burners. This means the
pot must get hot enough to vaporize fuel
at -65 ? F. Fuel carbonizes if the combustion chambers do not get hot
enough. This accelerates heater failure by
carbonizing the wick, igniter, burner, related burner components, or heat
exchanger. Contaminated fuel can block the
flow of fuel to the heater burner causing low heat output and/or numerous
heater stoppages. This blockage also can
lead to premature igniter failure due to excessive start attempts. Fuel
burning heaters are generally unreliable
because of--
q Contaminated fuel.
q Low voltage.
q Inexperienced operators and mechanics.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 1
q Design characteristics of the heaters.
WARNING
PERSONNEL AND CREW CAB HEATERS SHOULD BE SHUT OFF AT LEAST 20 MINUTES
PRIOR
TO ENTERING ANY SHELTER. THIS PROCEDURE WILL HELP PREVENT THE FIRE
HAZARDS
CREATED FROM ACCIDENTAL PUMPING OF FUEL ON BUILDING FLOORS AND EMISSION
OF
GASOLINE VAPORS FROM HOT HEATER COMPONENTS IN THE EVENT OF FAULTY HEATER
COMPONENTS.
POWER PLANT HEATERS
The present generation of power plant heaters are water coolant type,
thermostatically controlled to heat the engine
block and the water pillow below the batteries. These heaters are
multifuel, pot-type burners. Because they are not
used often, problems surrounding these heaters include:
q Low voltage.
q Contaminated fuel.
q Inexperienced operators and mechanics.
q Inattentive operators and mechanics.
PORTABLE FUEL-BURNING HEATERS
In some geographical locations, DA has approved the use of the NATO
standard heater because of its improved
arctic operating capability and lower maintenance requirements.
The swingfire heater (Figure 1-7) is a pulse jet engine that burns
gasoline with less carbon buildup. It uses no
external power in the run cycle and needs only 6 amperes at 24 volts for
starting.
Figure 1-7. Swingfire
heater
The heater can be used in 12 various exchangers, making it a versatile and
useful tool. An operator can externally
heat gear boxes, drive trains, transmissions, and oil pans on vehicles
prior to operations.
HARDTOP CLOSURE KIT
A hardtop closure kit is provided for some vehicles. It must be added to
protect the driver and assistant driver where
colder temperatures are expected. All-around vision is provided by a glass
window on each side and to the rear.
1-14
FM 9-207 Chapter 1
QUICK HEAT SYSTEM
Quick heat is a technique that allows quick warmup and reliable starting
when vehicle temperatures drop as low as
the existing ambient temperature. Just prior to vehicle operation, heat is
applied to the engine, batteries, and
components, raising their temperatures enough to ensure starting.
The time from initiating quick heat to achieving reliable starting
temperatures can vary from a few minutes to one
hour. The military objective is to achieve reliable starting within a
maximum of one hour regardless of ambient
temperature.
STANDBY HEAT SYSTEM
The standby heat concept does not allow vehicle components to fall below a
certain minimum temperature. For this
to happen, the fuel-burning heater is continuously operated during the
standby period. Continuous operation
maintains engine and battery electrolyte temperatures at levels that
provide adequate cranking and battery recharging
potential.
The standby system includes an engine coolant heater, hoses, control
valves, fuel pump, battery heat exchanger
(commonly known as a battery pad), and miscellaneous hardware. This system
is not designed to start a vehicle
engine after it has been cold-soaked for an extended period in extreme
sub-zero temperatures (-25 ? F to -65 ? F).
However, in an emergency, the standby system can assist in getting an
engine start if adequate time and auxiliary
power are available.
AUXILIARY POWER (SLAVE) RECEPTACLE
The auxiliary power (slave) receptacle is an electrical outlet located at
a readily accessible place on the vehicle. It
receives current from other tracked or wheeled vehicles. This provides
direct boosting of the cold vehicle current
when starting an engine in cold weather. See Figure 1-8 for sample
auxiliary power receptacles.
Figure 1-8. Auxiliary power (slave) receptacle
and terminals
1-15
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Preparation for Operation
Section I
Chassis and Body Components
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
As described in Chapter 1, cold weather can cause problems with equipment
not normally encountered during operations in
temperate conditions. This chapter contains added information to consider
when conducting vehicle/equipment
before-operations PMCS.
BEFORE-OPERATIONS CHECKS
Ensure that added care is taken during before-operations checks. Never
touch cold metal parts with your bare hands. Brush
snow or wipe water from the tops of fuel and lube containers, spouts, and
plugs before using to prevent contamination.
Wheel Bearings
Wheel bearings should be checked for looseness and proper adjustment. No
change of lubricants is required, since all
wheel bearings are serviced for year-round operations with grease,
automotive and artillery (GAA), which has a
temperature range of from -65 ? F to +225? F.
Hydraulic Brakes
Check the reservoir of hydraulic brakes for proper fluid level. No
seasonal change of fluid for hydraulic brake systems is
required. Brake fluid, silicone (BFS), should be retained in the system
for all-season use.
Air Brakes
Frozen moisture in the air brake system seriously affects operation. Brake
lines, air brake filters, brake chambers, pushrods,
valves, and seals are subject to more defects and failure in cold.
Condensation between brake shoes and brake drums may
freeze, making it impossible for the vehicle to move. When this happens,
use portable heating equipment to thaw the brake
shoes from the drums. Ensure the alcohol evaporator kit, if part of the
system, is functioning. Check brake lines, brake
chambers, relay valves, pushrods, seals, and slack adjusters. Check air
compressor, unloader valve, and governor for good
condition and satisfactory operation. With the air pressure at the
governed maximum and the brakes applied, stop the
engine. There should not be a noticeable drop in pressure within one
minute. Drain reservoirs immediately after operation,
and close drain cocks immediately after draining to prevent freezing in
the open position. In the morning, build up pressure
before moving the vehicle. Make certain that the alcohol evaporator jar is
filled with alcohol or the desiccant cartridge is
serviceable. During scheduled service, clean brake pads. Remove oil and
grease from units to avoid hardening and
splitting. This helps to ensure a good air seal under pressure.
The new fleet of Army vehicles--including the family of medium tactical
vehicles (FMTV), heavy equipment transporter
(HET), palletized load system (PLS), and high mobility multi-purpose
wheeled vehicle (HMMWV) heavy variant--have
central tire inflation systems (CTIS) that operate off an air compressor.
It is not unusual for air valves to freeze resulting in
locked brakes or flat tires.
CAUTION DRAIN WATER FROM AIR FILTERS AND RESERVOIRS AFTER EVERY EIGHT
HOURS OF
CONTINUOUS OPERATION.
2-1
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Steering Gear
Improper lubricant congeals, thereby making steering difficult or
impossible. Hydraulic power steering reservoirs should
be filled with hydraulic fluid, petroleum base, (OHT), or OEA, and not
Dextron II. Examine arms, tie rods, drag links, seals
and boots, pitman arm, gear column, and wheel for good condition and
secure mounting.
Shock Absorbers
Shock absorber fluid congeals in sub-zero temperatures, resulting in a
hard-riding vehicle or broken shock absorbers. Make
certain shock absorber bodies are securely mounted to the frame. Replace
shock absorbers if they are leaking or if their
action is unsatisfactory. To prevent damage to the shock absorber, the
operating rod, or the mounting brackets during
extreme cold, operate the vehicle slowly for the first three to five
miles. This allow the oil in the shocks to warm up.
Track and Suspension
Ice and snow adhere to tracks, hindering operation. Cold contracts metals
and makes rubber brittle. When operating in
snow-covered and icy terrain, remove track pads as the commander directs,
and/or employ traction aids (such as reversing
every third track center guide). Remove dirt and ice and inspect for good
condition and proper lubrication. Check track
adjustment. Do not adjust tracks too tightly in a warm shelter, since they
contract and break easily in temperatures of -40?
F and below. Adjust track so that the slack is 50 percent greater than
that specified for normal operation in the vehicle TM
(Figure 2-1). Another method is to allow the vehicle and track to cool to
outside temperature before making adjustments.
Figure 2-1. Cold weather
adjustment
For the M-1 series tanks with T158 track, special ice cleats are
available. For best performance, every fifth track shoe
should receive a set of cleats. A total of 64 cleats per vehicle (32 per
side) and 64 new self-locking nuts are needed. These
cleats are for the T158 track only; they will not work with the T156
track. Also, cleats are not yet available for the T156
track.
Tires
At -50? F tires become rigid enough to support a load at 0 pressure
without apparent deflation. Sidewalls become brittle
and crack. Valve stems on tubes can break if the tires are under-inflated
and the tires rotate on their rims. Check valve
stems and tighten cores. Replace cores if rubber seals are brittle or show
wear. Examine tire casings for cuts, bruises, or
breaks. Caps must be installed on all valve stems. Increase tire pressure
about 10 PSI, as shown in the TM, to compensate
for the cold effects on tires for overnight or extended parking. Tires
should be deflated to proper pressure before
operations.
Springs
Springs become brittle and break easily at low temperatures. Clips,
leaves, U-bolts, hangers, and shackles must be in good
condition and correctly and securely mounted. Spring leaves should not be
broken or shifted out of their correct position.
Tighten all spring U-bolts, assembly, and mounting bolts securely.
2-2
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Cab Closures
Cab closures protect soldiers from sub-zero temperatures and wind. Ensure
cab closure mountings are secure and in good
condition. Replace broken windows, and ensure that closures are
tight-fitting.
Fire Extinguishers
Winterize carbon dioxide fire extinguishers IAW the appropriate fire
extinguisher TB.
Section II
Power Train
ENGINES
Using ordinary engine oil increases the fluid friction on cylinder walls
and bearings to the extent that it may not be possible
to crank the engine with an ordinary storage battery. Using lubricating
oil (OEA) prescribed for cold weather operation by
the LO will prevent this condition during cold starts.
NOTE: OEA engine oil is listed as OES in some older LOs. Equipment being
prepared for future cold weather
operation must use arctic-type lubricants, even if considerable operation
in warmer climates is involved prior to
cold weather operation. This eliminates disassembly of components for
lubrication when low temperatures are
encountered.
General procedures for preparing the lubrication system for cold weather
are as follows:
q If possible, store lubricating oils and grease in a warm place.
Lubricants are much easier to pour or apply if they are
warm. Prevent snow or moisture from entering the crankcase when
lubricants are added. Use only newly opened
cans of oil to eliminate the possibility of using contaminated oil.
q Keep lubricating equipment free of moisture, snow, ice, or dirt to
avoid contamination.
q Inspect the engine oil pan and gasket for leaks.
q Drain the engine lubrication system when warm. Replace the oil filter
element. When the system is clean, fill with
lubrication oil (OEA) in the amount specified in the operator TM or
LO. Run the engine for 10 minutes and check
for oil leaks. Stop the engine and wait 1 to 5 minutes before
checking the oil level. This reading will be approximate
only and should be between the ADD and FULL marks. This is due to the
many oil passages of the engine.
q When a temporary rise in temperature occurs, drivers should not
change or vary their operation of the vehicle.
Lubricant levels and points, however, should be closely observed, and
proper steps taken to replenish lubricants.
Instructions in LOs apply when a definite change to higher
environmental temperatures is expected, such as a change
of seasons (Table 2-1).
2-3
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
NOTE: When engine oil (SAE 10 or OE/HDO10) is prescribed for gear cases,
drain and fill with lubricating oil
(OEA) or gear oil (G075) as prescribed by LO.
All transmissions should be drained, flushed, and completely refilled with
lubricant prescribed in the LO. Some LOs
require the use of Dextron III in the transmission. In cases where the
prescribed lubrication is not readily available in the
supply system, units may have to local-purchase the required lubrication.
COOLING SYSTEMS
Operators need to constantly check the engine's operating temperature. A
cooling system should be able to reach 160 ? to
180? F no matter how cold it is outside.
Liquid Cooling System
For temperatures of 32? F and colder, cooling systems are protected with
antifreeze compound, ethylene-glycol, inhibited,
heavy-duty single package (MIL-A-46153).
Cooling systems containing no ethylene-glycol-water or arctic antifreeze
solutions should be drained and flushed, if
required, before the onset of freezing temperatures. Soldiers should then
add the correct antifreeze solution. Propylene
glycol-based antifreezes available commercially should not be mixed with
ethylene glycol-based antifreeze.
CAUTION IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT ANTIFREEZE COMPOUNDS BE KEPT CLEAN.
USE ONLY
CONTAINERS AND WATER THAT ARE FREE FROM DIRT, RUST, AND OIL.
Procedures
When drain plugs have been removed, or drain cocks opened to remove liquid
from the cooling system of any equipment,
the drains should be inspected to ensure none are obstructed. If any drain
hose has become obstructed by foreign material,
use a soft wire to clear the obstruction and permit complete drainage.
2-4
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Before adding antifreeze compound, the cooling system must be clean and
completely rust-free. The system should be
cleaned with cleaning compound IAW TB 750-651.
Inspect/replace all deteriorated cooling system hoses and radiator cap
gaskets. Inspect and tighten hose clamps, plugs, and
petcocks. Repair radiator leaks before adding antifreeze compound. Correct
any exhaust gas or air leakage into the cooling
system.
If there are signs of coolant leaks at the cylinder head, check cylinder
head nuts for torque as specified in the applicable
TM. Replace the cylinder head gasket if necessary. On some vehicles, the
torquing of head bolts and replacement of head
gaskets is the responsibility of direct support (DS) or general support
(GS) maintenance. Check the applicable TM.
If the engine does not reach normal operating temperature, inspect the
thermostat to see that it closes completely. Look for
evidence of sticking in open or closed position. Replace the thermostat if
it does not open or close completely or does not
function freely. Where average temperatures are between 0? and -65? F, a
+190? to +195? thermostat should be installed in
cooling systems that use a 150? F thermostat for normal operations.
If premixed antifreeze is not available, use Table 2-2 as a guide for
mixing. The antifreeze should then be tested with a
hydrometer or the view-type tester (Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2. Antifreeze testing
devices
The antifreeze tag should read: THIS COOLING SYSTEM IS FILLED WITH
ETHYLENE-GLYCOL ANTIFREEZE
SOLUTION. PROTECTS TO -40? F (or whatever the correct protection
temperature should be); or, THIS COOLING
SYSTEM IS FILLED WITH ARCTIC-TYPE ANTIFREEZE. PROTECTS TO -90? F. CAUTION:
DO NOT ADD
WATER OR ANY OTHER TYPE OF ANTIFREEZE.
Record the condition of the cooling system and the degree of freeze
protection in maintenance records.
2-5
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Guide for Preparation of Ethylene-Glycol
Antifreeze Solutions
Do not use without some water; 68% concentration gives maximum protection.
Use at least 25% concentration for
protection against rust and corrosion.
Air-cooled System
Since an air-cooled system does not use a liquid coolant, it is often
assumed that air alone acts as the cooling medium. This
is not true. The lubrication system also helps in cooling the engine and
transmission. It often includes oil pumps that
circulate the oil between the engine and the coolers and between the
transmission and the coolers, removing heat from the
engine and transmission. Some engine cooling also results from the fuel
contacting metal parts prior to combustion.
The effects of cold on an air-cooled system are basically the same as the
effects on the engine lubrication system.
FUEL SYSTEMS
2-6
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
For a satisfactory start, engine fuel must be volatile enough to produce a
combustible mixture with air. Atomization, which
increases the rate of vaporization of the fuel to produce a combustible
mixture, is adversely affected by low temperatures.
The maximum amount of vaporization obtainable with the regular grade of
motor fuel--without the use of a primer or
application of heat to the mixture--provides only enough vaporized fuel
for starting at a minimum temperature of 0? F.
Diesel engines are particularly difficult to start in cold weather. Many
fuels, such as DF-2, contain waxes that congeal at
temperatures below 0? F. If this occurs, the filter will clog and the fuel
will not flow. Diesel fuel, arctic (DFA) grade, does
not contain as much wax and performs well in cold regions. JP-8 is a good
low temperature diesel fuel; however, check the
TM to make sure it can be used without excessive fuel injector pump wear.
Water accumulates in tanks, drums, containers, fuel pumps, and carburetors
because water from the air condenses. At low
temperatures, this water forms ice crystals that clog fuel lines, fuel
filters, fuel pumps, injector nozzles, and carburetor jets.
NOTE: Fuel filters should be cleaned or changed at frequent intervals.
Conditions may require daily cleaning
under field use. Take special care to ensure 5-gallon fuel cans used in
refueling are clean and serviceable. Fuel
nozzles should be complete with filters.
Follow the instructions listed below to prepare fuel systems for operation
in cold weather. Drain fuel systems and refill
with arctic-grade fuel. Add inhibitor, icing, fuel systems (ethylene
glycol monomethyl ether) to diesel fuels and add
methanol, technical, to gasoline. Mix additives with the fuel, normally at
a ratio of one pint of additive to 40 gallons of
fuel, prior to refueling (Table 2-3).
NOTE: Using additive in greater proportions than two pints of additive to
40 gallons of fuel results in poor engine
performance and possible engine damage.
Remove and service all engine and air compressor air cleaner elements,
including oil-bath type. Clean with dry-cleaning
solvent and reinstall. Fill oil-bath type cleaners with OEA. Dry-type air
cleaners, both felt and paper, should be cleaned
with either low pressure air or soap and water. When soap and water or
dry-cleaning solvents are used, air cleaners should
be dried thoroughly before reinstallation.
Check for any indication of fuel leaks. Trace all leaks to their source
and correct or replace parts.
UNIVERSAL AND SLIP JOINTS
Thoroughly lubricate joints with grease, molybdenum disulfide (GMD).
Remove dirt and ice and check for good condition.
FUEL REQUIRED ADDITIVE
FUEL TEMP RANGE F?
MOGAS Methanol, Tech.
ALL
Check for any indications of fuel leaks. Trace all leaks to
their source and correct or replace parts as
necessary.
Table 2-3. Fuel and additive
mixtures
2-7
FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Section III
Electrical System
SPECIAL CONCERNS
The drive mechanisms of starters are extremely susceptible to failure at
low temperatures. Grease or dirt on the armature
shaft, bendix drive, or other type of mechanical drive prevents gears from
meshing properly. It can also cause them to
remain in mesh after the engine is started, damaging the starter. An
improper lubricant on bushings can congeal and cause
the starter to operate poorly by placing an excessive drag on the
armature. Solenoid plungers, unless clean and free of oil,
bind in switch assembly housings. Oil and grease on brushes or commutator
prevent the good contact needed to carry the
large amount of current required to crank an engine.
The breaker contact-arm bushing can freeze on its pivot if it is not clean
and properly lubricated. This freezing prevents the
breaker arm from returning when the cam separates the points. Improper oil
or excessive dirt causes automatic advance
mechanisms on distributors to become inoperative. Other problems may
include--
q Ice caused by condensation coats spark plugs and may prevent starting
of engines.
q Oil or dirt on brushes or commutator causes unsteady or low generator
output.
q Lubricant congealing in bushings at low temperatures causes electric
heater motors to operate poorly.
q Insulation on low and high tension cables cracking. Besides being a
safety hazard, this condition can impair overall
performance.
SYSTEM PREPARATIONS
The following procedures prepare the electrical system for cold weather
operations:
q Storage battery capacity is greatly reduced at low temperatures
because the electrolyte is less active. To prevent
freezing, operators must keep batteries fully charged. Check
specific gravity of the electrolyte to determine the state
of charge of the battery.
q To test specific gravity, the visual battery/antifreeze tester is one
of the best products available. This tester is
designed specifically for rapid and accurate checking of battery
charge and permanent antifreeze protection. Only a
few drops of electrolyte or coolant are needed for an accurate
reading. A separate tester is required for propylene
glycol antifreeze compared to ethylene glycol antifreeze.
q To test battery electrolyte, close the plastic cover and put a few
drops of the electrolyte onto the measuring surface
through opening in cover.
q Point the tester toward a bright light and look into the eyepiece.
Read the scale on the left side. The liquid sample
divides the scale showing light and dark areas. Read the scale at
the dividing area. The tester automatically corrects
for temperature.
Another method of checking specific gravity is with a battery hydrometer.
The hydrometer uses a float to measure the
density of the electrolyte. However, the float only measures the actual
density of the solution; it does not take into account
the temperature variations that make the electrolyte contract and expand.
In cold weather a specific gravity reading must be
corrected to a temperature of 80? F. The normal correction for temperature
is 4 (0.004) points of specific gravity for each
10? F change in temperature of electrolyte above or below 80? F.
