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Late Acheulian Jaljulia – Early human occupations in the paleo-landscape of the central coastal plain of Israel

['Maayan Shemer', 'Archaeological Research Department', 'Israel Antiquities Authority', 'Jerusalem', 'Ben Gurion University Of The Negev', 'Beer Sheva', 'Noam Greenbaum', 'Department Of Geography', 'Environmental Studies', 'University Of Haifa']

Date: 2022-05

The Lower Paleolithic Late Acheulian in the Levant marks a fascinating chapter in human cultural and biological evolution. Nevertheless, many aspects of the Late Acheulian are still undeciphered, hindered by the complex nature of each site on the one hand, a scarcity of wide, multidisciplinary studies on the other, and by difficulties in obtaining absolute chronology for this timeframe. Therefore, subjects such as human subsistence strategies and modes of adaptation, regional diversity, and the possible existence and nature of interactions between hominin groups are largely understudied. The discovery and study of Jaljulia, a large-scale Late Acheulian site at the central Coastal Plain, Israel, add valuable insights to the research of this chapter in human history. Considered to represent recurrent occupations at a favored, water and flint-rich setting, the site has provided extensive lithic assemblages obtained from several localities. Absolute chronology places the human activity on-site at roughly 500–300 ky (and possibly even later), which is suggested to be divided into several main occupation phases. Geomorphological and sedimentological analyses show a change in environmental conditions, from aeolian sand deposition and overlying Hamra soil during the Middle Pleistocene to high energy fluvial regime which transported large gravels in a north-south paleo-channel. Wetland environments, correlating to the human activity on site, developed later due to higher sea levels and a coastline shifts to the eastward, which caused a blockage of the Yarkon stream corridor to the sea by marine sand. In this paper we present results of the study of the site, including geomorphological formation and post-depositional processes, absolute chronology, lithic and faunal analyses. The site’s extensive lithic assemblages are currently under study and future investigations are expected to shed more light on the technological nature of Late Acheulian Jaljulia.

Funding: The excavations at Jaljulia were founded by the Israel Land Authority as a part of pre-land development procedures. Post-excavation research is funded by the Israel Science Foundation (grant no. 321/19; RB). https://www.isf.org.il/#/ and by the Israel Antiquities Authority (project no. 108149; MS). http://www.antiquities.org.il/default_en.aspx The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright: © 2022 Shemer et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

In this paper we present the discovery of the large-scale Late Acheulian site of Jaljulia, located in the central coastal plain of Israel. The site was discovered during routine inspections of the Israel Antiquities Authority prior to a major construction operation. Two seasons of salvage excavation followed, resulting in six months of field work and data collection oriented towards a multidisciplinary study of the site and of early hominin behavior in the paleo-landscape. Preliminary chronological estimations led to the association of the site with the Late Acheulian. Here we provide detailed information about the stratigraphy, sedimentology, and absolute chronology of the site, alongside a suggested reconstruction of the paleoenvironment, formation and post-depositional processes observed on site. In addition, preliminary analyses of the flint industry are presented, as well as a study of the faunal assemblage.

Thus, a more comprehensive understanding of the chronology of the Late Acheulian is still to be desired, and the nature of technological and behavioral transformations that took place during the terminal Lower Paleolithic in the Levant deserves special attention.

