(C) PLOS One [1]. This unaltered content originally appeared in journals.plosone.org.
Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
url:https://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/licenses-and-copyright

------------



Formation of recombinant bifunctional fusion protein: A newer approach to combine the activities of two enzymes in a single protein

['Patel Nilpa', 'Department Of Plant Molecular Biology', 'Biotechnology', 'Aspee College Of Horticulture', 'Forestry', 'Navsari Agricultural University', 'Navsari', 'Gujarat', 'Kapadia Chintan', 'R. Z. Sayyed']

Date: 2022-04

Abstract The tissue of insects, pests, and fungi has a chitin layer followed by protein in the cell membrane. The complete biodegradation of chitin and protein-present in the waste requires the action of two enzymes, namely chitinase, and protease. Combining chitinase and protease in a single protein/enzyme will serve as a bifunctional enzyme that can efficiently degrade the chitin and protein-rich biomass. The present study was aimed to fuse these two enzymes to produce a single protein and study the kinetics of the recombinant fusion protein. A chitinase and alkaline protease genes were isolated, cloned, and expressed successfully as a fusion product in heterologous host Escherichia coli. The two native genes were successfully fused in E.coli by using flexible glycine–serine (G 4 S) 2 linker (GGGGS, GS linker). The recombinant fusion protein in E.coli showed hydrolyzed chitin and protein on chitin and bovine serum albumin agar plates confirming the successful cloning and expression of chitinase and protease enzymes in a single fusion protein. The common pUC18-T7 mini vector with the ompA signal sequence helps the extracellular expression of fusion protein efficiently. The native gel electrophoresis revealed a molecular mass of purified protein as 92.0 kDa. The fusion protein’s maximal chitinase and protease activity occurred at pH 5.0 and 8.0 and 30 0C, respectively resembling the individual enzymes’. In the kinetic studies of the fusion protein, it was observed that the presence of metal ions such as Cu2+, Na2+, and Ca2+; significantly enhanced the enzyme activities while organic solvents oxidants and chemicals have drastically affected the activities of both the enzymes in the fusion protein. No such fusion protein has been produced in a heterologous host yet. The reports on fusion protein with biomass-degrading capacity are also scarce. This is probably the first report of a bifunctional chitinase/protease expressed in E. coli.

Citation: Nilpa P, Chintan K, Sayyed RZ, El Enshasy H, El Adawi H, Alhazmi A, et al. (2022) Formation of recombinant bifunctional fusion protein: A newer approach to combine the activities of two enzymes in a single protein. PLoS ONE 17(4): e0265969. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265969 Editor: Rahul Datta, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry: Mendelova univerzita v Brne, CZECH REPUBLIC Received: December 11, 2021; Accepted: March 10, 2022; Published: April 1, 2022 Copyright: © 2022 Nilpa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript. Funding: This wok was funded by Researchers Supporting Project Number (TURSP-2020/208), Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia and UTM-RMC, Malaysia through grant No. RJ130000.7609.4C359 and RJ130000.7609.4C336. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction Chitin is the most abundant, water-insoluble homopolymer of N-acetyl D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) just next to cellulose and lignin [1]. It is present in most invertebrates, the cuticle of nematodes, the cell wall of filamentous fungi, and the cuticle of arthropods [2]. Chitin, being a natural product, is continuously synthesized and degraded in the natural environment through chitinase. Chitinases (EC 3.2.1.14) are hydrolytic enzymes that cleave glycosidic bonds of chitin to produce GlcNAc and N-acetyl chitooligosaccharides (COSs) [3, 4]. Chitinase has received much commercial attention recently due to the increased demand for its reaction products such as GlcNAc and COSs in food industries and ethanol production and its application as a biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi [5, 6]. Various microorganisms secrete different families of chitinases [7, 8], however, bacterial chitinase is the best source of chitinase, as it is easily regulated, its production is easily scaled up, it is produced extracellularly and in large quantities in shorter time. The microbes produce multiple chitinases for the complete degradation of chitin into monomers. Bacterial chitinase gradually cleaves chitin and probably generates a better end product than individual enzymes [9]. The use of cloned bacterial chitinase has been reported in a few bacterial genera [3, 10–19]. Proteases (E.C.3.4.21) are the hydrolytic enzymes that cleave peptide bonds and thus release amino acids and /or short-chain oligopeptides. Proteases have become industrially significant enzymes, acquiring about 60% share of the global enzyme market, accounting for about $ 2.21 billion in value. They are widely used in agriculture, pharmaceuticals, food processing, detergent, leather processing, etc. [20, 21]. Proteases have been produced by plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria [22–24]. However, microbial protease is preferred over plant or animal sources due to their higher activity ease in genetic modification, ample availability, convenient processing, and safe and cost-effective production, besides high stability and ability to function over the broader pH and temperature range [25]. Cloning the protease gene and its expression in E. coli has been reported in a few bacterial genera [26–32]. Among the different bacterial sp. Bacillus sp. has been more frequently studied and used to synthesize diverse and industrially important protease, as it produces the enzymes extracellularly, thus offers ease in the extraction and recovery, and the fermentation process is conveniently regulated [33]. Enzymes from wild strains have a narrow range of working temperature and pH, less stability, and more sensitivity to metal ions, solvents, detergents, oxidants, feed-back inhibitions, etc. Gene cloning of commercially important enzymes in the fast-growing host that also gives better expression, easy recovery and purification, higher enzyme yield, and aid into the desired features to the enzyme has been the goal of making industrially valuable enzymes. The co-expression strategies have the limitation of low transformation efficiency and inconvenient screening during co-expression. Constructing a bifunctional/trifunctional gene could be an effective approach [34–39]. Although there are reports on the cloning of Chitinases and proteases; there are no reports on the cloning of two individual enzymes to produce a single fusion protein that possesses chitinase and protease activities. Thus, there is a need to produce a single fusion protein that exhibits two enzymes useful in the biodegradation of chitin and protein-rich wastes. The present study aimed at cloning, expression, and biochemical characterization of a single fusion gene product so that a single protein will have multifunctional activities.