To minimize starting problems in temperatures below 0? F, ensure that
batteries are initially filled with electrolyte of 1.280
specific gravity. TM 9-6140-200-14 gives specific information for the
mixture of electrolyte. A battery apparently fully
charged according to a hydrometer reading (actual reading 1.280) is, in
reality, only half charged at -60? F when the
specific gravity reading is corrected to 80? F (corrected reading 1.220).
A battery should be above 20? F to deliver
sufficient current for starting.
If the vehicle is equipped with a battery heater, it must be operated IAW
instructions supplied with the winterization kit. If
no winterization equipment is installed on the vehicle, the battery can be
heated by removing the battery and placing it in a
heated room, or by directing hot air on it from a portable heater.
(Sufficient time must be allowed to warm battery
internally.) Some vehicles, such as the M1 Abrams tank, have exposed
batteries that are not heated. These batteries will not
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FM 9-207 Chapter 2
fully charge in operation; over time, they will need to be heated and
recharged in a maintenance shop to maintain reliable
starting.
CAUTION
ADD WATER TO BATTERY ONLY WHEN VEHICLE IS TO BE IMMEDIATELY OPERATED FOR
30
MINUTES OR MORE.
Section IV
Auxiliary Equipment
AIR COMPRESSORS
An air compressor is an engine-driven device used to compress air to
predetermined and controlled pressures. It is used in
vehicle air-brake, air-hydraulic brake, and central tire inflation
systems.
Condensed moisture may freeze within the compressor. Follow
after-operation maintenance procedures by draining
condensation from air compressor tanks. If the bleed valve is frozen,
report it immediately to maintenance personnel. Some
900 series vehicles (M911/977) and the new FMTV 2 1/2- and 5-ton trucks
use air driers in the air brake system. These
system must be checked for frozen vapors in the drip tube. The same system
is also used on the PLS and the HET.
Alcohol evaporators, usually found near the air compressors of cargo
trucks and semitrailers, should be filled with alcohol
during operations in temperatures of -20? F and below. These evaporators
are usually plastic bottles of alcohol included in
winterization kits. They are designed to draw water out of the air going
into the compressor to prevent freezing. Check the
container before, during, and after operations.
Air compressors either have their own lubricating system (self-lubricated)
or are lubricated from the engine lubrication
system. No further preparation is necessary for the engine-lubricated,
air-cooled compressor, provided the engine
crankcase has been filled with lubrication oil (OEA).
NOTE: If an oil-bath-type air cleaner is used on a compressor, drain
the oil, clean, and fill to proper level.
The cooling system of liquid-cooled air compressors is connected to the
cooling system of the vehicle engine. Drain, flush,
and clean the compressor cooling system and inspect for leaks. Ensure all
connections are in good condition. Tighten
cylinder head bolts to correct torque tightness specified in the vehicle
TM. The engine coolant system must be adequately
protected with antifreeze compound. Inspect the compressor for leaks.
AUXILIARY ENGINES AND GENERATORS
The auxiliary engine and generator are operated when batteries are being
charged, when auxiliary electrical equipment is
being used, while the main engine is not running, or when the current
furnished by the main engine is inadequate for the
imposed load.
Preparation for Operation
The auxiliary engine, generator, spark plugs, and magneto should be
prepared in a manner similar to the main engine and
components. Carefully warm the engine block with a swingfire heater, or
with the duct from a portable heater, to assist in
starting. Many small engines have a summer/winter air intake diverter
which allows warm air to be pulled over the exhaust
in winter and directly from the outside in summer. If the engine is so
equipped, ensure the diverter is set for winter
operation.
NOTE: Some small engines have a low oil pressure shutoff switch to stop
the engine in case of low oil pressure.
The oil in the engine block must be warmed sufficiently so the cranking
revolutions per minute (RPM) can build
up enough oil pressure to close the switch so the engine will start.
POWER TAKEOFF ASSEMBLIES
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FM 9-207 Chapter 2
Power takeoff assemblies are usually mounted on the side of the
transmission, but are sometimes mounted on the side of
the transfer. They provide a means for taking power from the engine to
operate a chain-driven winch, a hydraulic pump
(for hydraulically-operated winch, dump mechanism, or gasoline delivery to
tank), or other various auxiliary power-driven
machinery (i.e., earth-boring machine and crane). In cold weather,
improper lubricants will solidify, making operation of
the power takeoff difficult or impossible.
Preparation for Operation
As the power takeoff operates from the transmission or transfer, the
lubricant should be that specified for sub-zero
temperatures for these units. Drain the gear cases while warm and fill
with prescribed grade of gear lubricant.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Operating and Maintenance Procedures
Section I
Operating Vehicle Engines in Cold Weather
Once vehicles are started and operations begin, operators must remain
aware of the special problems cold
weather can cause. This chapter provides added guidance to consider when
performing
vehicle/equipment during-and after-operations PMCS.
OPERATING AND IDLING
At temperatures below -20? F, operators may have to start vehicle engines
periodically to maintain an
acceptable state of readiness. However, this should not be done if other
means are available, such as
power plant heaters, external heat, or indoor parking.
Before commanders authorize periodic starting of engines, they must
consider fuel supplies. Also, they
must establish starting and shutdown schedules to ensure engines do not
run continuously. At
temperatures below -25? F, it may require a continuous idle of engines,
especially heavy equipment,
tracked vehicles, and heavy trucks. Idle speeds, as specified in the
appropriate TM, must be followed.
Experience determines starting and shutdown intervals. Factors such as
ambient or expected
temperatures, vehicle condition, and readiness conditions influence
scheduling. The following must also
be considered--
q Vehicles should only be cold-started using the procedures outlined
in the TM. Carefully read and
follow the instructions for operating the vehicle under unusual
conditions (cold). This is
particularly important for operating the engine starter and
induction manifold. Most equipment
publications contain cautions relative to the time of engine starter
engagement. However, it is
sometimes necessary to exceed the recommended starter time. This is
due to the cold-starting
characteristics of most internal combustion engines. If a starter
time limit is 30 seconds, and
engine firing is intermittent during cranking, it may be wise to
briefly extend the starter
engagement time.
q Vehicles should not be allowed to become cold-soaked.
q Engines should be started periodically to keep lubricants warm.
q Batteries must be kept warm and fully charged.
q Depending on the situation, concealment and noise discipline may
have to be sacrificed to
maintain readiness of the vehicles.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Idling Limitations
Vehicle engine idling is wasteful and may be hazardous. It has detrimental
effects on fuel supply, tactical
missions, and safety for the following reasons:
q Increases fuel consumption.
q Discharges batteries.
q Causes engine wear and reduces engine overhaul periods.
q Causes spark plug fouling especially in two stroke cycle engines such
as all terrain vehicles,
snowmobiles, outboard motors, etc.
q Causes possible carbon monoxide hazards.
q Endangers concealment and camouflage.
q Potentially causes engine overheating.
q Potentially causes slobber of diesel engines. To reduce slobber of
diesel engines, which is
unburned diesel fuel and exhaust that builds up around the exhaust
pipe in cold weather during
idling, increase the idle speed. Otherwise, this condition should
clear up after a short period of
normal operation at normal operating temperatures.
Vehicle engines, except diesels, must not idle for excessive periods
(never longer than five minutes)
while vehicles are awaiting, discharging, or receiving passengers. Vehicle
engines must not idle to
operate personnel heaters. Vehicles with diesel engines may have to be
idled to eliminate starting
difficulties. Efficient vehicle and power plant heater maintenance
eliminates starting problems.
NOTE: When it is anticipated that vehicles equipped with diesel engines
will be in a static position for
30 minutes or less, operate engines at the prescribed idling speed.
NOTE: When temperatures are below -25? F, it may be necessary to operate
diesel engines
continuously to ensure operational responsiveness.
Operator Requirements
A licensed operator must be present in the driver's compartment whenever
the main and/or auxiliary
engine is being operated.
Engine oil and coolant levels must be checked daily prior to initial
starting of engine. Battery electrolyte
fill levels must be checked daily. When engine operation is required for
battery recharging or engine
warm-up, an engine speed of 1,000 to 1,200 RPM, as prescribed in the
vehicle TM, must be maintained.
Occasional variance of speed for short periods is authorized.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
WARNING
OPERATION OF THE MAIN ENGINE OR AUXILIARY GENERATOR ENGINE WHEN A
VEHICLE IS STATIONARY EXPOSES THE CREW TO POSSIBLE CARBON MONOXIDE
GAS POISONING. THE POSSIBILITY IS GREATLY INCREASED WHEN HATCH DOORS
ARE CLOSED. TO MINIMIZE THIS HAZARD, POSITION VEHICLE WHEREVER
POSSIBLE SO THAT WIND WILL CARRY FUMES AWAY FROM CREW
COMPARTMENT; THEN TURN ON TURRET VENTILATION BLOWER. BE SURE
ENGINE COMPARTMENT BULKHEAD DOORS ARE SECURED BEFORE OPERATING
ENGINES. WHEN THERE IS NO OUTSIDE AIR MOVEMENT, PERSONNEL MUST
DISMOUNT FOR AT LEAST 10 MINUTES EACH HOUR (TACTICAL SITUATION
PERMITTING).
Engines Equipped with Power Plant Heaters
Vehicles equipped with liquid-cooled engines are provided with power plant
heaters. These must be used
for standby heat or engine preheating when outside ambient temperatures
are below -20? F. The power
plant heaters must be properly maintained year round. Some power plant
heaters must not be operated
when vehicle engine is operating; check the TM before operation.
Engines not Equipped with Power Plant Heaters
When temperatures fall below -20? F, vehicles not equipped with power
plant heaters must be operated at
1,000 to 1,200 RPM to ensure equipment is ready. Intervals between engine
operations depend upon
wind speed and temperature. Operate engines a minimum of 20 minutes every
2 1/2 hours.
Vehicles Equipped with Radios
When radios in radio-equipped vehicles are in use, keep the engine
operating at approximately 1,200
RPM. This maintains a satisfactory battery charge. If this procedure is
not followed, batteries will fail
rapidly.
When starting radio-equipped vehicles, operators must protect the radios.
Ensure that the power amplifier
switch is in the OFF position, or that the radio function switch is in the
OFF or STANDBY position
when starting (Figure 3-1).
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Figure 3-1. Protect radios when starting
vehicles
STARTING WITHOUT ASSISTANCE
Starting a vehicle in severe cold can present a number of challenges.
Ensure proper procedures are
followed to safeguard personnel and equipment.
Gasoline Engines
In cold weather, storage batteries become less efficient and provide much
less output. A cold battery
cannot energize the starter to turn over the engine at the required
cranking speed and also supply the
current needed to ignite the spark plugs. The fuel is often not volatile
enough to supply proper fuel-air
mixture to the combustion chamber.
For a successful start in cold weather, ensure the following conditions
exist:
q The viscosity of the engine lubricating oil permits cranking without
overtaxing the capacity of the
starting system. The engine oil must splash and be distributed
easily by the oil pump to the various
parts and bearings.
q The battery is fully charged and warm enough to supply current to
crank the engine and the spark
needed for ignition.
q The ignition primary and secondary circuits are clean and free of
cracks, frost, and moisture to
prevent shorts or current leaks.
q The distributor breaker points are free of oxidation and moisture, in
good condition, correctly
adjusted, and checked frequently.
q Ether is used as an emergency starting aid only if a slave kit and/or
portable heater are unavailable
for preheating. Exercise extreme caution and use ether only as a
last resort to prevent mission
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
failure. Consult appropriate -10 series manual when using emergency
starting aids.
CAUTION
ETHER SHOULD BE INJECTED INTO ENGINE AIR INTAKE SYSTEM ONLY WHILE
THE ENGINE IS BEING TURNED OVER. OTHERWISE, FLASHBACK MAY OCCUR.
Diesel Engines
Diesel engines are particularly difficult to start in cold weather without
preheating the intake air. Since
the air is heated by compression, it must attain a temperature hot enough
to ignite the injected fuel. This
preheating can be accomplished as follows:
q Use air manifold heaters when the ambient temperature drops below +
32? F. Employ this device
only when the engine is turned over. Switch off the air manifold
heater when the engine starts.
q Warm the engine with external heat to preheat the engine.
q If so equipped, operate the engine coolant fuel-fired preheater for
the prescribed amount of time
before starting.
USING AUXILIARY POWER (SLAVE) RECEPTACLE
The auxiliary power (slave) receptacle is used to start a vehicle when its
batteries are unable to supply
starting current.
The procedures that follow generally apply to tactical vehicles, combat
vehicles, and self-propelled
weapons. Refer to the vehicle operator's manual for instructions and
procedures.
q Start the engine of the vehicle supplying the auxiliary power; adjust
the engine idling speed to
1,200 RPM.
q Connect the slave cable to the auxiliary power receptacle in each
vehicle.
CAUTION
ENSURE THAT SLAVE CABLE IS CONNECTED POSITIVE TO POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE TO NEGATIVE. BATTERIES ARE CHECKED PRIOR TO SLAVE STARTING.
IF THE DEAD VEHICLE HAS A MASTER SWITCH, IT MUST BE OFF WHILE
CONNECTING THE SLAVE CABLE.
q Turn on the master switch in the receiving vehicle.
q Start the dead engine; adjust engine idling speed to slow idle.
q Disconnect extension cable from both vehicles as soon as the
receiving vehicle idles at 650 RPM
without stalling.
q Increase engine speed in receiving vehicle to 1,000 to 1,200 RPM.
Check battery-generator
indicator in the vehicle to make sure it shows that the battery is
being charged.
TOWING TO START ENGINE
Attempting to start a vehicle by towing is ill-advised. Applying external
power does not solve the
problem of internal resistance due to frozen parts (i.e., lack of
lubrication or hydrostatically locked
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
engine). However, if all other expedients have failed and the following
conditions are met, a vehicle with
a manual transmission may be towed to start the engine:
q If the engine can rotate through one complete cycle, this shows that
the engine is not
hydrostatically locked.
q Lubricants are fluid enough to allow the engine to turn over without
excessive drag.
q Lubricants in the transmission and transfer case permit gears to
shift and allow operation without
excessive drag on the power train.
q Lubricants in the wheel bearings and differential are not congealed.
Check for wheel rotation by
slowly towing the vehicle in neutral and ensuring all wheels are
rotating. If towing the disabled
vehicle on packed snow or ice, the wheels may slide. Try to find a
dry or graveled surface;
otherwise, if the wheels still refuse to rotate, warm the
differentials with a swingfire heater or with
the heat ducts of a portable heater; or if possible, move the
vehicle slowly into a heated shelter and
allow it to warm up.
q The hand brake is released, and neither the hand brake nor service
brake linings are frozen to the
brake drums.
CAUTION
TOWING A VEHICLE TO START ITS ENGINE WILL ONLY BE DONE IN AN EXTREME
EMERGENCY. USE A TOW BAR WHEN TOWING. USE TOW CHAINS ONLY AS A LAST
RESORT. THE OPERATOR'S MANUAL MUST BE CHECKED PRIOR TO
TOW-STARTING ANY VEHICLE.. SOME VEHICLES CANNOT BE STARTED BY
TOWING; IF ATTEMPTS ARE MADE TO TOW-START SOME EQUIPMENT, SEVERE
TRANSMISSION DAMAGE MAY RESULT.
CAUTION
VEHICLES SHOULD NEVER BE STARTED BY PUSHING.
Section II
Chassis and Body Components
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ice, mud, and snow build up to such an extent on operating vehicles
that they overload vehicle
components, reduce ground and other clearances, and prevent or interfere
with normal operation of
moving components. Buildup and freezing of slush and water around the
wheels of an operating vehicle
can cause a loss of steering ability.
Tracks
Check oil-lubricated road wheel bearings to ensure that water has not
collected during operation. If
significant amounts of water have collected, seals may rupture as the
water freezes and expands. If
possible, avoid quick starts, stops, sharp turns, and side slippage on
ice and snow, as they can throw
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
tracks and/or cause loss of control.
Tires
Tire pressure rises and falls with the temperature. Monitor tire pressure
frequently to avoid flat tires or
over-inflation. If tires have a flat spot where contact with the ground
was made, use a light pressure on
the accelerator and drive the vehicle slowly until generated heat permits
tires to round out. Also, move
vehicle often during periods of freezing rain or sleet. To prevent tires
from freezing to the surface, place
small branches or other insulating material under them before parking
(Figure 3-2). If tires do freeze in
place, use a portable hot air heater to
unfreeze them.
Figure 3-2. Place material under tires to prevent
freezing
Tire Selection
Three types of nondirectional tires are available for use on standard
tactical vehicles. They are the
cross-country tire, the mud and snow tire, and the radial tire (as on the
HMMWV). It is best not to mix
tires on a vehicle. However, if tire stocks are depleted, different types
may be used as long as only one
type is used on any one axle. Some commercial vehicles in the Army
inventory use commercial
all-terrain radial tires. Early model HMMWV bias ply run flat tires mount
on special rims. Later version
radial tires are designed to run on newer style rims. These tire/wheel
combinations should not be mixed
on specific vehicles.
Chains
Check vehicle chains prior to operation to ensure that they are
serviceable. Drivers should practice
mounting and removing chains. Remove the chains when not needed; this
practice keeps them in good
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
condition. Chains wear out in approximately 350 miles of asphalt road
operation. Also, they can damage
vehicle and body suspension components.
Springs
When starting out, proceed with caution to allow springs time to attain
flexibility. Avoid driving into
depressions or over obstacles; this practice may create shocks that could
break springs in extreme cold.
Cab Enclosures
Use heaters to maintain adequate temperatures within cab enclosures. When
crossing frozen streams or
other bodies of water, open cab doors to permit quick escape of personnel
in case vehicle should break
through the ice.
Note: Do not cross deep water obstacles covered with ice without checking
with supporting engineer
units for safe crossing ice thickness.
Parking Brakes
Do not park with brakes set; they may freeze in this position and not
release. Use chock blocks to hold
wheels or tracks in place. If brake components do freeze in the set
position, use an external heat source
(such as the portable duct heater) for thawing to prevent damage to the
vehicle power train. For the small
unit support vehicle (SUSV), parking brakes must be applied when
stopped, since there is no
neutral-park gear.
Section III Power Train
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In severe conditions, specific procedures must be followed to
safeguard a vehicle's power train.
Following these procedures will ensure smooth
operations.
Starting Conventional Transmissions
To start a conventional transmission, depress the clutch pedal while
starting engine with gear shift in
neutral. Once the engine is running smoothly, release the clutch
cautiously; maintain the engine at idle
for two minutes or longer to warm lubricant in the
transmission.
NOTE: If vehicle is equipped with a transfer having a selector lever,
transfer lubricant may be heated
the same way by placing selector level in neutral and transmission in low.
Starting Automatic Transmissions
Automatic transmissions warm up differently, depending on the type.
Some warm up in park, while
others only warm up if the selector lever is in the neutral position;
still others must be placed in gear
during warmup. In extreme cold (-25? F and below), many transmissions will
not warm up unless placed
in gear, allowing the torque converter to pump and preheat the
transmission fluid. Forced movement of
the vehicle prior to warmup can cause transmission failure. Always
consult the operator manual for
proper transmission warmup procedures.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Idling
To idle the vehicle, adjust the hand throttle to the engine speed
specified in the operator TM until the
engine is running smoothly. Engage the engine clutch (where applicable) to
allow gear case lubricants to
warm. With transfer case levers remaining in the out position to
prevent movement of the vehicle,
depress the clutch and operate the transmission gear shift lever
until the lever moves freely.
During Operation
The driver must be extremely careful when placing the vehicle in motion
when gear case lubricants or
wheel bearing greases are congealed and tires are frozen to the ground.
Trying to operate under these
conditions damages power train components, such as clutch facings,
universal joints, or gear teeth. When
placing the vehicle in motion, put transmission in low gear and
transfer unit in low range. Drive the
vehicle about 100 meters, being careful not to stall the engine, then
upshift. Continue slowly in the higher
gears until the vehicle moves freely and tire
thump ceases.
After Operation
When preparing a vehicle for shutdown, place transmission and transfer
shift levers in the neutral
position. This prepares the vehicle for the next start by preventing the
levers from freezing in an engaged
position.
Section IV
Engine Lubrication System
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The mechanical efficiency of an engine depends on the proper functioning
of the lubrication system.
Careful attention to PMCS by the driver and unit mechanic is required to
keep the system in the best
working condition.