Difficulties in acquiring absolute ages further add to the ambiguity. To date, a wide chronological framework is assumed for the Late Acheulian, based on radiometric dating of volcanic strata from the Golan heights [ 9 ], a series of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and electron spin resonance (ESR) ages (e.g., [ 19 , 20 , 23 , 40 , 48 ]), thermoluminescence (TL) ages [ 49 ] and techno-typological aspects of the lithic assemblages (e.g., [ 1 , 3 ]). Late Acheulian occurrences are considered younger than ca. 800 ky. The Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (henceforth AYCC), marking the end of the Lower Paleolithic period in the Levant, was mostly dated between 420/400 and 250/200 ky (e.g., [ 50 – 54 ]). Thus, the Late Acheulian in the Levant is mostly considered to be bracketed between 800 to 400 ky. However, this chronological framework has been somewhat challenged in recent years, as some Late Acheulian sites yielded radiometric ages younger than 400 ky. For example, while the Late Acheulian sites of Kefar Menahem and Nahal Hesi provided ages older than 400 ky [ 40 , 55 ], the site of Revadim provided preliminary indications of an age older than 500–300 ky [ 19 ] and the sites of Holon (Israel), Shishan Marsh 1 (Jordan) and Oumm Qatafa (D2) yielded much later chronologies, ranging between ~300 and ~200 ky [ 20 , 23 , 48 ]. These younger ages were used to suggest a Late Acheulian presence in the Levant up until the establishment of Middle Paleolithic industries in the region (e.g., [ 23 , 48 ]). However, this approach is viewed with caution, as most scholars view an autochthonic cultural continuum between the Late Acheulian and the AYCC. Based on the plethora of evidence available, the AYCC was suggested to have been developed from Late Acheulian industries, while embracing some of its technological hallmarks (e.g., bifaces, lithic recycling) and introducing a set of new innovative technologies and behaviors (e.g., systematic blade production, Quina scraper production, habitual use of fire, cooking etc.; e.g., [ 56 , 57 ]).

One of the main issues in the study of the Late Acheulian relates to its position at the end of a long, technologically persistent cultural complex, which lasted in the Levant over one million years. The disappearance of traditional Acheulian lithic industries from the Levantine record at the end of the Lower Paleolithic period marked the onset of new cultural and technological traditions e.g., the Acheulo-Yabrudian, the Mousterian). However, the nature and chronology of such transitions are still largely undeciphered, as well as the degree of interaction and possible cultural influences between diachronic and synchronic human groups.

One of the noteworthy characteristics of Late Acheulian lithic industries in the Levant is the production of pre-determined target flakes from prepared cores (also termed Hierarchical cores or proto-Levallois cores), and/or from discarded, recycled handaxes [ 42 ]. The production of pre-determined blanks from prepared cores was identified in earlier Acheulian industries, for example at the site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov [ 34 ]. However, it seems to be more common in the Late Acheulian as it appears in numerous associated Levantine assemblages. This production technique is perceived by many as the establishment of volumetric knapping approaches during Late Acheulian [ 6 , 9 , 10 , 25 , 31 , 32 , 43 ]. The adoption of volumetric conceptions in flintknapping and the production of predetermined blanks from prepared cores have become the subject of much attention, as its possible role in the development of the later, Middle Paleolithic Levallois method has fundamental implications for our understanding of ancient hominin behavior, learning capabilities and adaptability (e.g., [ 44 – 47 ]).

In terms of Late Acheulian material culture, the use of flint as a preferred stone type for tool production is demonstrated, in contrast to the more frequent use of basalt and limestone for specific tool categories in older Acheulian industries (e.g., [ 3 , 9 , 29 ], and see [ 30 ] for insights about the infrequent use of basalt in the Late Acheulian site of Ma’ayan Baruch). Late Acheulian lithic assemblages are characterized by large-scale flake production accompanied by shaped flakes and typical ‘core’ implements such as bifaces and chopping tools. Core technology share attributes with earlier Acheulian industries, demonstrating flake production from globular cores and cores-on-flakes while using one, two or more striking platforms (e.g., [ 6 , 8 – 10 , 25 , 31 – 35 ]). Nevertheless, lithic studies have suggested techno-typological inter-assemblage variability, implying the probable effect of chronology, geography and the nature of the activities performed, on the lithic diversity within Late Acheulian sites (e.g., [ 1 , 3 , 24 , 36 – 41 ]).

Late Acheulian sites are often associated with the nearby presence of an ancient water body, characterized in many cases by recurrent visits to a favorable locality indicated by sequences of overlying occupation horizons or by the presence of multiple, adjacent find spots (e.g., [ 8 , 10 , 19 , 23 – 26 ]). In several of the excavated sites, rich archaeological layers were exposed that were suggested to represent a palimpsest of several occupation events [ 6 , 8 , 17 , 27 , 28 ].