Materials and methods Bacterial strains, vector, chemical reagents, and culture conditions The Bacillus circulans strain MTCC 7906 (Accession No.JN645176.1) for alkaline protease and Serratia marcescens strain GPS5 (Accession No.KX579968.1) for chitinase D and E. coli BL21 (DE3); an expression host was cultured overnight in LB broth at 30°C. These bacterial cultures and the extracellular expression vector pUC18T-mini-Tn7T-Tp-gfpmut3 were procured from the SLS research Pvt. Ltd. India. 5-Bromo-4-chloro-indolyl-β—galactopyranoside (X-Gal), isopropyl thiogalactoside (IPTG), and antibiotics (ampicillin and gentamycin) were procured from Merck (Germany) and used for the selection of transformed clones. All other chemical reagents were purchased from SLS Research Pvt. Ltd., India Cloning of chitinase and protease genes. The genomic DNA of B.circulans strain MTCC 7906 and S.marcescens GPS5 was isolated from the overnight grown cultures of these organisms [40], and purity of the separated DNA was confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis. PCR amplified the gene encoding chitinase and protease from genomic DNA with the primers mentioned in Table 1. The laboratory designed these primers to remove a deduced signal sequence so that protein can be targeted to the extracellular site using the ompA signal sequence [41]. The rrnB transcription termination sequence was used to termination the transcription process. The amplified fragments were checked on the agarose gel electrophoresis for their expected band size. The sense and antisense strands of the linker (GGGGSGGGGS) were annealed by placing 10 ng each in PCR tubes and incubated under a PCR machine with a touchdown cycle from 95°C to 25°C with a gradual decrease of 5°C for every 5 min and incubated further at 25°C. The chitinase gene amplicon, protease gene amplicon, and linker were added to the PCR mixture. The overlapping primer was used to amplify the entire sequence as a long consensus [42] (Table 1). The amplified PCR products were analyzed through 1.5% agarose gel electrophoresis prepared in 1x TBE buffer and run for 20 min. at 7V/cm. The size of the amplified DNA fragments was determined on agarose gel by comparing with the 100+500 bp DNA ladder and photographed under the Bio-Rad Gel documentation system. Three constructs, namely (i) protease, (ii) chitinase, and (iii) chitinase fused with protease, were constructed by using flexible glycine–serine peptide linker (GGGGS, (G4S)2) [43]. The amplified and purified fragments were inserted into the vector pUC18 mini-Tn7T purchased from add gene, USA. The fusion sequence was treated with KpnI (GGTACC) restriction enzyme to create 3’overhang. The BamHI site (GGATCC), lac UV5 promoter, shine-Dalgarno sequence, ompA (Signal Sequence for secretion), and spacer sequences were synthesized as a separate unit (Table 1; sequence No. 10). The regulatory sequence along with BamHI at the 5’ end was ligated with the fusion product. The same sequence was treated with the mentioned restriction enzyme to create a 5’ cohesive end and mixed with the linear vector pUC18miniTn7 in the ratio of 1:5 (Vector: Insert) (Fig 1). PPT PowerPoint slide