Check engine oil prior to starting and fill to prescribed level. As
soon as the engine starts, check the
reading on the oil pressure gauge. If engine oil pressure is not
indicated within 30 seconds after starting,
shut down the engine and determine the cause. On vehicles equipped with
warning lights, stop the engine
and investigate the cause (if the engine-oil pressure warning light does
not go out within 30 seconds).
Engine temperatures ranging from 160? to 180? F must be maintained for
normal operation. This
temperature can be attained by adjusting the air inlet shutters or
covers and by having a serviceable
thermostat.
The oil pressure gauge and/or warning light must be observed frequently
during operation because of
increased equipment failures in extreme cold. Consult the operator
manual for normal oil pressure.
Report to maintenance personnel if normal operating oil pressure cannot be
maintained. Low oil pressure
warning lights may blink on and off at 500 to 650 RPM using OEA lubricant
at idle, but they should not
stay on at higher RPMs.
After each operating period, carefully inspect and service
the system as follows:
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
q Inspect oil pan, valve covers, gaskets, and any external units of
the lubrication system for leaks;
correct deficiencies or report them to maintenance mechanics. During
periods of extreme cold, it is
not uncommon to observe leaks from various seals on hydraulic
systems and oil filled components
upon start-up. After the component reaches normal operating
temperature and the seal becomes
soft and flexible, these leaks should stop. Reporting leaking
components before allowing sufficient
time for the seal to warm up causes an undue burden on the
maintenance system and unnecessary
seal replacement.
q Check engine oil and fill to prescribed
level.
CAUTION
OIL CONSUMPTION IS MUCH HIGHER WHEN USING OEA. ENGINES MAY RUN OUT
OF OIL BEFORE THE NEXT MAINTENANCE CHECK. CHECK FREQUENTLY.
qAt the end of each operating period, and five minutes prior to
shutdown, normalize the
vehicle engine to allow a coating of cooled oil to be retained on
the cylinder walls and pistons.
This prevents damage at the time of restarting. It can be
accomplished by lowering the
engine RPM to the prescribed high idling speed (see TM) and by
maintaining it for about
five minutes. This procedure is extremely important to preventing
engine damage and is
mandatory for all heavy-duty gasoline, multifuel, and
diesel engines.
MAINTENANCE
The two most common failures of the engine lubrication system are
caused by low or no oil
pressure and the accumulation of sludge in the lubricating
oil.
Low or No Oil Pressure
Low oil pressure is normally caused by fuel-diluted oil, hot oil, or low
viscosity oil. No oil pressure
may be caused by cold, congealed, high viscosity oil; a clogged strainer;
a defective oil pump; the
lack of lubricant; or engine component failure (such as an
engine bearing).
Note: Do not overlook the possibility that the oil pressure gauge may be
defective. If the gauge is
working correctly, the oil is up to the full mark, and the oil filter
element is not clogged, the failure is
probably in the pump or line.
Accumulation of Sludge in Lubricating Oil
Cold weather tends to prevent engines from reaching normal
operating temperatures,
increases the development of carbon in the engine, and increases oil
dilution and condensation.
These factors combine to create engine sludge (Figure 3-3). To correct a
sludge condition, drain oil
while engine is hot and refill with OEA.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Figure 3-3. Engine sludge
After operation, inspect the oil pan, valve cover, timing gear cover and
gaskets, and external oil
lines for oil leaks; correct as necessary. To protect the environment,
drip pans must be placed
under all leaks. Turn in all used oil IAW host nation, federal, state,
and local environmental laws
and regulations and unit SOPs.
Section V
Electrical System
STARTING PROCEDURES
The storage battery functions as the heart of the electrical system,
especially during the starting
phase. Pay particular attention to the battery terminals and clamps during
cold weather. A loose
connection or a small amount of corrosion will add a lot of resistance
flow. The current drop that
would not even be noticed during warm weather can keep the starter from
turning over when the
engine is cold-soaked. Also, loose connections and dirty terminals
prevent the battery from
receiving a full charge when it needs it most. When starting the
engine, follow cold-start
procedures in the TM, modified as needed by procedures outlined in
Section I of this chapter.
If the engine fails to start, discontinue starter operation and turn off
all switches being used to start
the engine. Wait a few minutes for the starter to cool before attempting
another start; repeat the
process.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
DURING OPERATION
During vehicle operation, adhere to the following
guidelines:
q Allow the engine to warm up to the recommended temperature for
sub-zero operation
(thermostat opens at 180? F).
q Check operation of instruments during warmup, especially the oil
pressure gauges and
warning lights.
q Take advantage of all methods available to keep the battery at
recommended temperature. If
the battery is warm enough to accept a charge (above 35? F), the
battery generator indicator
should read in the high green immediately after
starting.
q Note any unusual noise from the alternator. Fan belts break at a
high rate below -50? F.
Inspect belts for cracks prior to cold weather operation; replace
cracked belts. Adjustable
length belts are available for emergency roadside repair of "V"
belts. They come in 3/8-,
1/2-, and 3/4-inch widths and require a connector tool to fit to
size. Stock numbers are shown
in Appendix C. Vehicles such as the HMMWV are equipped with
serpentine belts, and only
another serpertine belt can be used.
q Note any unusual noise from the
generator.
MAINTENANCE
Emphasis must be placed on the proper care of electrical systems to
ensure efficient operation.
If it is necessary to recharge a storage battery under low-temperature
conditions (electrolyte not
frozen), the charging voltage should be low enough to prevent excessive
gassing or boiling of the
electrolyte. At low temperatures, the permissible charging current is
much less than at higher
temperatures and, therefore, requires a proportionately longer
charging time (See TM
9-6140-200-14).
WARNING
WATER SHOULD NEVER BE ADDED TO A COLD BATTERY; ADD IT WHEN THE
BATTERY IS WARM AND CHARGING, OR IT WILL NOT MIX. FREEZING COULD
RESULT DUE TO REDUCED SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
If water is added to a battery that is exposed to sub-zero temperatures
and is being charged, the
layer of water will stay at the top and freeze before it has a chance to
mix with the electrolyte.
Never attempt to recharge a battery with frozen electrolyte. Never add
water or electrolyte to a
frozen or cold-soaked battery, an explosion may
result.
NOTE: If adding water to a battery at temperatures of 32? F to
approximately 50? F, do not fill to level
indicated on cell cover or vent plug, since the electrolyte will expand as
it is heated and the battery will
flood. Acid or electrolyte should never be added to a battery once
initiated into service. Use only
distilled water.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Section VI
Fuel System
FUEL STORAGE
Successful operation of vehicles at low temperatures depends greatly on
the condition of the fuels
used. Water in engine fuel can cause serious difficulties. Trouble occurs
in some engines even at
temperatures above the freezing point of water. When air is drawn
through a carburetor, the
pressure is lowered and the fuel is sprayed or atomized by venturi action.
The reduced pressure in
the venturi and vaporization of fuel causes a refrigerating action that
may lower temperatures
enough to freeze water or vapor in the fuel.
The ice builds around the jet until the fuel supply to the combustion
chamber is cut off, and the
engine ceases to operate. Water settles to the bottom of fuel tanks and
into the lowest parts of the
fuel line; if it freezes, fuel cannot reach the carburetor or fuel
injectors. As a result, the engine
cannot be started. Moisture contamination of fuels is the source of many
difficulties. Moisture can
be the result of snow getting into the fuel, condensation due to
breathing of a partially filled
container when taken outdoors from a warmer temperature, or from fuel
consumption during
normal operation. Dry gas additives can be used if water has
contaminated the fuel tank from
condensation. To prevent contamination, the following precautions
must be observed:
q Store barrels with outlet end slightly higher than the other end to
allow sediment and water
to settle out (Figure 3-4). Upright storage of barrels should be
avoided to keep water and
snow from accumulating. The last few gallons that remain in the
barrel should be dumped
into collecting barrels where foreign accumulation can settle
and the usable fuel can be
salvaged. Make sure all containers are thoroughly clean and
rust-free before storing fuel in
them. When barrels are stored, they must have secondary containment
to prevent spillage to
the ground.
Figure 3-4. POL barrel storage
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
q Wipe all snow or ice from dispensing equipment and around fill
cap of fuel tank before
removing cap. After filling tank, replace cap
securely.
q Keep the fuel tank filled to proper markings at all times.
Refuel only to the expansion
marking immediately after halting to reduce condensation in the
fuel tank. The more fuel
there is in the tank, the smaller the volume of air from which
moisture can be condensed.
WARNING
FUEL FLOWING OVER A SURFACE GENERATES STATIC, WHICH CAN CAUSE A
SPARK UNLESS MEANS ARE PROVIDED TO GROUND THE ELECTRICITY. A
METALLIC CONTACT BETWEEN THE DISPENSING TANK AND THE CONTAINER
BEING FILLED MUST BE PROVIDED TO ENSURE AN EFFECTIVE GROUND. THIS
HAZARD IS PARTICULARLY GREAT IN COLD, DRY AIR.
Note: Secondary containment must be used under barrels to prevent spillage
to ground.
The carburetor air intake must be protected from chilling winds in
sub-zero temperatures. Hood,
radiator, and louver covers are either provided in winterization kits or
can be easily manufactured
and applied. Properly installed, the covers keep out cold winds and
materially aid in attaining and
maintaining adequately heated engine compartments.
MAINTENANCE
Satisfactory cold weather performance of fuel-related systems depends on
careful servicing. Proper
maintenance by unit mechanics precludes many malfunctions and failures
that would otherwise
occur in sub-zero temperatures. Maintenance should include
the following:
q The throttle controls may operate with difficulty at low
temperatures. If the engine does not
respond properly to operation of controls, check for loose or
broken controls, and for loose
or broken control linkage or cable. Adjust linkage or replace
defective parts as required
IAW applicable TM. Clean wires with environmentally safe
cleaning solvents and
thoroughly dry them. Newer fuel injected systems are
computer-controlled electronically,
with no mechanical links to control throttle speed. These new
systems are found on the PLS,
FMTV, the new HET, and other tactical and combat vehicles.
Operators must become
thoroughly familiar with the cold weather starting procedures
for these vehicles. For
example, when starting and operating these vehicles, there is
little or no throttle response
until the engine temperature sensors send information to the
computer that the engine is
warm enough to operate. Other steps are also required, such as
the use of an exhaust
restrictor for the FMTV when starting in
extreme cold.
q Inspect fuel filters for good condition and replace contaminated
elements. Dispose of
unserviceable fuel filters in an environmentally safe manner as
outlined in the unit SOP.
Clean the metal disc type filters with dry-cleaning solvent, dry,
and install. Make sure there
are no leaks.
q Drain fuel filters at the end of each day of operation. Do not
assume that filters are dry if
nothing flows from the drain cock. If water is present, it could
have frozen solid overnight.
Drain filters into an approved and appropriately marked and labeled
container and turn in
IAW unit SOPs for disposal.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
q Check the diesel-fuel injection pump, including transfer pump,
to ensure that it is in good
condition, correctly assembled, and securely mounted, and that
connections are not leaking.
q Check diesel-fuel nozzles and lines to ensure good
condition.
q Check whether fuel gauge is operating and registering amount
of fuel in the tank.
q Ensure filters are drained into a container and disposed of
properly according to unit SOP.
Identify any special HN disposal requirements in
advance.
Section VII
Cooling System
STARTING CONSIDERATIONS
Most winterization kits for starting below -25? F include a fuel-fired
engine coolant heater such as
the swingfire. It is very important to understand the operating
instructions before use. Failure to
turn on or ensure the auxiliary water circulation pump is running will
most likely cause coolant
hoses to burst. When the engine is operating, observe the temperature
gauge to ensure that the
temperature rises gradually. A sudden rise in temperature indicates
either a frozen radiator,
insufficient coolant, or an inoperative thermostat. Stop the engine
immediately and determine
cause.
MAINTENANCE
Cooling systems must be carefully maintained to ensure normal engine
operating temperatures.
Temperatures must be observed throughout vehicle
operations.
Operating Temperature
Operate vehicles at normal engine temperatures as indicated in
operator's TM (Figure 3-5).
Temperatures can be maintained by properly adjusting the engine
compartment air inlet shutters
or radiator covers. Low engine operating temperature results in
excessive fuel consumption,
dilution of engine oil by unburned fuel, and formation of sludge from
condensation of water in
cylinders and crankcase.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
Figure 3-5. Normal operating temperature
CAUTION
AN ENGINE THAT FAILS TO REACH NORMAL OPERATING TEMPERATURE OR
OVERHEATS MUST BE REPORTED TO MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL FOR
CORRECTION. FAILURE TO DO SO MAY RESULT IN SERIOUS DAMAGE TO THE
ENGINE.
After Operation
The radiator should be checked after shutdown to determine coolant level.
If the coolant level is
low, add antifreeze to return radiator to full
level.
Section VIII
Auxiliary Equipment
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Auxiliary equipment cannot be overlooked in preparing for cold weather
operations. Failure of
these items can also lead to mission failure.
Air Compressors
The vehicle air compressor requires little attention for cold weather
operation. Soldiers must check
to see if the compressor is maintaining required pressure and that there
are no coolant or oil leaks
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FM 9-207 Chapter 3
or excessive noise.
Maintenance Steps
To ensure air compressors function properly, operators
must:
q Examine air compressor to ensure that it is in good condition,
properly aligned with drive
pulleys, and securely mounted. Equipment using air dryers must also
be checked for frozen
vapors in the drip tube.
q Ensure that all water, oil, and air lines in the engine compartment
are in good condition and
securely fastened, and that there are no
leaks.
q Check oil in self-lubricated air compressors to determine proper
condition and level.
q Check alcohol evaporators, as indicated in Chapter 2 of
this manual.
POWER TAKEOFF ASSEMBLIES
The power takeoff and control linkage should be checked to ensure they
are in good condition,
securely mounted, and that seals are not leaking. Ensure that the proper
sub-zero lubricant is used
and maintained at the proper level. See that the transmission and/or
breather and ventilation
openings and lines are clear. Tighten all mounting bolts, power takeoff
assembly screws, and bolts
to the torque tightness specified in the TM.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Weapons, Munitions, and Fire Control Equipment
Section I
Effects of Cold Weather
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Severe conditions can interfere with the proper functioning of weapons,
ammunition, and fire control
equipment. Knowledge of these effects can minimize their impact on mission
accomplishment.
Cold-Dry Conditions
Cold-dry weather causes sluggish motion and increased stress on moving
parts lubricated by products
manufactured for temperate climates. Rubberized parts and surfaces, as
well as painted surfaces, are
more likely to crack and break.
Condensation
Humidity and cold air combine to form condensation when temperatures
change rapidly. Under
extremely cold conditions, condensation will cause icing and corrosion of
machined surfaces, especially
in the bores of weapons. A combination of body warmth and breathing may
cloud the optics of sights and
fire control mechanisms.
Frozen Surfaces
Flat trajectory weapons, such as tank guns, may cause the vehicle chassis
to move away from the
direction of fire on frozen surfaces. Emplacement of mortar baseplates and
howitzer spades is difficult
and time-consuming. Weapons firing from frozen surfaces can damage the
systems themselves and
degrade accuracy.
Snow and Ice
Exposed gears and racks (i.e., elevating arc, traversing rack, and
pinions)can collect snow and ice in
sufficient amounts to impede movement. Snow and ice can also contaminate
lubricants and ammunition.
Visibility
Long periods of darkness, blowing snow, and ice fog greatly limit
visibility. Ice fog, caused when water
vapor from a muzzle blast crystallizes (usually around -30? F or lower),
can hang over the weapon and
follow the path of the projectile. In still air, the ice fog lingers,
hindering accurate second-round
engagement. Ice fog can also serve as a target acquisition aid for enemy
gunners. Rain, snow, clouds, and
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
fog also limit the effectiveness of lasers.
Magnetic Conditions
The farther north one travels, the more care one must take with magnetic
instruments. These instruments
are affected by increasing declination changes and by Aurora Borealis.
WEAPONS FUNCTIONING
The following problems or conditions affect the operation of weapons:
q The increased viscosity of hydraulic or recoil fluids, caused by
lower temperatures, offers greater
resistance to motion. This results in stiffness of operation and
shortening of the recoil cycle.
q Over-lubricating in cold weather may cause parts to bind, resulting
in misfires.
q Handwheels on both elevating and traversing mechanisms require
greater effort.
q Gascheck pads fail to seal perfectly and deteriorate rapidly. Scoring
of the gascheck seat is
possible.
q Cable insulation, if not arctic-type, may fail when doubled or
straightened.
q Frozen hand brakes on towed weapons may be difficult to release, and
attempts to move weapons
without thawing may cause serious damage.
q Equalizing bars and travel locks of
q towed weapons must be covered or wrapped before towing over
snow-covered terrain. The
wrapping should be replaced, if wet, to prevent freezing of both the
wrapper and the protected
mechanism.
q In cross-country operations, a prime mover with the same tread/track
width as the weapon should
be used to ensure tracking.
q Firing lanyards must be kept dry and covered to prevent freezing and
breakage.
Section II
Lubrication in Cold Weather
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is imperative to keep machined surfaces clean and not over-lubricated.
Lack of lubrication may cause
rust to form on uncoated surfaces and create friction between rubbing
surfaces. These conditions impede
the functioning of the weapon. On the other hand, use of too much
lubricant may impede the motion of
the components or result in a buildup of solidified oil or grease.
The proper type and grade of lubricant must be used (Appendix B). Certain
lubricants are selected for
different temperature ranges because the physical properties of oils and
greases vary with changing
temperatures, usually becoming thick and viscous as the temperature drops.
Thus, a lubricant designed
for use at room temperature may become thick and unsatisfactory at
sub-zero temperatures, or may
become too thin to lubricate metal surfaces at high temperatures.
Lubricants can also be selected because
they are environmentally preferable.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
PROCEDURES FOR LUBRICATING WEAPONS
DS maintenance facilities winterize artillery weapons. Prior to issue,
recoil mechanisms must be
modified to ensure satisfactory operations to -65? F. Often, preparation
of artillery requires special
winterization of component parts. Follow instructions in LOs and TMs with
the following changes in
emphasis:
q Lubricants must be applied in smaller quantities more frequently. For
example, a biweekly interval
may be changed to weekly.
q Grease, wide temperature range (WTR), is recommended for use on
artillery at all temperature
ranges. Use WTR whenever special lubricating grease is specified. It
displays superior lubricating
qualities at extremely low temperatures.
q Petroleum-based hydraulic fluid(OHT) or FRH, as specified, should be
used in hydraulic gears as
well as in hydrospring and hydropneumatic recoil mechanisms. These
products replace
special-recoil and light-recoil oil for low-temperature operation.
The changeover to
petroleum-based hydraulic oil in recoil mechanisms is accomplished
as follows:
q Drain existing recoil oil. Raise, lower, and rotate the mechanism to
aid in removing the original
oil.
q Fill recoil mechanism with OHT or FRH as specified. Establish oil
reserve and install mechanisms
on carriage or mount.
CAUTION
EXTREME CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO ENSURE THAT MOISTURE, SNOW, ICE, AND
DIRT ARE NOT INTRODUCED INTO THE MECHANISM DURING THE CHANGEOVER
PROCESS.
Replace preservative lubricating oil, bore cleaner, or normal
lubricating oil with cleaner lubricant and
preservative (CLP) in cold temperatures. The exception is in the bores
of mortars where CR and
lubricating oil, weapons (LAW) should be used. To
put a
temporary finish on corroded exterior metal surfaces, use solid film
lubricant (SFL), except on moving
parts and stocks.
Replace CLP with LAW when anticipating operations at temperatures below
-10? F. Below -10? F, CLP
fails to provide proper lubrication to individual and
crew-served weapons.
Follow all federal, state, and local laws and regulations and unit
SOPs regarding the storage,
transportation, and final disposition of all greases, oils, and
solvents. Spills of such materials must be
promptly cleaned up and reported via the chain of command IAW
the unit spill-plan.
Section III
Operation and Maintenance of Weapons
USE OF COVERS
Whenever materiel is to remain idle for a time, it should be covered for
protection. Wind will drive snow
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
under the covers unless snugly and securely
fastened.
To prevent materiel from freezing to the ground, prepare a footing of
planks, brush, or matting. Straw or
hay may also be used for this purpose. Pedestals, rails, outriggers,
skids, generating units, and points of
tripods that go into the ground can be covered with grease to prevent
them from freezing to the ground.
Seal exposed openings to ensure that parts are free of ice or snow. Keep
the ends of canvas tarpaulins off
the ground to prevent them from freezing to the
ground.