The term "Late Acheulian" is often used to reflect chronological and behavioral aspects associated with advanced stages of the long and persistent Lower Paleolithic Acheulian cultural complex in the Levant (e.g., [ 1 – 3 ]). To date, dozens of Late Acheulian sites and find spots are reported in the Southern Levant. Their wide geographic spread indicates human activity in diverse environments, including the Levantine coastal plain, the Mediterranean inland, the Galilee, the Golan Heights and the arid regions of the Negev Desert, Southern Jordan and the Arabian Desert [ 4 – 21 ]. Nevertheless, our understanding of the human mode of adaptation, cultural and biological transformations and technological developments practiced in the course of this phase of human history is not detailed enough. Only a handful of Late Acheulian sites have been excavated in the past decades, using advanced excavation and documentation techniques, that include a multidisciplinary research program (e.g. [ 17 , 19 , 22 – 24 ]). Therefore, some aspects, such as absolute chronology of the Late Acheulian as well as human subsistence strategies, adaptation patterns and technological diachronic changes remain largely understudied.

The dose rates were calculated from the radionuclide activities of the raw sediment obtained by gamma-ray spectrometry (Natural History National Museum Laboratory, Paris–MNHN) with an Ortec high purity low background Germanium (HPGe) detector ( S1 Table ). Age calculations were performed using the dose-rate conversions factors from Guérin et al. [ 82 ], a k-value of 0.15 ± 0.1 [ 83 ], alpha and beta attenuations were estimated for the selected grain sizes from the tables of Brennan [ 84 , 85 ], water attenuation formulae from Grün [ 86 ] and a cosmic dose rate calculated from the equations of Prescott and Hutton [ 87 ] including latitude and altitude corrections. Internal dose rate was considered as negligible due to the low radionuclides contents usually measured in quartz grains [ 88 , 89 ]. Analytical uncertainties and weighted ages calculated using Isoplot 3.0 software [ 90 ].

The Ti-Li growth curve was calculated from the seven first irradiation doses, the two highest (8 000 and 12 500 Gy) showing saturation and a decrease of signal intensity.

I is the intensity of the sample for an irradiation dose D, Isat is the saturation intensity, μ is the radiation sensitivity coefficient of the sample and D e is the equivalent dose.

Equivalent doses were then determined by fitting an exponential + linear function through the mean ESR intensities [ 80 , 81 ] with Microcal OriginPro 8 software and 1/I 2 weighting.

Each aliquote was measured three times after a ca. 120° rotation in the ESR cavity, in order to evaluate the angular dependence of the signal due to sample heterogeneity. This procedure was repeated at least three times over different days to check measurement and D e variability. The bleaching rate δbl (%) was determined for each sample by comparison of the ESR intensities of the natural (Inat) and bleached (Ibl) aliquotes.

ESR measurements were performed close to the liquid nitrogen temperature (ca. 107 K) with a Bruker EMX spectrometer using the experimental conditions proposed by Voinchet et al. [ 77 ]. The Al signal intensity was measured between the top of the first peak g = 2018 and the bottom of the 16th peak g = 2002 of the part of the main hyperfine structure [ 78 ]. The Ti-Li center was measured between the base of peak at g = 1.913 and the baseline [ 79 ].

Irradiation was performed using a 137 Cs gamma source (Gammacell) at CENIEH, Burgos, Spain, with a dose rate of 380 Gy/h. The samples were separated into 9 aliquots and given doses ranging between 150 and 12,500 Gy. For each sample, one aliquot was bleached by exposure to light from a solar simulator (Dr Honhle SOL2). The light intensity received by each aliquot range between 3.2 and 3.4×10 5 Lux and samples were illuminated for 1600 h. One other aliquot was kept as naturally irradiated sample. D e was determined by the multiple aliquot additive (MAA) dose method.

Analyses were conducted on 100–200 μm quartz grain, using the aluminium and titan centers (Al-center, Ti-Li center). Quartz was prepared and separated by N. Porat according the same procedure as used for luminescence analyses (see above).

The sediment samples collected from the same sampling locations were dried, crushed, homogenized and powdered, and the content of the radioactive elements was measured using inductively-coupled plasma (ICP) mass spectrometry (MS) for U and Th, and ICP optical emission spectroscopy (OES) for K. Internal K-contents within the KF were estimated at 12±0.5%. Lifetime water contents were evaluated at 10±3%, based on the sandy and consolidated nature of the sediment, and variability across seasons and the geological timescale. Cosmic dose rate was calculated from current burial depth, since initial age calculations showed that the overlying Unit 5 is not much younger than the archaeological Unit 4.