PNG larger image

TIFF original image Download: Fig 1. The map of pUC18-T7 mini vector with E.Coli rrnB transcription termination. Lac promoter (Blue color), Lac UV 5 Promoter (Blue color), Lac Operator (Blue color), Fusion Gene (purple color), rrnB T1 terminator (Color less), Ampicillin Resistant gene AmpR and pMB1 origin of replication. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265969.g001 PPT PowerPoint slide

PNG larger image

TIFF original image Download: Table 1. The list of the primers used in the present study. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265969.t001 The chemically competent E. coli BL21 (DE3) were mixed with the recombinant plasmids and transformed using the heat shock method [44]. The transformants were grown on an LB plate containing ampicillin and gentamycin (100 μg/mL each) at 30°C for 24 h and observed for the appearance of growth of transformants. The transformed cells were then picked from the plates and incubated in the antibiotic-containing LB broth at 30°C for 24 h and used for further study. Estimation of enzyme activities of the different constructs Estimation of chitinase and protease activity was performed on basal agar plates containing (g/L) K 2 HPO 4 ; 0.3, KH 2 PO 4 ; 0.7 , MgSO 4 ; 0.5, FeSO 4 ; 0.01, MnCl 2 ; 0.001, ZnSO 4 ; 0.001, and yeast extract; 5.0 separately amended with 1% azo-casein and 1% colloidal chitin. The transformed cells having fusion protein were grown on these plates at 30°C for 72 h. Following the incubation, the chitin agar plate was stained with 0.1% congo red and observed for the zone of chitin hydrolysis. Azocasein plate was observed for the zone of casein (protein) hydrolysis around the bacterial colonies. Induction and purification of enzymes E. coli BL21 (DE3) transformed with the corresponding expression vector was grown overnight at 30°C in LB supplemented with antibiotics. The next day, 100 μL of each culture broth was inoculated in 10 mL of fresh LB medium supplemented with antibiotics (ampicillin and gentamycin @100 μg/mL) and incubated at 30°C for 45 min., followed by the addition of 400 μM/mL of IPTG and further incubation at 30°C for 2 h to get 108 numbers of cells/mL of culture. The one mL of each culture was transferred to their respective substrates containing LB broth. The induction of enzymes was carried out by providing 200 μM/mL IPTG, and then the cells were allowed to grow further at 30°C for 72 h. The broths were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. and the supernatants were dialyzed against Tris buffer (pH 7.5) to remove media ingredients. Enzymes were purified using Ni-Nitrilotriacetic acid agarose column for His tagged dialyzed proteins (Takara Bio Inc., USA). The columns were equilibrated with equilibration buffer (50 mM sodium phosphate, 300 mM sodium chloride, 20 mM imidazole; pH 7.4) followed by washing with His60 Ni wash buffer (50 mM sodium phosphate, 300 mM sodium chloride, 40 mM imidazole; pH 7.4) and incubated at 30°C for 5–7 min. To this tube, 10–20 mL of dialyzed clear protein was added and eluted with 15 mL elution buffer (50 mM sodium phosphate, 300 mM sodium chloride, 300 mM imidazole; pH 7.4). The eluted proteins were collected and assayed for chitinase and protease activities. Chitinase assay. Chitinase activity was estimated according to the method of Lee et al. [45]. The reaction mixture consisting of different volumes of enzyme solution (60 μL, 300 μL, and 500 μL for crude, dialyzed, and purified respectively) and 4 mL (1% w/v) of colloidal chitin (prepared from shrimp shells in 100 mM sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.5) was incubated at 30°C for 60 min. The reducing sugars were estimated analyze by the Somogyi–Nelson method [46], using GlcNAc as the standard. One unit (U) of chitinase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that liberated one μM of GlcNAc per minute per mL under the assay conditions. According to Lowry et al. [47], the amount of available proteins was measured, using bovine serum albumin (100–1000 μg/mL) as the standard. Protease assay. Protease activity was measured according to the method of Aretz et al. [48]. The reaction mixture consisting of different volumes of enzyme solution (60 μL, 300 μL, and 500 μL for crude, dialyzed, and purified respectively), 5 mL substrate (1% casein) was incubated at 30°C for 10 min and followed by adding 5 mL of 100 mM Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and mixed thoroughly. The solutions were filtered through Whatman filter paper and checked for color development due to the release of tyrosine. The amount of tyrosine from the filtrate was measured according to the Lowry method [47], and the amount of tyrosine was calculated from the standard curve of tyrosine (100–1000 μg/mL). One unit of protease was defined as the amount of enzyme that liberates 1μg tyrosine mL/min from casein [49]. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) Proteins were resolved on the 12.5% continuous gel system [49]. The Tris-glycine buffer system at pH 8.8 was used to determine purity and molecular weight. The predetermined molecular weight markers of 44.3 KDa, 66.4 KDa, 97.2KDa, 116 KDa, and 200 KDa protein mixtures were loaded in the marker lane while the purified proteins were added to the gel in different wells. In individual wells, the uniduced and induced Ni-NTA purified protein was loaded along with crude protein from E.coli without insert. The gel was allowed to run in Tris-glycine buffer at 30 mA constant current for 2.5 h. After electrophoresis, the gel was stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250, and the molecular weight of the separated proteins was determined by comparing them with molecular weight standards.