DEALING WITH CONDENSATION
When weapons, sighting and fire control materiel, parts, or assemblies
are brought indoors after having
been outside at low temperatures, water vapor in the warm air condenses
on the cold parts. The
condensation causes corrosion if not immediately
removed.
If the materiel is operated indoors while moisture is present, the
moisture forms an emulsion with the
lubricants. This requires removing all the grease and cleaning and
lubricating the materiel. If the materiel
is taken outside into low temperatures before the condensed moisture is
removed or has evaporated, the
parts may freeze and become inoperable.
It is better to leave fire control materiel outdoors, but covered, to
protect it from the snow. Snow-tight
lockers or sealed containers issued with the materiel maintained at
outdoor temperatures are
recommended for storing binoculars, telescopes, and other
fire control equipment.
If it is necessary to bring instruments or other materiel from low
outdoor temperatures into higher room
temperatures, use anticondensation containers to prevent condensation of
moisture on the instruments.
The containers can be specially made boxes, covered cans, or other
fairly airtight containers with
heat-conducting walls. Keep containers outside until time to bring an
instrument indoors. Put instruments
into a container, closing it tightly. Then bring the container
indoors and let stand until its inner
temperature has had time to equal the room's temperature. A stove can
hasten a container's warmup.
If air in a container is cold and dry, it expands and presses outward
when it is heated. Therefore, no
warm, humid air from the room can come in contact with instruments and
cause condensation. When the
instruments and inner container reach room temperature, the instruments
can be removed with no danger
of condensation.
If anticondensation containers are not available, wrap materiel in
blankets or similar material before it is
brought into a heated enclosure. This will retard or impede the
condensation process just described.
CREWMEMBER CONSIDERATIONS
When using sighting and fire control materiel at sub-zero temperatures,
operators' hands need protection.
Gloves with liners, trigger-finger shells with liners, or arctic
mitten sets should be worn.
Gloves are appropriate around 0? F and higher, but the arctic mitten
set or the trigger-finger mitten
should be worn at colder temperatures. Since mechanical motion of most
knobs and levers will be less
free than at milder temperatures, adjustments will at first seem awkward
and difficult to operators used to
working with bare hands. Awkwardness and difficulties will
lessen with practice.
Because many knobs and handwheels are difficult to manipulate while
wearing arctic mittens, it may be
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
necessary for operators to wear anticontact gloves. If anticontact
gloves are not available and it is
necessary to use bare hands, the discomfort of contact with cold metal
can be lessened by wrapping
adhesive tape around the knobs and handwheels.
Although personnel should go indoors as often as possible, they should
avoid rapid warming over stoves
or other heating units.
EXERCISING
Weapons should be elevated and traversed at intervals that ensure
operation when the weapon is needed.
The rammer should be cycled several times before ramming rounds and at
intervals to ensure proper
operation. The recoil mechanism can be moved only a short distance under
sub-zero temperatures.
Always exercise the recoil mechanism before firing to make sure recoil
parts are not iced up.
DAILY CARE
Inspect materiel daily. Whenever possible, use gun covers and shelters
for protection. The following
points are important in providing maximum protection for
weapons.
q Keep all parts thoroughly clean.
q Clean and oil the breech mechanism daily.
q Lubricate sparingly.
q Do not let snow and ice collect on moving
parts.
TRAVEL
Before starting a road march, make a thorough inspection and provide as
much protection as possible for
all parts, as follows:
q Ensure all covers are properly installed and securely lashed. If
covers are inadequate, improvise by
using canvas, burlap, or any other suitable or
available material.
q Perform all preventive maintenance operations and precautions
prescribed in manuals pertinent to
the materiel.
q During travel, take more than usual driving care because suspension
assemblies become stiff in
cold weather and break easily. Refer to FM 31-70 for
driver precautions.
EMPLACEMENT
The selection and preparation of weapon sites in ice and snow require more
consideration than when the
weapon is to be emplaced on bare, level ground. If ice and snow are
melting, select a site that will not
become mired or flooded.
Prepare a platform of pierced steel planking (materiel used for
improvised airstrips), boards, brush, and
matting at the spot chosen for the emplacement. Push or tow the weapon
onto the platform so that the
platform is beneath the wheels and firing jack float (or auxiliary firing
jack platform). Prepare recoil pits
and spade positions. When an artillery piece is to be fired from a soft,
spongy surface, a deeper recoil pit
must be dug to prepare for the sinking of the weapon
during firing.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Coat with waste lubricant all metal parts of the trails and spades coming
in contact with snow or frozen
ground. This prevents freezing in place and facilitates subsequent
shifting of the trails. Waste lubricants
may be used on any parts, except rubber, that touch the
ground.
Special, large frost-spades or spade attachments may be improvised to
suit local conditions. In hard,
frozen ground, protect trails against the tendency to buckle and break by
placing logs between the spades
and ground. This provides added
resilience.
The firing jack and its locking lug may become covered with ice and frozen
mud in transit. Ice and mud
must be entirely removed before the jack can be completely lowered and
locked in firing position. Swab
the exterior of the jack with GMD and see that all seals are
tight and serviceable.
CAUTION
DO NOT PACK GREASE IN THE JACK HOUSING.
Aiming posts should not be driven into frozen ground. A hole should
first be made with a pick or
crowbar. Manufacturing of a stand that rests on top of frozen ground or
ice is an approved method of
supporting the aiming post for use in weapon alignment. An aiming post is
self-supporting in about 26
inches of packed snow. Use of the aiming light, equipped with dry-cell
batteries, is possible only for
short periods. Batteries are kept warm and serviceable by carrying them or
the light next to the body. Use
alkaline batteries rather than carbon
batteries.
BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISMS
A frozen breechblock usually cannot be forced to move. If ice prevents
opening or closing the breech,
use a portable heater for thawing. Remove the breechblock and dry it
thoroughly. Keep the breech
mechanism tightly covered.
Clean all parts daily, except gascheck pads, with dry-cleaning solvent or
mineral spirits paint thinner and
lubricate as prescribed in Section II of this
chapter.
CAUTION
DO NOT USE DRY-CLEANING SOLVENT, MINERAL SPIRITS PAINT THINNER, OR
RIFLE-BORE CLEANER ON GASCHECK PAD. SIMPLY WIPE IT CLEAN AND PERMIT
IT TO DRY; DO NOT LUBRICATE.
Frozen manual and electric firing linkages renders a weapon useless.
Frozen solenoids do not close
contacts for electric firing.
After firing, the breech and firing mechanisms of weapons using fixed and
semifixed ammunition should
be disassembled, cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent or mineral spirits
paint thinner, dried, and oiled
sparingly. Mechanisms on weapons using separate loading ammunition
should be disassembled. All
parts, except gascheck pad and electrical ring mechanisms, should be
cleaned with rifle-bore cleaner
(MIL-C-372), dried, and oiled sparingly.
The asbestos covering of Gerdom-type gascheck pads becomes very brittle
in cold. If the asbestos has
cracked and the wire mesh is exposed, it causes the gascheck seat to
become scored and impossible to
repair. A new pad is required if wire is
exposed.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
The breech and firing mechanisms must be completely disassembled for
cleaning and lubrication. Clean
all parts, and apply a light film of LAW, by wiping the surfaces with a
clean cloth that has been wet with
oil and thoroughly wrung out. Excessive lubrication of the firing
mechanism can cause misfires.
BORES
In severely cold weather, bores are susceptable to increased impact
loads and may crack due to metal
brittleness. Constant inspection and care is required to
prevent failure.
Before Firing
Before firing, wipe the bore and chamber dry. Clean and coat bore
evacuator, muzzle brake, blast
deflector, and counterweight as prescribed in
the TM.
During Firing
At every opportunity during firing, inspect the muzzle end of the tube,
bore evacuator, muzzle brake,
blast deflector, counterweight (as applicable), and the breech ring.
Examine for development of cracks.
In severe cold, metal becomes brittle and more susceptible to failure
under impact loads that a weapon
receives when fired. Cracks generally indicate materiel deficiencies or
metal fatigue. However, tool
marks may be mistaken for cracks, and some cracks are not always
visible. Cease firing when cracks
develop; notify GS or DS maintenance support.
After firing
CLP can be used as a cold weather bore cleaner and preservative down to
-10?F. Below that temperature,
LAW is preferred. If it is not available, clean the bore evacuator,
muzzle brake, bore, and chamber with
rifle-bore cleaner while the weapon is still warm, but not too hot to be
touched with bare hands. For
temperatures below -20?F, warm the solvent cleaning compound before using
so that it is thin enough to
use effectively. All cleaner residue must be wiped off. Any residue
remaining in the tube will freeze and
make firing dangerous. Complete the second and third cleaning of the bore
and chamber after firing, as
prescribed for mild and moderate conditions in the
pertinent LOs and TMs.
Daily care
In below-freezing temperatures, wipe the bore dry every day and
apply a light film of LAW.
RECOIL MECHANISMS
All hydropneumatic and hydrospring recoil mechanisms will be filled with
hydraulic fluid (OHT) or
FRH as specified. Keep close check on length of recoil during extreme
cold weather firing. Take
precautions to prevent snow, water, or dirt from entering
the reservoir.
Hydropneumatic mechanisms are affected by reduction of gas pressure at
low temperatures, as well as
thickening of recoil oil.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
WARNING
THE POSSIBILITY OF INJURY TO PERSONNEL OR DAMAGE TO MATERIEL IS
PRESENT WHEN ADJUSTING GAS PRESSURE IN THE RECUPERATOR. THEREFORE,
ADJUSTING THE GAS PRESSURE IN THE RECUPERATOR IS A FUNCTION OF DS OR
GS MAINTENANCE SUPPORT. THE PERSON IN CHARGE OF THE UNIT IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR HAVING THE GAS PRESSURE IN THE RECUPERATOR ADJUSTED
TO CORRESPOND WITH THE EXISTING TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS.
Care of recoil mechanisms is nearly the same during cold weather as it is
under normal conditions. Using
units must maintain a careful check on recoil mechanisms. On
self-propelled guns, the recoil fluid
surrounds the gun tube and is subject to a larger range of temperature
changes and subsequent pressure
variations. These pressure changes must be watched and adjustments made
to keep within the required
pressure range.
Condensation and ice tend to form on a weapon during freezing
temperatures. Parts such as recoil and
counterrecoil rods and variable recoil cams must be wiped dry and
lubricated lightly with LAW every
day.
While the oil is cold, the cycle of recoil may take longer than usual. As
further firing is conducted, the
action gradually warms the recoil oil and thins it so that normal cycle
time is obtained. A sticking recoil
mechanism may result in severe damage to the weapon when it is
fired; therefore:
q Exercise the recoil mechanism frequently. Intervals of exercise
depend on the existing
temperature, becoming more frequent as the
temperature decreases.
q To ensure that recoil parts are free from frost binding, exercise the
recoil mechanism prior to firing
whenever the weapon is subjected to freezing rain, windblown
snow and ice, or fluctuating
temperatures.
q Refer to pertinent weapon TMs for methods of exercising the
recoil mechanism.
If the recoil mechanism is equipped with an adjustable respirator, it
should be opened as far as possible
when commencing fire in low temperatures.
CAUTION
EXTREME CAUTION MUST BE EXERCISED TO KEEP THE PARTS OF A RESPIRATOR
FREE OF SNOW AND ICE.
Check the oil level of the recoil mechanism at the intervals
prescribed in the applicable TM and
whenever there is a marked change in temperature. Inspect all partially
filled hydraulic fluid containers to
avoid the possibility of using contaminated fluid. Discard all
contaminated fluid.
RECOIL SLIDES
Friction between recoil slides and guides absorbs an appreciable amount
of recoil energy. Thickened or
congealed lubricants increase friction, shorten recoil, and retard
counterrecoil. Snow and condensation on
the slides contaminate the lubricant and destroy its lubricating
properties. To ensure proper recoil and
counterrecoil action, remove the old lubricant from the slides every day
by using dry-cleaning solvent or
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
mineral spirits paint thinner. Smooth all surfaces
and lubricate lightly.
When exposed to windblown snow and ice, dry operation of the recoil
slides and other exposed metal
working surfaces may be necessary. Lubrication, however, should be
applied during standby periods.
Guns treated with dry lubricant need only be kept clean and free
of ice and snow.
EQUILIBRATORS
Clean, dry, and lightly lubricate the piston rods or tubes of
equilibrators every day during cold weather
operations to prevent icing. Carefully examine and remove any corrosion
or marring of the smooth,
unpainted surfaces with crocus cloth.
Lubricate the designated equilibrator parts with WTR at the intervals
prescribed in the LOs and the TMs.
Too much lubricant at cold temperatures may cause the gun to stay out of
battery after firing. This is
compounded if the pressure in the equilibrators has not been adjusted for
cold temperatures. Wash the
bearing thoroughly with dry-cleaning solvent or mineral spirits paint
thinner, dry thoroughly, and
lubricate. It is necessary to remove the equilibrator in order to
wash bearings properly.
After the daily cleaning and drying of the equilibrator piston rod or
tube, protect the smooth unpainted
surfaces against corrosion by applying a very light film of LAW. Wipe the
metal surfaces with a clean
cloth that has been wet with oil and thoroughly
wrung out.
Adjust the nitrogen pressure of pneumatic-type equilibrators to provide
proper equalizing action. If the
equilibrator is equipped with a low-temperature control, make the
adjustment IAW the temperature scale
provided.
CAUTION
THE NEWER HOWITZERS USE NITROGEN TO PRESSURIZE THE EQUILIBRATORS.
SINCE TEMPERATURES FLUCTUATE, EQUILIBRATOR PRESSURES REQUIRE
FREQUENT CHECKS (SEE OPERATOR'S TM). IF A COLD HOWITZER IS BROUGHT
INTO A WARM SHELTER, PRESSURES WILL INCREASE DRAMATICALLY, AND IF
THE ELEVATION HANDWHEEL IS THEN RELEASED, THE HOWITZER WILL
ELEVATE RAPIDLY, POSSIBLY CAUSING INJURY TO THE USER AND DAMAGE TO
THE EQUIPMENT OR THE BUILDING.
ELEVATING AND TRAVERSING MECHANISMS
Snow and ice particles frequently collect on the arcs and pinions and
cake under pressure of the gears.
Since this interferes with elevating and traversing, remove the snow by
brushing vigorously with a stiff
bristle or wire brush.
After snow is removed, the parts should be left dry for firing or swabbed
with a light application of LAW
to permit smooth and easy operation and prevent
rusting.
CRADLE, SLEIGH, CARRIAGE, AND MOUNT
Disassemble the mechanism as required to obtain access to all parts.
Thoroughly clean all parts, ensuring
that all rust, dirt, and old lubricant are removed before applying
prescribed lubricant. Lubricate sparingly
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
as prescribed in LOs and TMs.
Section IV Direct Fire Weapons
ARMOR VEHICLE MAIN ARMAMENT
Ice fog forms when the weapon is fired. Lubrication and breakage problems
are not as frequent as those
for artillery pieces because most of the weapon's working parts are
enclosed in a warm turret.
Temperature changes can have major effects on the
ammunition.
Propellants tend to burn slower in the cold, reducing the velocity of
projectiles. Therefore, the firing data
for temperate climates cannot be used, and the weapon must be zeroed for
the temperature in which it is
being fired.
Ammunition stored inside the turret will be warm and have the same
general ballistic characteristics as
ammunition fired in temperate climates. The weapon is generally zeroed
with this warm ammunition.
Other ammunition is stored outside the tank where the temperature is
extremely cold. When this
ammunition is fired, the powder burns slowly and has completely
different ballistic characteristics,
rendering the initial zero useless. If possible, the ammunition brought
in from the outside should be
heated in the turret before firing. In a combat situation, this is not
practical because the ammunition may
have to be used immediately. The gunner must have his own data for cold
ammunition or be ready to
hastily re-zero the weapon. Either way, he will have to make a
sight adjustment.
Section V
Indirect Fire Weapons
FIELD ARTILLERY
Most of the problems and precautions involving operations and maintenance
of artillery pieces are the
same as for weapons in general. However, consider the following aspects of
artillery operations in cold
regions:
q Recoil oil indicators may show low readings when pieces are cold.
Firing a few rounds warms the
oil and raises the indicator level.
q Howitzer bores require more frequent cleaning at low temperatures as
a result of residue left from
incomplete burning of propellant charges. However, bore cleaner can
freeze in the chamber and
prevent loading a round. CLP is an authorized alternative to bore
cleaner, and is effective down to
-10?F. Below that temperature, LAW is
preferred.
q Special care is required for gascheck pads. A dry cloth is enough to
clean the gascheck pad and
electrical ring mechanism.
q Adjustable recoil respirators should be left open as far as possible
before firing the first round in
cold weather. Respirators should be kept clear of
ice and snow.
q Congealed lubricants and grit hinder movement of elevation and
traversing handwheels.
q Some towed weapons, like the M198 howitzer, use year-round
lubricants, even in cold weather.
q Only the ammunition required immediately should be prepared for
firing to prevent snow and ice
from contributing to wet propellants.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
On frozen surfaces, stability and accuracy diminish at
lower firing elevations.
q
q The choices for firing surfaces should be muskeg, gravel, frozen
ground, and ice, in that order.
Even with cushioning, firing from ice is one of the greatest causes
of damage to artillery pieces in
cold regions. Waste lubricants on trails and spades in snow and
ice can prevent freezing to the
ground. So can laying tree boughs or straw under trails and
spades. Such cushions can also be
placed under firing jacks and firing
platforms.
q Crews wearing the bulky cold region uniform, especially handwear,
must practice drills and
maintenance to gain proficiency in cold weather
cannoneering.
MORTARS
The mortar's baseplate must be solidly positioned to prevent sliding. It
may be necessary to dig into the
ground to accomplish this. Frozen ground has no resiliency, and the
baseplate and other bracing parts of
the weapon absorb the entire shock of firing. When the weapon is emplaced
on frozen ground, the cold
makes the metal brittle. The combination of brittle metal and the
tremendous shock that the baseplate
receives when a round is fired may cause the baseplate
to crack.
Due to the tremendous shock and the extra weight of the sight, the mount
will break if the baseplate is
not solidly positioned. Remove the sight each time before firing
until the baseplate is settled.
One field expedient that reduces the possibility of a cracked baseplate
is to place a brush matting under
the baseplate. The matting should be thick enough to act as a shock
absorber, but not so thick as to cause
the baseplate to bounce out of its position. Snowshoes under bipods will
prevent them from sinking in the
snow.
Another method of positioning is to place bags of dry sand or snow beneath
the baseplate. The sandbags
provide the weapon with a solid, yet resilient, shock-absorbing base.
The baseplate is best seated by
firing at a quadrant elevation (QE) of 1,200 mils and a middle charge. If
the baseplate must be seated in
snow, the bottom should be coated with waste
lubricant.
Mortar baseplates should not be seated in frozen surfaces using maximum
or near maximum charges.
Even when the baseplate appears to be properly seated, the crew can expect
the mortar to shift to the rear,
and even collapse, when firing at elevations below
900 mils.
An added problem is that mortars cannot be handled without touching bare
metal, as can other infantry
weapons with wooden or plastic handles and stocks. The crew must keep
their gloves or mittens on and
avoid touching the metal surface with bare
flesh.
Mortars present practically no lubrication or ice fog problems. However,
due to incomplete burning of
propellants, the mortar tube should be dry-swabbed after every tenth
round or after each fire-for-effect.
At least a half-hour should be allowed before cleaning after the mortar
is moved from a cold to a warm
location.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
CAUTION
USE OF GLOVES THAT ARE NOT ANTICONTACT RESULTS IN A MORTAR SHELL
NOT DROPPING PROPERLY DOWN THE TUBE, DAMAGING EQUIPMENT, AND
CAUSING INJURY OR DEATH. THE WEARING OF BULKY OR LOOSE FITTING
GLOVES MAY CAUSE THE GLOVE TO BECOME PINCHED BETWEEN THE ROUND
AND THE BORE OF THE MORTAR TUBE AS THE ASSISTANT GUNNER FOLLOWS
THROUGH IN DROPPING THE ROUND.
Lubricate mortars M29A1 (81mm) and M30 (4.2 inch) sparingly and do not use
PL (SP) below 0?F. Use
LAW instead of GPL below 10? F as a lubricant and bore cleaner on the
newer 60mm, 81mm, and
120mm mortars. The bore should be kept dry, and lubricant kept away from
the firing pin. All moving
parts and the bore should be checked for snow and ice before firing.
Never lubricate mortar shock
absorbers.
NOTE: There is currently a restriction preventing CLP from being used in
the bore of a mortar.