The De for the KF samples was measured using the pIR-IR 250 and pIR-IR 290 SAR protocols as in Buylaert et al. [ 72 ]. This protocol first depletes the IR signal at 50°C, a signal which is known to fade and provides underestimated ages [ 73 ], followed by a second measurement of the IR signal at elevated temperatures [ 74 ] ( Table 1 ). These high temperature signals saturate at high doses and are very promising for dating Middle Pleistocene sediments [ 67 ]. Both temperatures were used as there is evidence that while the pIR-IR 290 fades less than the pIR-IR 250 signal [ 74 ], it also bleaches more slowly than the pIR-IR 250 signal, and ages calculated from it might be over-estimated due to remaining residual signal [ 75 ]. Nonetheless, since the sedimentary environment is that of a large riverbanks and sands, it could be expected that the pIR-IR 290 would be well bleached. Rates of fading were measured for the pIR-IR 250 signal using the approach of Auclair et al. [ 76 ] and the measurement protocol of Faershtein et al. [ 75 ].

Preliminary measurement of the equivalent dose (De) of quartz using the optically (blue) stimulated luminescence (OSL) signal and the single aliquot regenerative dose (SAR) protocol showed that the OSL signal is saturated, and any age obtained from that signal would be underestimated. Further De measurements used the thermally transferred (TT) OSL signal on quartz and the post infrared-infrared protocol at 250°C and 290°C (pIR-IR 250 and pIR-IR 290 ) signals on KF, two signals capable of extending the range of luminescence dating [ 67 ]. Table 1 gives the measurement protocols and parameters used for data analyses. The TT-OSL signal is measured after depleting the main OSL and applying a second preheat treatment to induce a transfer of charge into the main quartz OSL trap [ 68 ] ( Table 1 ). This signal saturates at much higher doses and is suitable for dating Middle Pleistocene sediments [ 69 ]. The SAR protocol of Porat et al. [ 70 ] was used, modified so that the cleaning step at the end of each measurement cycle was at 350°C instead of 310°C [ 71 ].

Quartz and feldspar in the size range of 90–125 μm were extracted from the sediment as follows: after wet sieving to the desired grain size, carbonates were dissolved by soaking overnight in 8% HCl, followed by rinsing and drying. The sample was then passed through a Frantz magnetic separator with a current of 1.4 A on the magnet [ 65 ]. About 3 gr from the non-magnetic fraction was further etched with 40% HF for 40 min followed by an overnight soak in 16% HCl to remove any fluorides which may have precipitated. For seven samples, K-feldspars (KF) were extracted from ~5 gr of the un-etched non-magnetic fraction using a single-step density separation at a 2.58 gr/cm 3 , followed by etching of the lighter, KF-bearing fraction with 10% HF for 10 min [ 66 ]. This fraction had proved to be highly enriched in KF [ 66 ]. After thorough rinsing and drying the quartz and KF were measured.

Sediment samples for absolute dating were collected from the geological sections of Areas B, C, D, E and G. No dating samples were collected from Area A, due to high cementation of the archaeological horizon and an observed truncation of the ancient stratigraphy by younger sediments (see below) in that locality. A total of 11 samples were collected from Units 1, 4 and 5 (JAL 1, 3–10, 20–21; Fig 2 ; see detailed description of these units below) by drilling horizontally into the exposed sections, after cleaning the surface from material that has been exposed to sunlight. For the sampling of Unit 1, vertical drilling was conducted into the exposed top of the unit in Area E. An opaque cover was used to prevent sample exposure to sunlight. Where drilling was not possible, either because the sediment was too indurated or rich in coarse gravel, samples were collected by scraping sediment into light-tight bags under the opaque cover. An additional large, representative sample (~1 kg) from each location was collected for dose rate determinations. Upon reaching the lab, five samples (JAL 3, 4, 5, 6, 9) were divided into two parts, one to be used for luminescence dating of quartz and potassium (K) feldspars grains, and the other for age estimation of quartz grains by electron spin resonance (ESR). Burnt flints were identified by the naked eye in most excavation localities, and samples of burnt flints will be submitted for Thermoluminescence (TL) dating in the near future.