Characterization of the purified proteins Effect of pH and temperature on enzyme activity The effect of pH on protease, chitinase, and fusion protein activities was recorded in various buffers of varying pH in the range of 5.0–9.0. The buffers used were sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.0 and 6.0), phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), and Tris–HCl buffer (pH 8.0 and 9.0). The 70 μL purified proteins were separately incubated in the respective buffers at 30°C for 30 min, and the pH stability and residual enzyme activities were measured as described earlier. The effect of temperature on the activity of purified proteins was measured at different temperatures in the range from 20°C to 50°C. The purified proteins were separately incubated in phosphate buffer (pH 7) at various temperatures for 30 min, and the thermal stability and residual enzyme activities were measured as described earlier. Effect of metal ions, detergent, and organic solvent on enzyme activity. The effect of metal ions on enzyme activity was analyzed using varying concentrations (1 to 100 mM) of metal ions like Co2+, Zn2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na2+, Cu2+, and Fe2+. The respective concentrations of these metal ions were separately added into each reaction mixture, followed by the addition of the purified protein 70 μL/enzyme. The stability and activities of these enzymes were measured as described earlier. Enzyme activities were measured as described earlier. The effects of various detergents (β-Mercaptoethanol, Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid, Sodium dodecyl sulfate, Tween 20) and organic solvents (glycerol, acetone, ethanol, methanol, butanol, and isopropanol) on the stability and activities of purified enzymes was studied by separately adding two concentration (1% and 5%) of these detergents and solvents into the reaction mixture followed by adding 70 μL purified protein [50, 51]. The enzyme activities in the absence of metal ions, detergents, and solvents were considered 100%. The percentage relative activity of enzymes was measured by dividing chemical influenced activity by enzyme activity without adding chemicals [51].

Statistical analysis All the experiments were carried out in five replicates, and the average of five replicates was analyzed using the Student’s t-test, and the values of p≤0.05 were considered statistically significant using SPSS Statistics for Windows, version x. 0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Ill., USA) [52].