Mortar gunners and assistant gunners normally use the standing position
to avoid cold ground. In this
position, they must properly execute round-firing and be conscious of
added noise problems inherent
with firing the mortar in the cold, dry air. Ear
protection is a must.
When seating the baseplate--
q Select a position with vegetation on the ground surface whenever
possible. If you must set up the
baseplate on snow, coat the bottom with waste oil to prevent
freezing to ground surfaces.
q Use two men on the bipod when seating on ice or at high elevation
(1,300 mils or higher).
q Train gunners to operate the mortar without breathing on the optics.
Optical instruments should be
kept sheltered but unheated when not in use, preferably in their
cases. Doing this protects them
against cold and shock.
q Boresight frequently.
q Practice using compensated sight picture (the rule rather than the
exception), when firing from
frozen surfaces.
q Ensure mortar crewmen do not remove anticontact gloves (CTA 50-900)
when temperatures fall
below -20?F. These gloves help prevent cold burns while still
providing enough dexterity.
The new family of mortars and mortar rounds (with obturators) are very
precise, indirect fire weapons
systems. In fact, the systems are more precise than current mortar
gunnery procedures. To improve
gunnery, mortarmen should practice laying all fire control equipment to
zero mils rather than within two
mils. This is especially true in cold regions where the mortar can be laid
equally as fast at zero mils as at
two mils when wearing correct handwear. For best results, ammunition and
mortars should be the same
temperature.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Section VI
Antitank Wire-Guided Missiles/Rockets
MISSILES
The principal difficulties with wire-guided missiles, such as the TOW and
Dragon, are target acquisition
and tracking.
Moisture condensing on the eyepiece can literally blind the fire control
system. When a gunner initially
tries to gain a sight picture, moisture from his breath and his body
heat near the lens may cause
condensation on the lens. To offset this phenomenon, use the protective
mask with the winterization kit
installed.
Extreme cold causes distortion for the AN/TAS-4A night sight when cold
hits the heat rising from the
vehicle engine on mounted TOWs. Position the vehicle so the TOW is aiming
away from the engine.
Depending on the direction of the wind, activation of the launch drive
motors after initial firing creates
some ice fog at -30? F and colder. This hinders the gunners' ability to
track targets after firing, attempt
second-round engagements, or acquire new targets.
An added burden for TOW units is the requirement to transport the TOW
system in their ahkio (sled)
groups in addition to cold region survival gear. This requires either
more soldiers or a reduction of
systems employed.
Wing nuts on the battery of the missile guidance set (MGS)freeze in place
and then pop off when the
battery is loaded. Prevent seized nuts by twisting each one before
loading the battery.
Rubber eyeshields on optical and night sights freeze, collect ice, and
crack, thereby leaving optics
vulnerable to ice and snow. Snow and ice can also cause poor electrical
connections on clamping
surfaces on the traversing unit, sights, and
missiles.
ROCKETS
Rockets and missiles generally operate satisfactorily in cold weather (0?
F to -40?); however, consult the
TMs applicable to a particular rocket or missile to determine exact firing
limits. Information concerning
extreme cold operating procedures for rocket and missile materiel
can be found as follows:
q Antifreeze materials, fuels, hydraulic fluids, and lubricants
- Chapter 1, Section IV.
q Heaters - Chapter 1, Section VI.
q Auxiliary equipment (air compressors, auxiliary engines, power
take-offs) - Chapter 2, Section IV.
q Fire control materiel - Chapter 4,
Section VII.
CAUTION
ELECTRICALLY POWERED SYSTEMS ENCOUNTER DIFFICULTIES IN OBTAINING
AN EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL GROUND WHEN FIRING FROM FROZEN SURFACES.
THIS MAY BE OVERCOME THROUGH TRAINING OR USE OF EXPEDIENT
GROUNDING TECHNIQUES.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Section VII
Field Artillery Missiles/Rockets
MISSILES
Missiles and rockets have minimum and maximum temperatures at which they
can be fired. Most have
this information printed on them. For others, consult each weapon's TM
before firing them in extreme
cold.
Section VIII
Air Defense Weapons
MISSILES
On the Chaparral system, proper cold-weather settings prevent poor air
circulation, overheating, oil
leakage, or failure to operate properly.
The oil pan baffle on the gas-powered main power unit (MPU) should be
closed--or up--for temperatures
that average 0? F or below. Secure the baffle with lockwire. The
MPU's carburetor air inlet
WINTER/SUMMER valve must be full left for temperatures below 35?F.
Number-one and number-two
ducts on the MPU air duct must both be open in sub-zero weather, and both
should be closed above 35?F.
Number-one stays open and number-two is closed between 0?
and 35?F.
Set the battery box WINTER/SUMMER valve on WINTER during battery
warmup when the
temperature is below 35?F. Keep it on that setting for 5 to 60 minutes,
depending on the temperature.
Battery heater warmup time is in TM 9-1425-2586-10. After battery
warmup, switch the battery box
valve to SUMMER position. Set the oil pump WINTER/SUMMER valve to WINTER
when it is below
35?F.
GUNS
Cold weather precautions for air defense guns are similar to those
for guns in direct fire roles.
Section IX
Ammunition and Munitions
AMMUNITION
Cold weather not only affects personnel and equipment but ammunition as
well. Failure to understand the
possible problems and how to prevent them can make a unit
combat-ineffective.
Large Caliber Ammunition
Moisture and humidity can make life miserable for tank, artillery, and
mortar crews. Icing can cause
misfires, damage to the pieces, and injuries to crewmembers. While
cold, dry conditions do not
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
drastically alter the terminal effects of direct fire weapons, they
dictate added training and planning for
indirect systems. That is because range and burst effects
drop off dramatically.
Temperature Limitation
Temperature limitations are not stamped on all individual items of
ammunition. However, all
temperature limitations are contained in the applicable TM 43-0001
(Series), Ammunition Data Sheets.
CAUTION
WITH COLD ROUNDS IN A COLD TUBE, ACHIEVED RANGES FOR INDIRECT FIRE
SYSTEMS MAY BE AS MUCH AS 20 PERCENT LESS AT A TEMPERATURE OF -4? F
THAN THAT INDICATED IN THE TABULAR FIRING TABLES (FOUR ROUNDS FIRED
OVER A PERIOD OF ONE TO THREE MINUTES WILL WARM THE TUBE).
Snow-covered surfaces tend to diminish the blast effects of rounds with
point detonating fuzes. At the
firing point,
condensation on a round which freezes in the breech may lead to a misfire.
Misfire procedures employed
in temperate climates for a round stuck in a howitzer must be modified
in cold regions. Pouring a
solution high in antifreeze down the tube may be effective in forcing
out a stuck round. Another
technique involves the use of hydraulic fluid, which does not freeze
during the process and acts like a
penetrating oil to dislodge the stuck
round.
WARNING
DO NOT USE AMMUNITION AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURES BELOW THAT
SPECIFIED ON THE AMMUNITION.
Combustible Cartridge Case Ammunition
It may be difficult to remove the combustible cartridge case round from
its fiber packing container. This
is because a vacuum is formed in the container behind the cartridge when
attempts are made to remove
the rear portion of the container. Tapping a small hole in the metal end
of the fiber container at the using
unit level is "UNAUTHORIZED" due to the possibility of
striking the primer.
Take carewhen handling the combustible cartridge case round to protect it
from damage. The case can be
cracked or broken by dropping or hitting it against the
side of a vehicle.
Loaders may have difficulty removing the neoprene barrier bag when the
cartridge is on the loading tray.
If difficulty is encountered, try removing the bag while the cartridge
is still partially in the rack.
Cold affects mortar ammunition the same way as other types of ammunition.
Firing tables may be used
provided the proper range corrections, based on cold weather
conditions, are established through
experience. Consult TM 43-0001-28 and applicable firing tables for
charge restrictions at low
temperatures.
The following guidelines apply to ammunition in a winter
warfare environment:
q Due to incomplete burning of propellants, expect a decrease in
achieved range versus the plotted
range. This decrease may be as much as 10 percent at -10? F
and 20 percent at -40? F.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
q Keep ammunition and tube dry. Only open as many rounds as required
for the current fire mission
and use the tube cover provided.
q Swab the tube after every tenth round or after every
fire-for-effect.
q When firing into snow, try to obtain an airburst. Snow decreases
dramatically the effect of white
phosphorous and fragmentation rounds.
q When firing into frozen surfaces, fuze delay frequently
produces better
q fragmentation in the form of a bounce airburst than a
quick setting.
Table 4-1 shows expected results when firing into typical cold region
terrain while using the M732
multioption fuze.
When firing at low temperatures, double misfire wait times due to the
possibility of delayed ignition. The
new 60mm and 81mm mortars employ a trigger mechanism that allows the
firing pin to be recocked and
fired. With these mortars, misfire times do not have to
be increased.
GRENADES
Using hand grenades in cold conditions can present some unusual problems.
Personnel wearing gloves or
mittens must take added precautions.
Hand Grenades
The fragmentation effect of hand grenades in severe cold temperatures is
diminished when detonated
under snow. When throwing hand grenades during cold weather conditions,
personnel wearing handgear
must take the following precautions:
q Ensure handgear is completely dry. Handling of snow and ice may
result in grenades freezing to
the wet handgear.
HEIGHT OF BURST IN FEET ABOVE GROUND SURFACE
Table 4-1. Results of M732 multioption fuze
q Hold grenades near the neck of the fuze to avoid slipping or
turning of the grenades when safety
pins are removed.
q Right-handed throwers rest the grenade safety lever between the
first and second knuckles of the
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
thumb to ensure a sensitive feeling of the safety lever.
Left-handed throwers hold the lever with
the thumb by holding the grenade upside down. This procedure
provides ready access to the safety
pin ring (Figure 4-1).
Figure 4-1. Cold weather grenade procedures
MINES
Mine warfare in cold regions demands special precautions to be
successful. As little as six inches of
snow can reduce the effects and detection of mines and unexploded
ordnance (UXO). Emplacing and
extracting mines in frozen ground becomes impossible in
frozen surfaces.
The rapidity and amount of snowfall in a single night makes marking a
minefield crucial for recovering
them. This also affects the decision whether to booby-trap them and how.
In deep snow, branches or
crossed sticks placed under the mines provide a useful snowshoe effect.
Otherwise, they may be simply
pushed deeper into the snow by the passage of the enemy rather than
detonated. Care must be taken
while emplacing mines when temperatures are changing, since recovery is
difficult when mines are
frozen to the ground.
Snow severely inhibits the family of scatterable mines (FASCAM). Besides
the decreased blast effects,
the self-orientation characteristic of the mines may not successfully
complete the arming sequences and
will self-destruct to prevent improper detonation of the mine. Also, the
trip wires may not be ejected
properly, thereby negating that
capability.
DEMOLITIONS
Cold affects the ability to employ demolitions effectively. Handling
becomes a partnership or team
effort. FM 5-25 discourages the handling of demolitions while wearing
gloves, but gloves are a must in
cold regions. Special considerations must be made for the type of
munitions and type of gloves worn.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Thin leather gloves may provide some protection from the extreme cold and
allow the dexterity required
to manipulate the demolitions.
Plastic explosive, C-4, becomes very hard, making the insertion of an
initiating device difficult unless
done in a warm shelter prior to its use. For this reason, TNT is
preferred because initiating device
couplers are built into the blocks. Also, at temperatures of -40? F and
colder, C-4 sometimes shatters
from the explosion of its initiating device rather than detonating.
Military dynamite or TNT blocks are
excellent for use in cold regions for projects like digging hasty
fighting or firing positions.
Shaped charges do not penetrate as far as indicated in FM 5-25 or TM
9-1375-213-12; as adjusted data
are not readily available, experience must dictate
their uses.
The detonation cord and time fuse become stiff in the cold. They do not
tie as easily as in temperate
zones, and break easily. Also, the time fuze tends to maintain its curl
and break if uncurling is attempted,
except inside warm shelter.
Condensation contributes to increased chance of misfire in the cold.
Hangfire and misfire waiting times
should be doubled in cold regions. Taping over ends of detonation cord,
caps, and igniter may prevent
condensation contamination of the firing
system.
Static electricity easily develops under cold, dry conditions. Because
of this, nonelectrical detonation
techniques are preferred over electrical
ones.
Section X
Fire Control Equipment
PRECAUTIONS
Sighting and fire control materiel operate satisfactorily at sub-zero
temperatures if properly winterized
and if certain adjustments are made.
When the LO for fire control materiel specifies oil, lubricate sparingly
with instrument lubricating oil
(OAI). In extreme cold weather operations, a thin film of oil is more
effective for lubricating fire control
mechanisms than a heavy application. It also affords adequate corrosion
protection. When the LO for fire
control materiel specifies grease, lubricate sparingly with aircraft
and instrument grease (GIA).
Ordnance maintenance of fire control equipment in severe cold weather is
difficult, especially where
shop facilities are scarce. Thoroughly inspect and winterize all materiel
before the onset of cold weather.
Whether it is planned to use a piece of equipment in a shelter or in a
heated trailer, prepare the materiel to
operate at the lowest expected
temperatures.
Do not suddenly transfer sighting and fire control materiel from cold
to warm or warm to cold
temperatures. Condensation induced by this action may cause clouding of
optics and rusting of internal
parts. Use anticondensation containers as prescribed in
Section III.
Do not put severe bends in interconnecting cables. All electrical cables
should be removed periodically
from under accumulated snow. This eliminates locating and digging out
cables when preparing to shift
the emplacement. Use a cable reel to take up cable when shifting
positions, and take care not to allow
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
kinks to form. To prevent heavy equipment from running over
interconnecting cables, use stake markers
to define the cable paths. Markers also facilitate locating
cables for repairs.
FOGGING OF EYEPIECES
When using optical instruments in severe cold weather, do not breathe on
the eyepieces. When warm
breath comes in contact with the eyepieces, the moisture in the breath
condenses on the lenses and turns
to frost. The frost fogs the eyepieces, making
observation impossible.
There is no satisfactory antifog solution for use on eyepieces of optical
instruments at low temperatures.
Some solutions prevent fogging, but they streak the lens, making
observation difficult or impossible.
The cold weather mask (Figure 4-2) is the most satisfactory method of
keeping breath away from
eyepieces. However, a face mask of any type is useful only as long as it
directs the breath away from the
lens or absorbs the moisture from the breath.
Figure 4-2. Cold weather mask
A serviceable face mask can be made from any piece of cloth, woolen scarf,
or piece of gauze tied across
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
the face just below the eyes. A mask made from any of these materials not
only protects the operator's
face from the wind but also deflects the breath from the lens. Change
the mask periodically to avoid
freezing the face.
When using a range finder, a blanket thrown over the operator and part of
the tube increases the time of
observation from 2 to 3 minutes to about 20 minutes before the eyepiece
fogs. Clean optical surfaces by
using tissue lens paper moistened with a few drops of optical lens
liquid cleaning compound.
NOTE: Ethyl alcohol can substitute for cleaning compound. If neither lens
cleaning compound
nor alcohol is available, use dry lens paper. Wrap lens paper around the
end of a sliver of wood
to make a swab. Dip the swab in optical lens liquid cleaning compound,
shake off the excess, and
clean lens. Wipe away any compound with lens paper, rubbing from the
center outward in a
spiral pattern.
CAUTION
NEVER POUR ALCOHOL DIRECTLY ON THE LENS SURFACES, AS EXCESS ALCOHOL
WILL INJURE THE LENS SEALING COMPOUND. DO NOT USE ETHYL ALCOHOL
NEAR AN OPEN FLAME OR EXCESSIVE HEAT SOURCE.
PURGING
Most sighting and fire control instruments are filled with dry nitrogen
to prevent accumulation of
moisture inside the instruments. Unit mechanics purge and charge sighting
and fire control materiel IAW
applicable TMs or when condensation is evident in the
instrument.
The gunner's primary sight (GPS) on the M1 series tank has a defroster,
which does not automatically
shut off after clearing the sight's day window. Excessive heat so
generated can crack the window.
POWERED SYSTEMS
While some fire control systems use nonpowered devices, most of the
newer systems require a power
source, either from batteries or external sources. For a full discussion
of batteries, refer to Chapter 1 of
this manual and to TM 9-6140-200-14.
Some systems require external primary or backup power sources. As
temperatures drop, prescribed
batteries begin to lose their effectiveness. At lower temperatures,
operators may be required to
discontinue battery operation and connect the power cable and adapter
to a vehicle auxiliary power
(slave) receptacle.
Expect temperate zone dry batteries to lose considerable electrical
capacity because of decreased
chemical activity. These batteries may be used to operate equipment at
low temperatures if the internal
temperature of every battery is kept high enough to permit normal
chemical activity. Dry batteries
preheated to approximately 70? F retain sufficient heat for an
appreciable period before replacement is
necessary. The period of use depends on the rate that heat is conducted
away from the battery. It can be
extended if the battery is insulated from cold-conducting surfaces by
means of nonconductive materials.
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
When soldiers must carry replacement batteries, they can use the
following means to retard heat loss.
After preheating, place the batteries in bags lined with kapok or
spun-glass fiber materials, wrap in
woolen clothing, or carry them close to the body. Under certain
conditions, it is advantageous to carry the
batteries separate from the equipment by using a connecting cord and
plug. This arrangement may
require certain modifications to the using equipment to permit
installation of the connecting cord and
plug. Usually, the modifications are minor and readily
accomplished by the using unit.
If replacement batteries can be carried in a vehicle, a well-insulated
box that has small heater elements
powered from the vehicle battery will ensure maximum usable life of the
batteries without heat loss.
PROTECTION OF TUBE EXTENSIONS AND EYEPIECES
Snow can collect in uncovered eyepieces and tube sunshades or extensions,
rendering instruments useless
until the snow is removed. Do not try to blow the snow out of these parts
or wipe it out with gloves or
bare hands. Some of the particles of snow will melt and freeze on the
lenses, causing further difficulty.
Use a small, stiff brush or small, rubber bulb with nozzle
to remove the snow.
A temporary method of keeping snow out of eyepieces and tube extensions is
to put loose wads of tissue
lens paper in them when the instrument is not in use. These wads can be
removed easily. Care should be
taken to prevent the tissues from becoming wet and
freezing the tube.
LEVEL VIALS
When cold-soaked at temperatures below approximately -40?F, the level
vials on sighting and fire
control items encounter sluggish movement, elongation of the bubbles, and
at times, bubble separation.
Sluggish bubble movement and elongated bubbles do not affect the
precision of the piece. However,
bubble separation does affect accuracy. When bubble separation occurs,
briskly rub the top surface of the
level vial, and the bubbles will join to become one
bubble.
COMPENSATED SIGHT PICTURE
For operations in cold regions, mortar gunners must practice firing using
the compensated sight picture.
This is the rule rather than the exception when firing from frozen
surfaces (Figure 4-3).
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FM 9-207 Chapter 4
Figure 4-3.Compensated sight picture
LASERS
The effectiveness of lasers is reduced by rain, snow, clouds, and fog.
This is due to the beam being
diffused by the water molecules in the
air.
COMPASSES, BINOCULARS, AND OTHER OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
The liquid in the lensatic compass thickens in severe cold. The heavy
liquid slows the action of the
compass and may make it inaccurate. Carry this type of compass near the
body in the inner clothing to
keep the liquid warm and thin. The dry-type compass is not affected
by extreme cold weather.
Cold weather does not affect binoculars and other liquid-free optical
instruments. However, condensation
does form when instruments are taken from cold air into warm air. Leave
instruments outside or use
anticondensation containers.
Cover equipment such as telescopes while not in use. If a cover cannot
be made to include the whole
instrument, make bag-type cloth covers to go over the eyepieces and tube
extensions. Cloth covers are
better than airtight covers, such as the leather covers provided for some
instruments. The cloth covers
allow breathing of the air in contact with the lens. This prevents
condensation when the instrument
encounters lower temperatures. Cloth bag covers can be made with a spring,
elastic, or drawstring at the
4-22
FM 9-207 Chapter 4
mouth so they can be held in place and
easily/quickly removed.
When temperatures drop, the pressure on the hydraulic
accumulator of the
independent thermal viewer must be lowered, or its pump will work too
hard and wear out quickly. The
image transfer assembly also needs attention when the seasons change to
preclude excessive purging and
desiccant changes. Proper pressures are listed in updated TM
9-2350-259-20.
DIGITIZED EQUIPMENT
Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are sometimes affected by extreme cold,
causing erratic readings. Do not
force switches and knobs on equipment. Thawing may be needed if
accumulations of snow or ice have
interfered with operations.