Within the framework of the study of magneto-stratigraphy, 20 oriented sediment samples were collected from five horizons in the geological section of Area B. The sampled horizons were labeled GAL1–5, where GAL1 represented the deepest sampled horizon and GAL5 the highest. GAL1–3 underly the archaeological layer and GAL4–5 overly it ( Fig 2 ). From each horizon three oriented samples were collected for Alternating Field (AF) demagnetization experiment and an additional sample was collected for thermal demagnetization experiments.

Fig 2. The stratigraphy of the site of Jaljulia as displayed in all sampled sections, as well as the sampling locations for absolute dating and for paleomagnetic stratigraphy.

The definition of sedimentary units and soil stratigraphy was determined based on a detailed study of seven geological sequences. In each sequence, all the observed sedimentological units were sampled. Sedimentary documentation was conducted following Gardiner and Dackombe [ 61 ], color attribution determined using Munsell soil color chart. Soil description is in accordance with Birkland et al. [ 62 ] and soil definition is based on Dan et al. [ 63 ]. These were correlated to the map of soils published by Dan and Raz [ 64 ]. Chemical and mineralogical analyses of the sediments were performed at the laboratories of the School for Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, headed by Dr. N. Waldman. The analyses were performed on the fine fraction <2 mm and included: (1) Major elements using XRF; (2) Inorganic Carbon; (3) Grain-size distribution; and (4) Qualitative mineralogy using XRD. The sedimentary units in the seven sequences were compared, correlated, and integrated into a generalized stratigraphic sequence for the entire site ( Fig 2 ).

In each area, 6–25 m 2 were excavated, applying a general grid of 1 m 2 squares, following a north-south orientation. Upon reaching the archaeological layer each square was further divided into four sub-units and excavated in 5–10 cm spits. Specific items, such as bifacial tools and cores were photographed before removal, and their location was recorded in three coordinates. All excavated sediments were dry sieved using a five mm mesh. Sediments from Area G were further subjected to wet sieving using a two mm mesh, due to high density of small finds (<2 cm). As the archaeological finds were, in most cases, deposited on top of concentrations of flint nodules and cobbles, preliminary sorting of the flint items collected during the excavation was conducted on site, separating artifacts from unmodified nodules and natural debris. Unmodified flint was kept only when it originated from a designated "control square" in each area. Documentation was conducted using the Digital Archaeology and National Archive (DANA) databasing program. Drone technology was used for photography and photogrammetric recording.

a) Location of the site of Jaljulia and main sites mentioned in this paper (base-map source: US National Park Service). Green frame marks the area presented in Fig 1c; b) Geographic distribution of the excavated localities in Jaljulia; c) Geological setting of the site of Jaljulia, with marks of the main streams associated with the formation processes of the site (base-maps provided by the Geological Survey of Israel, created by [ 58 – 60 ]).

The site of Jaljulia is located in the central coastal plain of Israel, ca. 9 km from the current Mediterranean shoreline ( Fig 1 ). The site was discovered in the course of test trenches inspection conducted in the fall of 2016, prior to a large-scale construction project which was intended to include massive earthworks. Upon reaching a depth of 1.5–5.5 m, numerous flint artifacts appeared, indicating the presence of rich archaeological deposits, found in an area of ca. 10 dunam (1 hectare; Fig 1 ). The discovery led to the initiation of a large-scale salvage project (conducted between June and December 2017; license no. A-8000/2017), during which six localities were excavated, covering a total area of approximately 80 m 2 (Areas A–E, G; Figs 1B and S1 – S6 ). The depth of the archaeological deposits, covered by more than three meters of sediments in most of the excavated areas, required heavy machinery to remove the overlying sediment as well as to create stepped walls where manual excavation was to be conducted, in order to prevent collapses and in accordance with safety considerations. In addition, a geological trench was dug in each area using a JCB backhoe, in a twofold effort: 1) to provide as much data as possible about the geomorphology of the site, including the collection of sediment samples for absolute dating, and 2) to correlate between the different excavated localities. For the most part, these trenches were located at the southern edge of each area, adjacent to the stepped wall. In Area A, located at the southeastern part of the site ( Fig 1B ) a second trench was dug along the eastern boundary of the excavated area in order to better understand the local stratigraphy.

Results

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