4-23
FM 9-207 Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Small Arms
Section I
Cold Weather Problems
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Just as with larger weapon systems, severe cold can adversely affect small
arms. Special care and
procedures must be followed to keep them functioning properly.
Cold-Dry Conditions
Exposed metal surfaces require more frequent applications of smaller
amounts of lubrication in order to
remain fully functional in the cold-dry air.
Condensation
Condensation forms on weapons when they are taken from the cold into any
type of heated shelter. This
condensation is often referred to as sweating. When the weapon is later
taken out into the cold air, the
film of condensation freezes. This is especially serious when it occurs in
the internal parts of the weapon,
and stoppages and malfunctions result. When weapons are taken into heated
shelters for cleaning
purposes, sweating may continue for as long as one hour. When time
permits, wait one hour, remove all
condensation, and then clean the weapon.
Any opening that allows air to enter can also be a condensation problem
area. When in combat, leave
winterized weapons outdoors and covered. An alternative method is to place
individual weapons between
the tent and tent liner. This method allows for rapid access to the
weapons, provides security, and still
protects the weapon from excessive condensation. Special cleaning
procedures reduce problems caused
by condensation. When enemy contact is imminent, the interior climate of
troop compartments of
transportation systems (especially aircraft) should be maintained close to
freezing (32?F). This prevents
overheating of troops dressed in the cold regions uniform. It also
prevents moisture from condensing and
refreezing on weapons as troops debark into the cold from warm aircraft
and vehicles. Soldiers and
aircraft crews must exercise caution when loading soldiers after periods
of heavy exertion. Sweat buildup
and body heat of soldiers loaded on an aircraft can cause extreme and
rapid fogging of the aircrafts
windshields, blocking pilot vision. Soldiers preparing for extraction
should ventilate their uniforms and
remove as much body heat buildup as possible.
Maintenance procedures may require modification to reduce problems created
by condensation. For
example, the operator is not normally allowed to disassemble the buffer
assembly of his M16A2 rifle.
However, such disassembly may be necessary to prevent rifle stoppages due
to condensation and
5-1
FM 9-207 Chapter 5
refreezing.
Despite precautions, weapons parts may still freeze. If they do, slow and
careful manual operation may
free them and prevent breakage.
Snow and Ice
Blowing snow tends to get into working parts, sights, barrels, magazines,
and ammunition, especially
when moving in deep snow under combat conditions. Use covers and muzzle
caps when available, but
remove them prior to firing.
Visibility
Blowing snow and ice fog inhibit soldiers? abilities to acquire and engage
targets with small arms. Also,
weapons fire creates a pall of ice fog that can hang over the weapon
position, not only blocking the
gunner?s vision, but revealing the position to enemy gunners.
FUNCTIONING DIFFICULTIES
Cold adversely affects the functioning of small arms. Care must be taken
to identify problems and apply
corrective action.
Sluggishness
A common weapons problem in cold weather is sluggish operation. Normal
lubricants thicken at low
temperatures, and stopped or sluggish action of firearms results. During
the winter, weapons must be
stripped completely and cleaned with a dry-cleaning solvent to remove all
lubricants and rust prevention
compounds. Below 10?F, LAW helps moving parts slide better than CLP or
LSA. These products
provide proper lubrication during the winter and help minimize freezing of
snow and ice on the weapons.
Breakages and Malfunctions
Another problem the soldier faces in severe cold is a higher rate of
breakage and malfunctions. This can
be attributed primarily to the cold, although snow in weapons can also
cause stoppages and malfunctions.
The hardened metal parts of automatic weapons are more brittle than soft
metal in cold temperatures.
When the weapon is fired at sub-zero temperatures, parts can break within
the first few rounds. Short
bursts warm the gun to a normal firing temperature. Weapons should first
be fired at a slow rate of fire.
Once the parts have warmed up, the rate of fire may be increased to the
normal cyclic rate.
Emplacement
Most crew-served infantry weapons need a natural base or gun platform to
fire accurately. In warm
weather, the ground provides a solid base and yet has enough resiliency to
act as a shock absorber. If the
weapon is emplaced on solid, frozen ground, there is no ?give?. All the
shock of firing is absorbed by the
weapon itself, resulting in damage. Also, the slippery surface of the
frozen ground may allow the weapon
to slide.
If the snow is not too deep, and if time permits, tripods should be
positioned by expedient means to keep
them from moving. Lashing the tripod feet to logs that rest on pine boughs
or brush, or using the ahkio
(sled) as a firing platform, are methods of stabilizing tripods.
5-2
FM 9-207 Chapter 5
Section II
Effects of Cold on Small Arms and Ammunition
PRECAUTIONS
When using weapons or handling ammunition in severe cold, the operator
should wear gloves or
trigger-finger mittens with liners.
Sudden changes in temperature can cause plastic handgrips, like those on
the M203 grenade launcher, to
crack. Wrapping the weapon in a blanket or poncho before bringing it from
a cold to a warm area helps
warm it gradually.
PISTOLS
When using pistols in cold weather, difficulties that arise can include
damage to moving parts and firing
the pistol wearing arctic mittens. Malfunctions can be caused by snow or
ice-plugged clips.
RIFLES
Malfunctions and breakages are 3 rifles may be caused by snow or
ice-plugged magazines. Apply LAW
to prevent bipods from freezing in position. Although all rifles create
ice fog, the signature effects are
minimized since the firer can change position.
MACHINE GUNS
Machine guns (MGs) break and malfunction at a high rate in cold weather.
Gun crews must carry extra
sears and bolt parts. One common malfunction that occurs early in firing
is short recoil (bolt does not
recoil fully to the rear). The prescribed immediate action for the
particular weapon should be applied. As
the metal warms, the problem will diminish. A second type of malfunction
is caused by the freezing and
hardening of buffers. This in turn causes great shock and rapid recoil,
thereby increasing the cyclic rate.
When this happens, parts usually break.
Condensation causes parts to freeze. All internal parts and friction
surfaces of MGs should be coated
with LAW. These weapons have fewer malfunctions when fired cold and dry if
sub-zero lubricants are
not available. Firing should consist of short, two- or three-round bursts
fired at close intervals. Since ice
fog greatly impairs the gunner?s vision along his line of sight, crews
must prepare two or three alternate
gun positions.
After changing barrels, if the hot barrel is laid directly on snow or ice,
it may warp or disappear in deep
snow. A tarp or poncho keeps barrels from warping or disappearing.
AMMUNITION
Cold weather does not materially affect the performance of small arms
ammunition. Ammunition should
be kept at the same temperature as the weapon and should be carried in
bandoleers. Additional
ammunition should be protected in the pockets of the parka or rucksack.
Ammunition, clips, and magazines must be cleaned of all oil and
preservative and must be frequently
5-3
FM 9-207 Chapter 5
checked. Remove all ice, snow, and condensation. Keep cartridge
containers, magazines, and
ammunition drums closed to prevent the formation of rust or ice.
Store ammunition in original containers. Raise storage containers off the
ground and cover them with
tarpaulins, ponchos, salvage tents, or any other material that affords
protection from the snow.
Ammunition so stored should be marked to assist with relocating it if the
storage containers become
snow-covered.
Resupply in cold climates is also difficult, especially the resupply of
heavy, bulky ammunition. All
soldiers must practice ammunition economy and fire discipline to reduce
resupply requirements. Loaded
clips, magazines, or single rounds dropped into the snow are often lost.
Careful handling of ammunition
is essential.
5-4
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
Chapter 6
Communication and Information Systems Equipment
Section I
Cold Weather Problems
PHENOMENA
Certain climatic conditions affect communications and communications
equipment in cold regions. These
include: cold temperatures associated with dry air, condensation resulting
from relatively rapid temperature
changes, frozen surfaces, snow and ice, visibility, and electromagnetic
conditions.
Cold-Dry Air
In cold-dry air,cold-soaked equipment is especially difficult to assemble.
Increased attention to detail, patience,
and special preparation to prevent damage is required. This includes
working with tight connections, electrical
contacts, inflexible cables, power cords, grounding, control knobs, rubber
covers, binding posts, and other
moving parts. Assembly of equipment is also complicated by the bulky
gloves or mittens worn by operators and
maintainers.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, cold markedly lessens the operational life of
batteries. At -40? F the storage battery
for the radio sets SINCGARS cease to operate, resulting in lost codes, and
requiring reloading after rewarming.
The dry air, coupled with the wind and cold, can cause considerable
buildup of static electricity on
nonconducting surfaces. This buildup can be a hazard to operators and
technicians, as well as to equipment.
Temperature inversions that occur on the coldest days in cold regions
degrade frequency modulation (FM)
communications signal strength drastically. This must be considered when
planning troop dispositions and
locations of command and control centers.
Condensation
Rapid changes in relative temperature cause cold-soaked equipment to sweat
and frost up when moved rapidly
between warmth and cold. Electrical contacts are especially susceptible.
Also, frosting from the breath of the
operators can render microphones inoperable.
Frozen Surfaces
Frozen surfaces serve as heat sinks and rapidly cool equipment. A good
rule is to keep all communications
equipment off the ground. Adequate grounding is important on many pieces
of communications equipment, yet
is very difficult to achieve on frozen surfaces.
NOTE: Standard grounding systems will require considerable effort to
construct, and in some cases prove to
be impossible. Shaped charges, coupled with water-saturated salt/soil
backfill poured over the grounding
device, provide one of the best means for penetrating frozen earth.
Extraction of grounding devices is more than likely possible only after
seasonal thawing. Use of existing
6-1
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
grounds (pipes, established grounds, and buried steel) is desirable, as
long as the pipes are not conduits for gas
or flammable liquids.
Snow and Ice
Snow and ice can get into any unprotected openings in equipment. Use the
equipment covers provided for most
communications equipment. Signal attenuation due to ice on antennas is
also
common in cold regions. Drip loops for overhead connections, especially
power connections, are required.
Since small items dropped in the snow are easily lost, more frequent
inventory of sets and kits is advised.
Visibility
Prolonged hours of darkness affect communications equipment operation and
maintenance in several ways.
Inventory, assembly, and disassembly in the dark are difficult and
time-consuming, especially when wearing
required gloves or mittens. High frequency (HF) wave propagation markedly
deteriorates with changes
occurring in the ionosphere as darkness approaches. Lower frequency
assignments that need longer antennas are
also required. A good day of HF communications between stations 100
kilometers or more apart might be
limited to only six hours.
Electromagnetic Conditions
The Aurora Borealis activity can cause noise, suppress signals, and cause
unusual wave propagation in radio
communications. While electromagnetic interference does not damage
equipment, planners must anticipate this
degradation in choosing unit locations. Fading and severe static can cause
speech secure devices, such as the
KY-7, to lose signal, requiring numerous retransmissions of long messages.
Units reportedly use Aurora activity to gain greater range for HF radio by
reflecting directional signals off the
light fields. However, this innovative use of conditions is the exception.
The greater magnetic declination angles
encountered as one moves farther north also greatly affect radio
communications positioning and orientation of
directional antennas. These problems increase the need for strict
supervision.
The most effective tactical ground system for use in frozen ground is the
Surface Wire Ground System
(SWGS). This system consists of pins connected together with cable to form
a grounding grid. Typically, the
best grounding that can be obtained with either a six-foot grounding rod
or the SWGS is about 3,000 ohms of
resistance.
Section II
Operation and Maintenance of Communications and Information
Systems
RADIO SYSTEMS
Several considerations for radio equipment were addressed in the previous
section. A good rule to follow and
enforce is to handle all communications/electronic equipment very
carefully when cold. A radio dropped on
cold ground or thrown into the back of a vehicle is easily damaged.
Control knobs may be sluggish or even
frozen and require careful handling.
Even well-maintained equipment requires considerable warmup time. For
example, 15 to 20 minutes warmup
before voice transmission may be required, and a cold-soaked AN/GRC-42
radioteletype system might require
warming for three to four hours. Keeping equipment as warm as possible can
be achieved with careful planning
and innovation. Use chemical heat pads and styrofoam to keep equipment,
especially speech secure devices,
operational. Placement of radios and switchboards off the ground and away
from exterior tent or shelter walls is
advisable.
6-2
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
Another hazard is, ironically, too much heat. Needless damage to equipment
is often incurred by improperly
placing the equipment too near shelter heat sources, such as a stove or
heater. Electronic components and
insulators can easily melt or burn, and some batteries explode when thawed
too close to a heat source.
Lithium batteries, like the BA-5598 for the radio set SINCGARS, are
especially effective in cold weather and
do not need warming at temperatures above -20? F. Dry cells should be kept
warm until needed. Extra batteries
can replace cold batteries in use; after warming, they can be used again.
Batteries should not be installed in idle
equipment. Plastic pins on battery connections get brittle in the cold;
install them carefully.
Each user of a portable manpacked radio should carry the handset inside at
least one layer of clothing to prevent
the push-to-talk button from freezing. This requirement, combined with the
operator wearing a parka hood,
severely hampers the ability to hear incoming transmissions. This may be
overcome by using external speakers
such as the LS-454/U. Use plastic coverings, such as battery packaging, to
cover the mouthpieces of handsets.
These should be used even with the presence of moisture shields to keep
moisture from the operator's breath
from freezing the handset. An excellent alternative is the standard
nonlubricated prophylactic slipped over the
handset. A wool sock over the handset keeps snow and ice out and protects
the operator from direct contact with
cold plastic and metal. Placing an unthawed handset directly against lips
or ears can cause physical injury.
Anticontact gloves should be available and used when touching cold metal
equipment. Cold injury and loss of
surface skin can occur after the briefest of contact with cold handles,
knobs, and surfaces. Also, common tools,
such as the TL-13A lineman's pliers, should have handles wrapped in
plastic or tape to provide protection.
Spare connectors, cables, handsets, and antennas should be readily
available for replacement when failures
happen. Metals and plastic become remarkably brittle and crack and break
easily in the cold. Friction tape is
advised rather than plastic tape, which loses its adhesiveness in the
cold.
Vehicular radios also require careful attention. Small physical shocks can
cause whip antenna damage when in
the upright position. Radios should be warmed for three to four minutes on
low power before changing to high
power settings or transmitting. The vehicle for the particular radio being
used should be cycled periodically
IAW its -10 series manual when temperatures dip below -30? F. The vehicle,
when cycled, should be idled at
approximately 1,200 RPM. Otherwise, the high discharge rate necessary to
operate both the radio and the heater
soon wears out vehicle batteries.
ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Attention to proper assembly of antennas is a commonly overlooked
requirement in the cold and dark. Shortcuts
and failure to follow prescribed instructions often result in interruption
or degradation of communications and
damage to equipment. The RC-292 and OE-254 antenna masts must be erected
with enough sections to ensure
necessary height.
Erecting
Standard stakes are often useless in frozen ground. GP-101 cold-weather
stakes can be ordered for the RC-292,
or the GP-112 for the OE-254. Because they are slimmer than standard
stakes, they do not hold as well when
the ground thaws. Heavy 12-inch steel tent pins have been used
successfully. Tree and rock tie-offs are also
acceptable. Another method for erecting an FM antenna is to guide the mast
carefully alongside a tree and
secure it to the trunk using one of the attached guy lines. Exercise care
not to damage any of the elements,
cable, or mast sections upon erecting.
Proper inventory of unused hardware is essential since parts are easily
lost in snow and darkness. Care must
also be taken not to let moisture accumulate due to condensation or
precipitation and ground out the antenna
6-3
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
against the trunk.
NOTE: Prior to assembly, expose antennas to the cold to prevent sweating
and freezing. This prevents
problems with disassembly.
Keep the mast sections clean and free of foreign matter. Lubricate the
male and female ends of each mast
section only with silicone lubricant. After applying the silicone and
joining the sections, back off the joints by
approximately one turn as a precaution against sticking.
The RG-213 coaxial cable is recommended over RG-8 cable; the latter
becomes brittle and cracks at
temperatures below -20? F. Spare cable connectors and adaptors are
recommended, since damage and loss are
common. Loop and tape coaxial antenna cable near the top of the mast to
ease pressure on the connector. Tape
the cable at intervals along the mast to prevent the whipping action of
the wind from causing damage to the
antenna. Tap the mast periodically to shake free snow and frost
accumulation, which can degrade transmission
signal strength. Make guy lines in a manner to prevent tripping on the
antenna guys and disabling the antenna.
Keep ceramic bowls dry because water collects in them during warm weather.
When temperatures drop, they
freeze, causing the more brittle glass to crack. Applying silicone where
the two bowl halves join assists in
sealing against further cold damage.
Length
HF and long wire antennas can approach 75 meters in length, depending on
the frequencies used. Attention to
measurement is critical. The same applies to FM antennas. For the RC-292,
the appropriate numbers of
elements for radians and ground plan sections are given in Figure 6-1.
6-4
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
Figure 6-1. Antenna dimensions
6-5
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
Orientation
Orienting an azimuth is important and often difficult because of the
requirement to compute large declination
angles in northern latitudes. Directional antennas are often required to
compensate for other conditions causing
range degradation.
WIRE AND CABLE SYSTEMS
Laying wire over long distances in deep snow is greatly facilitated by the
use of oversnow vehicles. These
vehicles can also be the worst enemy of wire systems. Their skis and
tracks damage surface-laid wire and cable
that they pass over, dragging away large sections and cutting critical
circuits. Standard wire-laying techniques,
ties, and tagging apply in cold regions as well as in temperate zones.
Aerial laying is advised when tactically
feasible. Burial is desirable, but often difficult or impossible.
Retrieving wire in cold regions is tedious and
usually results in excessive salvage work due to ice and traffic damage.
Stringing wire overhead is preferred
because the wire will not freeze to the ground.
Wire insulation is often brittle, and impedance is increased in snow or
damp conditions. Splices performed in
the cold are often done improperly, and fewer can be allowed for continued
use of serviced wire. A slack factor
of 30 percent is recommended for wire-laying teams instead of the 20
percent suggested in the TM. This allows
for cold weather shrinkage.
The TA-1/PT voice-powered telephone tends to perform poorly in extreme
cold on wire of lengths extending
beyond squad or platoon boundaries. The TA-312/PT, when powered by
alkaline batteries (such as the
BA-3030/U), provides reliable communications and is the preferred
instrument for wire troubleshooting teams.
Reeling wire and cable should be done carefully; reeled wire freezes into
a coiled shape and should be warmed
up before unreeling. The use of bigger coils also reduces the chances of
pinches or breaks.
The newer type WD-1/TT field communications wire performs nearly as well
in the cold as the old type of
spiral wire. It is less durable and more susceptible to damage by vehicle
traffic, however, and should be used in
less traveled areas. The WD-36/TT assault wire is lighter and easier to
handle, man-pack, dispense, and splice
than WD-1/TT in the cold, but it is much less durable.
POWER SOURCES
Generators should be thoroughly inspected and winterized, since experience
has shown that they develop a
higher failure rate at sub-zero temperatures. This is attributable to
outdated LOs, exposed batteries, and other
elements. Follow these procedures for best results:
q Winterize the item using the correct cold weather lubricants.
q Move the air filter's intake shutter to WINTER when temperatures drop
below freezing, so that warm
manifold air keeps the carburetor from freezing up.
q Find a way to keep the battery warm, and prevent ice and snow from
plugging battery cap vent holes.
Keep one battery fully charged.
q Preheat using other heat sources when possible.
q Use the correct fuel icing inhibitor: technical methanol for
gasoline; fuel system icing inhibitor for diesel
fuel.
q Provide shelter so that the item provides its own heat. If a shelter
is not available, use pallets or trailers to
keep the generator off snow, ice, or frozen ground.
q Use correct idling and running speeds.
6-6
FM 9-207 CHAPTER 6
q Follow correct shutdown maintenance procedures.
q Use clean fuel and additives. A common problem is leaving expended
fuel cans with caps off, allowing
accumulation of snow and moisture in the can. This mistake
eventually leads to icing in the fuel lines.
Keep fuel tanks as full as possible to reduce condensation.
q Check, drain, and clean filters at least daily and at shutdown to
prevent icing. Change oil more often in
cold weather.
q Proper grounding of generators is important, but is seldom done
satisfactorily. Perform expedient
grounding by using an ice auger to cut through frozen surfaces,
then submerge conductors in the water.
TC 11-6, Grounding Techniques, is an excellent guide. If an area is
used in summer and winter, bury a
three-foot-square metal plate below the moisture line before the
ground freezes. If its location is marked,
it can be used when the earth is frozen. An existing ground, like
an underground metal pipe, can be used
as long as it is not for gas or flammable liquid. A cluster of
short rods connected in parallel, or a long rod
buried horizontally, can serve as a ground, as long as it reaches
below the frostline. Ground rods work
best if driven near a heat source, with a salt solution poured
around it--about a pound of salt in a gallon of
water.
COMPUTERS
Most computers are not designed to operate at extremely low temperatures
and may become unreliable or
unavailable for use (0? F for larger work stations, -30? F for small
handheld devices). Liquid crystal displays
(LCD), especially, may be affected by extreme cold. Frozen knobs, dials,
and switches should not be forced.
LCD displays can freeze or break below 32? F. When initially turned on, an
LCD display in cold weather is
faint and hard to read. If it is left on it will improve over time due to
self warming.
NICAD computer batteries do not last as long in below 32? F weather.
Charge rate for cold-soaked batteries is
slower.
6-7
FM 9-207 APPENDIX A
Appendix A
Antifreeze Materials, Fuels, Hydraulic Fluids, and Lubricants
for Use in Cold Weather to -65?
This appendix contains a listing of antifreeze materials, fuels, hydraulic
fluids, and lubricants for use in cold
weather. Ensure LOs are checked before using or adding any materials.
ITEM NSN
CONTAINER SIZE
Additive, Antifreeze Extender, Liquid 6850-01-160-3868
1-gal can
Cooling System
1-gal plastic
MIL-A-53009)
55-gal drum
Alcohol, Denatured, Grade 6810-00-543-7415
1-gal can
III 0-E-760 6810-00-201-0907
5-gal can
6810-00-201-0904
55-gal drum
Antifreeze, Ethylene Glycol, Inhibited, 6850-00-181-7929
1-gal can
Heavy Duty, Single Package 6850-00-181-7933
5-gal can
MIL-A-46153) 6850-00-181-7940
55-gal drum
Brake Fluid, Silicone, Automotive, 9150-01-059-2586
1-gal can
All-Weather, Operational and 9150-00-102-9455
1-gal plastic
Preservative (BFS) 9150-01-072-8379
55-gal drum
(MIL-B-46176)
Cleaner, Rifle Bore (CRC) 6850-00-224-6656
2-oz can
MIL-C-372 6850-00-224-6657
8-oz can
Compound, Cleaning With 6850-00-598-7328 package
Conditioner and Inhibitor for Engine
Cooling Systems (MIL-C-10597)
Dry-Cleaning Solvent: P-D-680
Type I 6850-00-264-9037 55-gal drum, 16
Type I 6850-00-285-8012 55-gal drum, 18
Type II 6850-00-281-1986 55-gal drum, 16
Type II 6850-00-285-8011 55-gal drum, 18
Gasoline, Automotive, Combat Type II 9130-00-160-1830 bulk
9130-00-160-1831 5-gal can
9130-00-221-0685 55-gal drum, 16
gal
9130-00-240-8201 55-gal drum, 18
gal
A-2
FM 9-207 APPENDIX A
Lubricating Oil, Gear, Multipurpose, 9150-00-257-5440 5-gal can
Arctic (GO-75W) MIL-L-2105
Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, 9150-00-252-6173 4-oz can
Light (LO) VV-L-2105
Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, Low 9150-00-542-1430 4-oz can
Temperature (GP) 9150-00-263-3490 1-qt can
MIL-L-7870
Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, 9150-00-231-6689 1-qt can
Preservative (PL-S) VV-L-800 9150-00-273-2389 4-oz can
9150-00-281-2060 55-gal drum,
18-gal
Lubricating Oil, Instrument (OAI) 9150-00-257-5449 4-oz can
MIL-L-6085 9150-00-223-4129 1-qt can
9150-00-664-6518 1 1/2-oz can
Grease, Aircraft and Instrument (GIA) 9150-00-985-7245 8-oz
tube
MIL-G-23827 9150-00-985-7246 1-qt
can
9150-00-985-7247 1-gal
can
9150-00-935-4017 4
1/2-oz cartridge
9150-00-985-7248 35-lb
pail
Grease, Automotive and Artillery 9150-00-190-0907 35-lb
pail
(GAA) MIL-G-10924 9150-00-190-0904 1-qt
can
9150-00-190-0905 1-gal
can
9150-00-935-1017 14
1/2-oz cartridge
9150-00-065-0029 2
1/4-oz tube
Grease, Molybdenum Disulfide 9150-00-935-4018 14
1/2-oz cartridge
(GMD) MIL-G-21164 9150-00-754-2595 1-qt
can
9150-00-223-4004 1-gal
can
9150-00-065-2003 35-lb
pail
Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base for 9150-00-935-9807 1-qt
can
Preservation and Operation (OHT) 9150-00-935-9808 1-gal
can
MIL-H-6083 9150-00-935-9809 5-gal
pail
9150-00-935-9810 55-gal
drum
NOTE: OHT should be used wherever previous documents have specified OHC.
Hydraulic Fluid, Fire-Resistant, 9150-00-111-6254 1-gal
can
Synthetic Hydrocarbon Base (FRH) 9150-00-111-6255 5-gal
pail
9150-00-111-6256 1-qt
can
NOTE: OHT should be used for temperatures below -25? F.
Lubricant, Cleaner and Preservative 9150-01-053-6688 1-gal
can
for Weapons Systems (CLP) 9150-01-054-6453 1-pt
plastic
MIL-L-63460 9150-01-079-6124 4-oz
plastic bottle
9150-01-102-1473 1/2-oz
plastic bottle
NOTE: CO-75W should be used for temperatures below -25? F.
Lubricating Oil, Gear (GO-75W) 9150-01-035-5390 1-qt can
MIL-L-2105C 9150-01-048-4593 1-gal can
9150-01-035-5391 5-gal can
A-6
FM 9-207 APPENDIX B
Appendix B
Special Materials for Use in Cold Weather
(0?F To -65?F)
This appendix contains a listing of special materials available for use in
cold weather. Check appropriate
publications before ordering any item.
NSN ITEM
In spite of the difficulties cold weather may present to unit operations
and maintenance, leaders must
remember that units are still required to comply with federal, state,
local, and HN environmental
regulations.
Many cold weather areas contain fragile environmental ecosystems that
could be damaged significantly
by spills or improper hazardous waste and materials disposal. Increased
fuel consumption coupled with
the use of special oils, lubricants, batteries, and the failure of
equipment from low temperatures increases
the possibility of environmental damage.
In light of the increased risk, it is important that leaders conduct unit
environmental self-assessments
prior to deploying to a cold weather area. They must ensure that the
resulting risks are made part
of the unit environmental awareness training program.
An example of a unit environmental self-assessment is contained in
Appendix C, TC 5-400, Unit
Leaders' Handbook for Environmental Stewardship. The self-assessment looks
at the following:
management, waste-oil storage, hazardous material/ hazardous wastes,
solid-waste management, spill
prevention, recycle program, washracks, and land management. It is the
primary tool for conducting a
unit environmental assessment and should be supplemented by local
regulations. A copy of
Environmental Products, Chemical Alternatives, Recyclers, Aircraft
Cleaners and More, published by
the DLA, should be used to choose environmentally preferred substitutes
for the fluids, fuels, lubricants,
and materials listed in Appendix A.
C-1
FM 9-207 Appendix D
Appendix D
Sample Cold Weather Supplement to Unit Maintenance SOP
This SOP is provided as an example only. It should be modified to
accommodate specific unit equipment
and local procedures.
1. REFERENCES. FM 9-207, appropriate TMs, LOs, and local SOPs.
2. PURPOSE. Establish additional procedures for the operation and
maintenance of unit equipment in
cold conditions.
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
a. Commander
(1) Sets unit cold weather maintenance policy.
(2) Ensures that personnel comply with the provisions of the
cold weather SOP and the
above references.
(3) Ensures that super-visors, operators, and mechanics
receive proper training in cold
weather operations and maintenance.
(4) Ensures environmental compliance and that soldiers
receive proper training in
environmental awareness.
b. Maintenance Officer
(1) Plans, coordinates, and supervises cold weather
maintenance and recovery efforts.
(2) Ensures that adequate cold weather maintenance support
is provided to the unit.
c. Motor Sergeant. Supervises maintenance personnel in the proper
performance of cold weather
maintenance and services.
d. Mechanics. Perform cold weather maintenance and troubleshooting
IAW appropriate TMs, LOs,
and SOPs.
e. Equipment Operators. Operate vehicles and equipment IAW the cold
weather sections of
appropriate TMs and special instructions given by maintenance
personnel.
4. GENERAL. Cold weather effects on unit maintenance can be placed into
two major categories:
personnel and material.
a. Personnel. Major problems encountered by maintenance personnel
include:
D-1
FM 9-207 Appendix D
(1) Increased time to perform maintenance tasks due to bulky
clothing and adverse
conditions.
(2) The requirement for maintenance personnel to spend a
large portion of time on
self-preservation.
(3) The need to train maintenance personnel on improvising
and using expedient
maintenance and recovery procedures to combat cold weather.
b. Materiel. Cold weather adversely affects almost all materiels.
The lower the temperature, the
more adverse the effect. Specific effects include:
(1) Vehicles/equipment re-quire extra warmup time for metal
parts to reach operating
temperatures.
(2) Vehicles/equipment may require warming from an outside
heat source before starting.
(3) Caution must be taken when loading vehicles to prevent
undue stress on brittle metal
parts.
(4) Rubber becomes very stiff and brittle in extreme cold
and also when exposed to
moderate cold for long periods. Several hours of operation
or preheating may be required to
soften rubber.
(5) Wiring, cable, and rubber hoses may become brittle and
crack. Handle these items with
care to avoid damage.
(6) Plastics contract and become brittle. Plastic windows
crack easily. Use care in handling.
(7) Windows may crack if defrosted too rapidly. Never use
hot water to thaw windows in
extreme cold.
(8) Glass can crack when ice scrapers are used with hard or
violent jabs. Use scrapers with
caution.
(9) Tarps made of heavy canvas appear to shrink. It may be
difficult to fold or smooth
wrinkles in the canvas. Plastic tarps become brittle and
cracked. Store and unfold the tarps
in heated shelters whenever possible.
5. OPERATING PROCEDURES. All unit vehicle operators and maintenance
personnel will comply
with operational checks outlined in vehicle TMs, as well as the following
procedures:
a. Before Operations
(1) Check to ensure that brakes are not frozen and can be
released. The use of portable
heating equipment may be required.
(2) Check springs for cracking due to metal brittleness.
(3) Ensure tracks/wheels are not frozen to the ground. Park
vehicles on wooden blocks,
planks, or other materials to reduce freezing to the
surface. When operating tracks in
snow-covered and icy terrain, it may be necessary to remove
track pads, install ice cleats, or
D-2
FM 9-207 Appendix D
reverse track center guides to improve traction. Also, it may
be necessary to spread sand,
dirt, salt, or a combination of these materials over the
traveled surface to aid traction.
(4) Remove built-up dirt and ice from the suspension system.
(5) Ensure track tension has been adjusted for cold
operations by increasing the amount of
slack.
(6) Check vehicle oper-ators manual for inflation pressure.
Ensure tires are inflated properly
for operation. Deflate tires to normal pressure if pressure
was increased to compensate for
extended parking. Do not over-inflate tires.
(7) Ensure all carbon dioxide fire extinguishers have been
winterized IAW appropriate fire
extinguisher TB.
(8) When adding lubri-cants to an engine, prevent snow or ice
from entering crankcase.
(9) Ensure cooling sys-tems are protected with the correct
antifreeze compound.
(10) Ensure vehicle is fueled with the proper grade arctic
fuel or with JP-8, as specified by
the TM or appropriate TB.
(11) If engine is difficult to start, check spark plugs for
ice coating due to condensation. For
diesel engines check battery for proper charge to insure glow
plug operation.
(12) Ensure starter drive mechanisms are clean and properly
lubricated to avoid freezing.
(13) Check batteries to ensure that they are fully charged by
measuring the specific gravity
of the electrolyte.
b. During Operations
(1) At temperatures of -20?F to -60?F, start vehicles
periodically to maintain readiness. This
practice should be avoided if any other means of keeping
engines operable, such as power
plant heaters or external heaters, are available.
(2) Avoid idling engines if at all possible. This practice
tends to waste fuel and adds to
engine maintenance cost.
(3) Ensure power plant heaters are used properly and
maintained IAW the appropriate TM.
(4) Operate vehicles not equipped with power plant heaters at
prescribed intervals. Also
ensure that portable duct-type heaters are available for
engine compartment preheating.
(5) Avoid starting a vehicle by towing if at all possible. If
internal parts are frozen, applying
external power will not solve the problem.
(6) Check chassis and body components for ice, mud, and snow
buildup. Remove buildup at
every opportunity to ensure proper ground clearance and to
prevent interference with
moving components.
(7) Check vehicle chains to ensure they are serviceable and
properly fit the tires. As chains
D-3
FM 9-207 Appendix D
become loose, retighten them to prevent damaged vehicle
parts.
(8) Ensure engine oil pressure is maintained for safe engine
operation. Also, check vehicle
oil for the accumulation of sludge which can severely damage
the engine.
(9) Maintain normal engine operating temperature through the
adjustment of engine
compartment inlet shutters or radiator covers.
c. After Operations
(1) At the end of each operating period, and for five minutes
prior to shutdown, run the
vehicle engine to normalize its operation and retain oil on
cylinder walls.
(2) Do not park vehicles with the brakes set since they may
freeze and not release. Use
chock blocks to hold vehicles in place.
(3) Never park overnight where snow has melted that day;
tracks and wheels will freeze to
the ground.
(4) Park with tracks and wheels on brush, cardboard, or any
similar material to prevent
direct contact with the ground.
(5) Protect radiators from wind, snow, and ice buildup.
(6) Ensure the fuel tank is topped off to prevent
condensation buildup.
(7) Drain air tanks.
D-4
FM 9-207 Appendix E
Appendix E
NBC Defense in Cold Conditions
GENERAL EFFECTS
Many effects of nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) agents change in
the cold weather environment.
All NBC protective equipment and supplies must be kept from freezing. FM
3-4, NBC Protection, covers
NBC defense.
Severely Degraded NBC Equipment Effectiveness
Materials of protective equipment become brittle, crack, and tear easily
in extreme cold. Frozen detection
and decontamination solutions clog and damage equipment. Because most
decontamination solutions
require water, heat must be supplied when conducting decontamination
operations. Agent detection
reactions are slow in the cold. Great care must be taken in donning and
removing protective clothing to
avoid contamination. Logistics requirements increase during NBC defensive
operations in extreme cold.
For example, quantities of fresh, potable water and heated protective
shelters may be required.
Psychological Stress
Extreme cold and high altitudes produce psychological problems that numb
the intellect and degrade
personal and unit security. Current knowledge prevents precise assessment
of the added impact on
military operations. However, casualty rates will probably increase if
psychological stress slows or stops
normal reaction of individuals or units to NBC attacks.
Mountainous Areas
Breathing is more difficult at higher altitudes. There is little data
concerning the effectiveness of NBC
equipment in the extreme cold of high altitudes. At the lower barometric
pressure of high altitudes,
chemical agents evaporate or sublime much more rapidly. The increased
elevation may, by localized
surface heating, speed the vaporization of chemical agents. Contamination
may be spread quicker by
greater windspeeds at higher altitudes. Contamination may collect in
depressions and small valleys.
EFFECTS ON NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Cold conditions can impact the effects of nuclear weapons. Leaders must
understand these effects to
properly plan for the protection of their soldiers.
Blast
Below -25? F, the effective radius of a nuclear blast may increase up to
20 percent. Icepack or hardened
snowpack extends the distance of static overpressure, i.e., the crushing
effect of the blast. Conversely, the
distances of dynamic pressure may decrease due to the soft, absorbent
characteristics of drifts and other
snow cover. Tundra and ice formations can break up pressure waves. The
cratering effects in ice and
E-1
FM 9-207 Appendix E
frozen ground may be reduced to those in solid rock.
Primary and reflected blast waves and ground shock from even small yield
nuclear weapons may create
earthquake-like fissures, crevasses, avalanches, and rock slides as far as
30 kilometers from ground zero.
Secondary effects include snowstorms, avalanches, quick thaws, and ice
breakup on lakes and rivers,
which can interfere with troop movement. Blast will increase damage to
equipment already inflexible
from cold-soaking. In heavily forested areas, blown down trees can make
large areas virtually impassable
to vehicles and personnel. During winter months, trees freeze and become
brittle; in a nuclear blast, they
can be converted into many splinter-like projectiles. Personnel in heavy,
layered clothing are less
susceptible to injury from flying debris.
Thermal
Cold can significantly alter the effects of a thermal blast. Due to the
high reflectivity of snow and ice and
the increased density of cold air, minimum safe distances may need to be
increased by as much as 50
percent. Cold conditions can produce other effects, to include the
following:
q Cold temperatures, cloud cover or frost, ice, and snow may reduce
thermal effects on
combustibles.
q When ice and snow pack melt, flash flooding may occur in low lying
areas. Thawing can greatly
impede troop movement.
q Snow, ice, and cold temperatures may limit destruction from
post-blast fires.
q The average reflecting surfaces of muskeg, tundra, and wet
conditions are characteristic of a cold
region that may reduce thermal radiation.
q Ice, fog, and snow cloud cover may lessen thermal radiation from
airburst detonations.
q The snow?s highly reflective surface intensifies thermal radiation.
q The dilating of pupils in winter darkness increases the chance of
permanent or temporary light
blindness.
q Reflective, over-white camouflage clothing and netting may reduce
injurious heat absorption by
personnel and equipment.
Radiation
Weather significantly influences radioactive fallout patterns. Snow can
mask radiological hot spots from
detection. Snow deposition is erratic due to rapidly changing winds. High
winds extend radiation fallout
patterns, but at the same time, may reduce radiation dose rates due to the
scattering of contamination. At
extremely low temperatures, the increased density of the atmosphere may
reduce the distances of initial
radioactive fallout by as much as 25 percent.
Contaminated snow may spread the fallout. Amounts of induced radioactivity
in the soil are reduced and
even prevented by deep snow. Poorly drained areas, such as meadows, limit
natural flushing and may act
as collecting points for radioactive contaminants. Most of the arctic is
poorly drained. New snow may
lessen fallout contamination of areas, permitting safe crossing by
personnel and equipment.
The need for detailed radiological surveying increases in cold weather.
Levels of local radiation can
change quickly in windy conditions, causing hot spots far removed from
ground zero and very
low-intensity areas nearer ground zero.
E-2
FM 9-207 Appendix E
The extended cold weather clothing system (ECWCS) clothing provides
excellent protection from
fallout. Radioactive particles may be removed by vigorous shaking and
brushing of outer garments.
Snow caves and below-ground shelters provide excellent shielding against
radiation.
Electromagnetic Pulse
Effects are expected to be the same as in temperate zones. Electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) hampers or
negates radio and tactical-satellite communication for extended periods.
EMP mitigating practices, such
as burying and recovering cables and wire links, may be difficult or
impossible because of frozen ground.
EFFECTS ON BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Biological attacks must be anticipated. Up-to-date immunizations,
acclimatized personnel, and strictly
enforced personal hygiene (often considerably more difficult in the cold)
are the best ways to avoid
secondary spread of any infection. Vectorborne agents are rare since the
vectors rarely survive. Toxins
are less susceptible to the cold, and the possibility of their use by
covert means must be anticipated. The
survival chances of most microorganisms decrease significantly below 32?F.
Layers of snow and reduced
sunlight lengthen the hazard period for biological agents. Organisms may
remain alive but dormant. They
become active when exposed to warmer temperatures. The most effective
means of biological warfare in
cold weather is to covertly deliver live organisms. After a known
biological attack, precautions to
prevent the spread of its effects must be taken just as they would in a
temperate climate.
Temperature inversions frequently found over snow fields and bodies of
water tend to prolong the lives
of biological agent clouds. Aerosolizing live biological agents is more
difficult at extremely cold
temperatures. Only some spores form bacteria, and certain viruses survive.
Tents and other areas where temperatures are higher than outside are
likely areas of biological
contamination spread. Once established in one person, a biological agent
is likely to spread rapidly in
crowded living conditions. Troops suffering from lack of nourishment or
rest, or from dehydration, are
more vulnerable to the effects of biological attack.
EFFECTS ON CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chemical agents are especially effective in the cold (Figure E-1).
Exposure to any chemical agent
requires masking. Conditions for aerosol dispersal are excellent. Most
agents freeze at -50? F. Chemical
agents, either thickened or frozen on clothing or equipment, produce
deadly off-gas concentrations once
taken into heated areas.
Blood and Choking Agents
Blood and choking agents are extremely hazardous and nonpersistent
throughout low temperatures.
These agents may be spread as liquids, solids, or aerosols. Masks are
required whenever they are used.
Hazard times may be longer. The blood agent AC is extremely hazardous,
even as low as -65? F.
Blister Agents
Blister agents freeze below 0? F. They can be brushed from clothing and
equipment. However, some
mixtures, such as HL, remain liquid hazards at fairly low temperatures.
The standard winter blister agent
is a mixture of mustard and lewisite. In areas that lack water, frozen or
otherwise, this blister agent
persists in liquid form for up to six months. If water is present, the
agent decomposes to form a pure
E-3
FM 9-207 Appendix E
mustard that freezes at 58?: F.
Nerve Agents
Nerve agents freeze in severe cold. However, they present a very serious
vapor hazard when brought into
warm areas. When used to contaminate key facilities, nerve agents become
long-term hazards. These
hazards may require tremendous decontamination efforts, or even waiting
for a change in seasons, to
reduce contamination below lethal levels. Persistency is controlled by
three factors: temperature, terrain
surface, and windspeed. Nerve agents, particularly VX, are effective when
absorbed through the skin or
eyes, but the low volatility of VX makes the vapor hazard negligible below
32&3176; F. The physical
behavior of persistent nerve agents is only slightly affected by
decreasing temperature. As the
temperature nears 32? F, persistent nerve agents dissolve in water, have
reduced vapor hazard, and
increase in persistency. Nonpersistent nerve agents (i.e., GB) tend to
become semipersistent, lasting from
two to ten days.
NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL DEFENSE
To effectively defend against the effects of NBC weapons, four
fundamentals must be applied: detection,
contamination avoidance, protection, and decontamination. In a mountainous
cold weather environment,
the first three fundamentals become extremely important, and
decontamination, always difficult and
time-consuming, becomes a logistical nightmare.
AGENT DEGREE OF TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE PERSISTENCY
CONTAMINATION ?F ?C
(HOURS)
Figure E-1. Persistency table
Detection
Automatic detectors must be heated. Detection is vital to identifying a
hazard. The vapor hazard of
chemical agents may be limited, making the M-256 chemical agent detector
kit unreliable. Persistent
agents can freeze into solids that may not be identifiable. This creates a
potential hazard that does not
materialize until temperatures rise. Reagents in the M-256 chemical agent
detector kit freeze and provide
inaccurate readings in temperatures below -25? F. These kits must be kept
close to the body to prevent
freezing. Cold slows the response of M-8 chemical detector paper. Extra
time must be allowed for the
paper to work. M-9 paper is of little value because all the substances
that react to it are affected by the
cold. Extreme cold, or the physical state of a chemical agent, may make
the M-8 alarm system
ineffective. Every 50 to 100 feet, detection teams should melt snow, heat
it to 70? F, and test it with M-8
paper or CAM. If an agent is suspected, water is taken into a heated
shelter and heated until a vapor is
given off above 70? F. It is then tested with the M-256A1 kit; data is
recorded, reported, and plotted
according to unit SOP. Contaminated areas are marked with the standard
NATO contamination signs.
Contamination Avoidance
Avoidance measures prevent offering the enemy a vulnerable target and
prevent accidental contact with
existing contamination. To enhance unit survival, employ the following
measures:
q Harden positions by improving overhead cover.
q Disperse personnel, supplies, and equipment.
q Conceal positions.
q Provide early warning.
q Develop NBC environmental discipline.
q Remain mobile.
E-5
FM 9-207 Appendix E
q Keep supplies and equipment covered.
Protection
Take active measures to protect units from contamination. Specifically,
employ the following measures--
q Find and destroy enemy munitions and delivery systems.
q Use NBC reconnaissance teams to monitor contamination of specific
areas.
q Use the standard warning and reporting system to warn others of
hazards, or to pass the alarm
locally.
q Prioritize the covering of mission essential equipment.
q Build collective protection shelters to provide contamination-free
work environments.
Decontamination
Decontamination (decon) is the process of making any person, object, or
area safe by absorbing,
destroying, neutralizing, making harmless, or removing radioactive
material clinging to or around it.
Deliberate decon requires extensive time and logistical support.
Temperatures below 32? F limit the
effectiveness of decontamination operations. Current chemical
decontamination procedures that require
water rinses are impossible in freezing weather. Non-water decontamination
procedures have not yet
been developed. Decontamination must often be done in heated facilities.
To decontaminate, soldiers
must--
q Perform hasty decon.
q Continue to fight after hasty decon.
q Understand the effects of chemical agents.
SHELTER CONTROL
In cold weather operations, decon and some aspects of detection must be
accomplished in heated
shelters. One of the most challenging problems is preventing contamination
from entering warm areas.
For example, frozen agents on clothing are hard to detect because low
temperatures slow the effects of
the agents. If the temperature rises, or if contaminated individuals enter
heated areas, the frozen agents
will revaporize and become hazardous. It may be necessary to set up a
thawing station for each warm
shelter where agents can be isolated before individuals enter the main
shelters and unmask.
INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
Use of individual chemical protective equipment presents added challenges
in cold weather. Failure to
take specific precautions can result in equipment failure and possible
contamination.
Field Chemical-Biological Masks
Wearing the M-17 or M-40 Series masks in cold weather requires special
attention to ice formation and
frostbite. Masks should be carried beneath outer garments, and care should
be taken to wipe dry the
inside of each mask after wear. After wear, soldiers should inspect for
ice buildup in the inlet and outlet
valve areas. To prevent frostbite, place small pieces of tape over the
exposed metal rivets of the
facepiece. During periods between repeated use, take the mask out of the
carrier and shake or flex the
facepiece to remove ice and snow. Warm the mask when you can, but do not
warm close to a heater or
E-6
FM 9-207 Appendix E
open flame as the rubber parts of the facepiece could melt. Dry facepiece
with cheesecloth in a warm
indoor area.
M-4 winterization kit. The M-4 winterization kit consists of an ice
particle prefilter fitted over inlet
valves to prevent frost from accumulating on the inlet caps. It also
includes two inlet valves and two nose
cup valves made of a relatively soft rubber that does not become hard or
brittle in the cold.
Mask carriers. The mask carrier should be adjusted to be worn in a side
carry beneath the cold weather
parka. Body heat helps keep the mask warm and flexible, but masking is
slow and difficult. Soldiers must
be aware of this requirement when donning their cold weather clothing.
They must ensure that the
ECWCS parka is large enough to accommodate insulating layers and the gas
mask with its carrier.
Outserts. Two outserts are provided with the mask to prevent fogging of
the eye lenses. Green- and
amber-tinted outserts can be used for bright light and fogging. Avoid
wiping eyepieces with gloves when
firing because they will smear.
Donning Protective Masks
Hold your breath. Remove the mask from under your parka, lower the parka
hood, and don the mask.
Adjust the head harness only tight enough to create a good seal. Raise the
parka hood and fasten the outer
garment.
NOTE: Do not clear the mask by exhaling a large amount of air because the
lens will frost. Exhale
slowly and steadily. The outlet valve may stick to the seal. If this
occurs, lift the outlet valve cover and
rotate the disk with a finger while exhaling only. After freeing the
valve, reset the valve cover. Check
the mask for leaks by pulling down the cheek flaps on the ice particle
prefilter while covering the inlet
valves with hands. Fasten the cheek flaps and resume normal breathing.
Removing Protective Masks
Remove gloves or mittens before removing the mask. Loosen the outer
garment and lower the hood.
Brush snow or ice particles from the mask. Remove the mask and immediately
dry your face and the
inside of the mask. Raise your parka hood and fasten outer garment. Wipe
the mask thoroughly before
storing to prevent ice formation. Store the mask in the carrier. Put on
gloves or mittens. When possible,
further dry the mask by placing it in a warm area, but not in direct heat.
Wearing the Chemical Protective Overgarment
Contamination avoidance measures may fail. The enemy may find and attack
with NBC weapons.
Soldiers may be downwind of an NBC attack, or the mission may require them
to cross contaminated
areas. Protection options must be available to survive and continue the
mission.
Wearing the chemical protective overgarment presents a particularly
difficult operational/logistics
decision that com-manders must make before entering the operational
theater. The impact of mission
oriented protective posture (MOPP) conditions on operations must be
considered. If the ECWCS parka is
not needed because of the added warmth provided by the chemical protective
overgarment, store and seal
it in a plastic bag. If the ECWCS is worn outside the chemical protective
overgarment, it permits the
layering required for added warmth. However, it requires that the
contaminated clothing worn over the
chemical protective overgarment be removed before entering a heated
shelter where the agents can
E-7
FM 9-207 Appendix E
revaporize. Upon decon, the external layers of the overgarment have to be
discarded. Also, once the
ECWCS is donned, it is not possible to adjust the overgarment. Replacement
issues of cold weather
clothing are needed. Stocks of ECWCS are not adequate to support this
requirement. A method of
decontamination of this cold weather clothing is necessary. The chemical
protective overgarment
produces internal moisture and condensation and dehydration problems that
can lead to hypothermia. In
full MOPP gear, speed is reduced by at least 50 percent (probably greater
due to buildup of condensation
and the potential danger of hypothermia).
Chemical Protective Glove Set
Vapor barriers (i.e., medical examination gloves, the wool insert, and the
leather shell covered by the
butyl-rubber glove) make up the chemical protective glove set. This set
allows the insulator (the wool
insert) to remain dry and warm. If either outer glove is punctured or
torn, the glove set must be replaced.
VB Boots
Vapor barrier (VB) boots are an effective and adequate replacement for the
normal overboots. However,
the natural rubber composing the VB boot can be penetrated by chemical
agents that contain mustard
gas. After 50 hours exposure, they must be replaced and turned in for
decontamination or discarding.
Decon Kits
The M-258A1 decon kit is good to 32?F. It must be kept next to the body to
prevent freezing. Because it
assumes surrounding air temperature, the solution should be used quickly
once it is opened to avoid
possible frostbite. The M-13 consists of a bag of Fuller?s earth for
equipment decon. It is not affected by
the cold. Neither are the components of the M291 skin decontamination kit
(SDK) or M295 individual
equipment decontamination kit (IEDK).
NAAK M-K1
The NAAK M-K1 should be protected from freezing. At temperatures below
-40? F, remove from the
mask carrier and store in a parka pocket.
UNIT PROTECTION
Units must be self-sufficient in NBC defense. Cold weather conditions
impose many special
considerations on defense planning. For example, adjacent units may not be
able to provide mutual
support, logistical support may be drastically reduced, and rapid movement
may become more difficult.
Bivouac Location
Because of terrain and weather restrictions, bivouac location for
effective NBC defense requires
considerable planning. Gullies, ravines, ditches, natural depressions,
fallen trees, and caves can reduce
the effects of nuclear weapons, but low-lying areas are places where toxic
clouds can settle. If feasible,
positions should be constructed upwind of possible threats. The heat,
light, and initial radiation of nuclear
blasts are absorbed by hills, while the rest is deflected up by the slope.
Likely targets such as MSRs and
mountain passes should be avoided. Wooded areas present a mixed blessing.
Biological agents persist
longer as forests retain moisture and keep out sunlight. Coniferous
forests of Europe and the
northwestern US reduce the possibility of liquid contamination from
chemical weapons. However, the
chemical vapor hazard increases.
E-8
FM 9-207 Appendix E
Special Concerns for Nuclear Protection
The primary concern for nuclear protection is shielding from gamma and
neutron radiation. Gamma
protection requires thick layers of dense, heavy shielding such as lead,
iron, or earth. Light
hydrogen-based materials such as water, snow, paraffin, or oil offer good
neutron protection. However,
the absorption of neutrons produces additional gamma radiation. Dark,
rough materials, such as wool or
canvas, should be used to cover potential reflecting surfaces. These may
burn or char but do not present
the hazard a melted poncho would. Avoid direct contact with these
materials. View ports should be
covered with metal window screening material that can block thermal
radiation by up to 50 percent.
Smaller openings reduce the amount of initial and residual radiation that
enters.
Work Rate
Dehydration injuries are likely when soldiers must perform difficult
physical tasks. Soldiers become
more prone to suffering subsequent cold weather injuries. Freezing air
inside protective clothing, or
perspiration that cannot evaporate, leads to chilling or hypothermia.
Generally, soldiers in MOPP-4
conditions at 20? F need twice the time required at higher temperatures to
accomplish tasks. Added
supervision of work loads is necessary to prevent cold weather injuries.
MOPP Gear Exchange
If a unit becomes contaminated, decon will be done by MOPP gear exchange
(gloves and overgarment
only). Two complete sets of MOPP gear and waterproof bags to seal
contaminated clothing per person
should be available. Care must be taken with packaging the overgarment.
Tears and exposure to air will
degrade protective qualities. Extra suits must be provided when crossing
water obstacles or conducting
amphibious operations. Any contaminated cold weather clothing item must be
replaced.
DECON OF EQUIPMENT
Cold temperatures can be expected to adversely affect liquid solutions,
pumps, sponges, swabs, brushes,
etc.
Water, the most common ingredient in decon operations, is useless if
frozen. It should not be used when
temperatures are so low that it freezes on contact with equipment. In
these temperatures, use undiluted
DS2 but remember that DS2 corrodes equipment quickly. Equipment must be
replaced quickly. Because
of their low freezing points, solvents such as JP4, diesel fuel, or
kerosene may be used to physically
remove contamination. With present technology, equipment decon problems
are hard to overcome in an
arctic environment.
Commanders must consider fighting dirty in cold weather areas. Fresh units
can be rotated into the
contaminated areas so that dirty units can move to decon stations. DS2 and
STB freeze at approximately
-15? F. In temperatures less than -15? F, JP4 could be used to remove
contamination. This removes but
does not deactivate the chemicals. The ground and equipment used to remove
contaminates must be
destroyed or removed properly. JP4 is also highly flammable. The large
amount of static electricity in
cold dry climates can ignite the fuel. There is a definite risk of
frostbite when fuel contacts exposed flesh.
Rinse water must be heated, or antifreeze added to the rinse solution, to
prevent freezing on contact with
a cold vehicle. If the vehicle cannot be rinsed, the DS2 will quickly
corrode the vehicle.
Use of the chemical agent monitor is limited by the cold?s shortening of
battery life. Two nitrogen
E-9
FM 9-207 Appendix E
cylinders may be required to expend the contents of the M-11 decon
apparatus at temperatures below 32?
F.
Difficulties develop in dispensing DS2 as temperatures near 0? F. To
overcome this
problem, the decon apparatus portable (DAP) must be warm enough for the
DS2 to pump through the
brush assembly. Commanders should consider positioning a contingency
supply of the M-13 inside
heated vehicles and develop a plan to rotate the other DAPs into heated
shelters as needed.
The M-17 sanator decon apparatus has problems in cold temperatures because
the system relies on a
water-based decon method. Normal engine cold-soaking problems have been
observed along with
internal pumps, lines, etc., cracking from the expanding freezing water.
This system must be used within
a heated shelter.
Decon stations should be sited in built-up areas, near road junctions, at
intersections of forest lanes, or
where they may be approached from several directions.
Snow can be used to cover contaminated areas. However, when the snow blows
away or when vehicles
or personnel break through this surface, the contamination will reappear.
Snow cover provides some
protection if left undisturbed, but this protection is unreliable.
Unfrozen earth may not be available to make STB dry mix. Use snow in place
of dirt (same proportion)
in shuffle pits and for other decon purposes. Burying contaminated
materials in frozen ground is difficult.
Mark burned or abandoned material with standard contamination signs.
E-10
FM 9-207 GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
ASOAP Army Oil Analysis Program
BFS brake fluid, silicone
BMO battalion motor officer
CASCOM Combined Arms Support Command
CLP leaner lubricant and preservative
CONUS continental United States
CTIS central tire inflation system
CSS combat service support
DA Department of the Army
DAP decon apparatus portable
decon decontamination
DFA diesel fuel, arctic
DLA Defense Logistics Agency
DOD Department of Defense
DS direct support
ECWCS extended cold weather clothing system
EMP electromagnetic pulse
EOQ economic order quantities
F Fahrenheit
FASCAM family of scatterable mines
FM field manual, frequency modulation
FMTV family of medium tactical vehicles
FRH hydraulic fluid, rust inhibited, fire resistant,
synthetic hydrocarbon base
FSC Federal Supply Catalog
GAA grease, automotive and artillery
Glossary-1
FM 9-207 GLOSSARY
GMD grease, molybdenum disulfide
GPS gunner's primary sight
GS general support
HET heavy equipment transporter
HF high frequency
HHLRF handheld laser range finder high mobility
multi-purpose wheeled vehicle
HMMWV high mobility multi-purpose wheeled vehicla
HN host nation
IAW in accordance with
IEDK individual equipment decontamination kit
LAW lubricating oil, weapons
LCD liquid crystal displays
LO lubrication order
LSA lubricant
MG machine gun
MGS missile guidance set
MIL-STD military standard
MOPP mission oriented protective posture
MPU main power unit
MSR main supply route
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NBC nuclear, biological, chemical
NICAD nickel-cadmium
NSN national stock number
OEA oil, engine, arctic
OHT hydraulic fluid, petroleum base for preservation and
operation
PLS palletized load system
PMCS preventive maintenance, checks and services
POL petroleum, oils, and lubricants
PSI pounds per square inch
Glossary-2
FM 9-207 GLOSSARY
QE quadrant elevation
RPM revolutions per minute
RSR required supply rate(s)
SB supply bulletin
SDK skin decontamination kit
SFL solid film lubricant
SINCGARS single-channel ground-air radio system
SOP standard operating procedures
SUSV small unit support vehicle
SWGS surface wire ground system
TB technical bulletin
TM technical manual
TOW tube launched, optically tracked,wire guided
TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command
US United States
UXO unexploded ordnance
vb vapor barrier
WTR wide temperature range
Glossary-3
FM 9-207 REFERENCES
REFERENCES
SOURCES
The following sources are quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
DLA Publication. Environmental Products, Chemical Alternatives, Recyclers,
Aircraft Cleaners and
More.
DOD FSC Groups 68 and 92.
FM 3-4. NBC Protection. 29 May 1992.
FM 5-25. Explosives and Demolitions. 10 March 1986.
FM 31-70. Basic Cold Weather Manual. 12 April 1968.
FM 100-1. The Army. 14 June 1994.
MIL-STD 290
MIL-STD 1472C
SB 9-16. Personnel Heater and Winterization Kit Policy for Tank-Automotive
Construction and Materiel
Handling Equipment. 14 March 1980.
TB 43-PS-491. The Preventative Maintenance Monthly. October 1993.
TB 750-651. Use of Antifreeze Solutions, Antifreeze Extender, Cleaning
Compounds and Test Kit in
Engine Cooling Systems. 12 February 1989.
TB MED 269. Carbon Monoxide: Symptoms, Etiology, Treatment and Prevention
of Overexposure. 31
May 1968.
TC 5-400. Unit Leaders? Handbook for Environmental Stewardship. 29
September 1994.
TC 11-6. Grounding Techniques. 3 March 1989.
TM 9-1375-213-12. Operator?s and Unit Maintenance Manual (Including Repair
Parts and Special
Tools List): Demolition Materials. 30 March 1973.
References-1
FM 9-207 REFERENCES
TM 9-1425-2586-10. Operator?s Manual for Guided Missile System,
Intercept-Aerial, Carrier-Mounted
M48A2. 28 June 1984.
TM 9-2350-259-20. Unit Maintenance Manual for Combat Vehicle, Anti-Tank,
Improved TOW Vehicle,
M901A1. 30 April 1990.
TM 9-6140-200-14. Operator?s, Unit, Direct Support and General Support
Maintenance Manual for
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries; 4HN, 24 Volt MS75047-1; 2HN, 12 Volt
MS35000-1; 6TN, 12 Volt
MS35000-3; 6TL, 12 Volt MS52149-1. 13 July 1989.
TM 43-0001-28. Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Artillery Ammunition: Guns,
Howitzers, Mortars,
Recoilless Rifles, Grenade Launchers, and Artillery Fuzes. 28 April 1994.
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be available to the intended users of this
publication.
Operator?s manual for the specific piece of equipment, vehicle, or weapon
system to be operated.
READINGS RECOMMENDED
These publications contain relevant supplemental information.
FM 90-11. Cold Weather Operations. (when published)