Discussion The fragment size and gene sequences of an amplified fragment of protease and chitinase with their respective sequences in the database confirmed the molecular weight and the size of gene sequences. The map is showing the transcription termination signal, fusion gene construct and ampicillin resistant gene. The regulatory sequence of 300 bases and the BamH1 restriction site at 5’end was ligated with individual genes. The formation of the fusion product indicated the successful ligation of individual chitinase and protease genes to form a fusion protein. The gel band of 2.9 kb size further confirmed the presence of the fusion gene sequence in the correct orientation. Growth of transformant E. coli BL21 (DE3) on chitin and casein agar plates indicated that three constructs were successfully transformed into it. Formation of the zone of hydrolysis of casein on azocasien agar plate and chitin on chitin agar plate surrounding the transformant E.coli indicated the successful expressions of chitinase and protease. The over expression of recombinant protein under IPTG induction at low temperature increases stability and solubility. Incubation period between 48–72 h yields maximum protein. The 48 h incubated samples achieved sufficient microbial concentration and low concentration of IPTG for longer time will gives better protein yield. This will lead to proper folded and biologically active protein production with least inclusion bodies formation. The presence of fusion protein of 92 kDa on native PAGE suggested that the bifunctional enzyme is a monomer and intact. The present study results agree with the molecular weight of 44.4 KDa for SmChiD chitinase reported in Serratia marcescens [53] and 46 kDa for alkaline protease reported in Bacillus circulans [27]. Thus, the PAGE analysis confirms the respective size protein expressed. Mixing the fusion protein with control protein of known molecular weight followed by electrophoresis showed the band’s presence at the same place, i.e., 92 kDa indicated that a product with higher molecular weight could be efficiently expressed without any change in its activity. Sometimes, heterogonous expression of higher molecular weight proteins leads to truncated protein expression. Protein with lower molecular mass increases the stability during the post-translation stage. Various bacterial chitinase from a wide range of bacteria is possessed lower molecular mass [3, 7, 13]. The purified chitinase of B. licheniformis and S. maltophila have been reported to have molecular weights 71 kDa and 70.5 kDa, respectively [54, 55]. Increased activities of chitinase (1.60 fold) and protease (1.10 fold) in the recombinant E. coli BL21 (DE3) expressing fusion protein indicated improved activities of both enzymes in fusion construct showed enhanced activity towards the substrate. No confirmation changes occurred during the fusion of the individual proteins [56]. The thick outer membrane and limited secretion signals restrict the expression of heterogonous proteins in E.coli. However, the ompA signal sequence was successfully employed in the present study to target protein to the extracellular site. ompA sequence has been efficiently utilized to secretion exoglucanase of C. fimi from E. coli [57]. Improved enzyme activities following the cloning of genes have been reported by several scientists [58, 59]. The SmChiD can break down colloidal chitin in a time-dependent manner with a very low rate and produce DP2 as a significant end product [53, 58]. The chitinase used in the present study belongs to the endo acting class; it generated both reducing and non-reducing ends. The chitinase-C and N-acetyl hexosaminidase of S. coelicolor has been reported to give 90% pure GlcNAc from crab shell chitin after 8 h incubation [59]. The ChiA, ChiB, and ChiC of S. marcescens act synergistically to break chitin proficiently and give GlcNAc a major product [58, 60]. The Chi D used in the present study of S. marcescens is, an endo enzyme that produces non-reducing and reducing ends. The complete lysis of insoluble chitin requires the activity of multiple enzymes and a longer incubation time to get GlcNAc [59]. The present study reports 1 h incubation period for complete degradation of chitin into GlcNAc vis-à-vis 4 h incubation reported earlier. However, a longer incubation time will serve the purpose of breakdown complex chitin into its monomers. The stability of activities of recombinant proteins over the range of pH and temperature optima indicated that chitinase and protease activity of fusion protein is more stable, remain more active, and retain the activities over the range of pH and temperature as compared to their counterparts [27, 53]. Other scientists have reported similar pH optima of recombinant chitinase for PbChi70 of Paenibacillus barengoltzii and M. timonae, respectively [13, 61]. The mesophilic temperature optima for protease and chitinase may be due to the mesophilic nature of the producing organisms. The results are in agreement with the work reported for chitinase of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia [55], Bacillus licheniformis N1 [62], and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis [63]. The serine alkaline protease Alp from Acinetobacter sp. IHB B 5011 (MN12) was cloned and expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) using the N-terminal signal sequence [25]. Similarly, a serine protease from Bacillus sp.WRD-2 was cloned and expressed into E.coli [64]. Improved enzyme activities in the presence of Na2+, Ca2+ and Cu2+, and Zn2+ are due to the requirement of metal ions for optimum enzyme activities. Enhanced activities protease and chitinase in the presence of Ca2+ ions indicated the requirement of this metal ion for the activities of these enzymes as EDTA chelate divalent cations. Similar observations have been reported in alkaliphilic Bacillus pumilus MCAS8 [65] and Caldicoprobacter guelmensis [66]. The inhibition of enzyme activities in the presence of solvents and chemicals is due to the denaturation of proteins by these solvents and chemicals. An et al. [64] reported inhibition of intracellular serine protease of Bacillus sp. WRD-2 in the presence of organic solvents. The inhibitory effect of organic solvents on recombinant alkaline protease and subtilisin was observed by scientists [67, 68]. Similarly, a reduction in alkaline protease activity from Bacillus cereus in the presence of isopropanol, methanol, ethanol, and butanol was reported [69]. The glycine-serine linker is flexible and helps in the proper folding of the enzymes. The fusion of three catalytic domains with a (G4S) 3 flexible linker showed trifunctional cellulase activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [43]. They found the higher activity of fusion protein as compared to individual clones. There was a successful fusion of B. subtilis expansin EXLX1 and Clostridium thermocellum endoglucanase CelD genes with a linker of different lengths and observed the highest enzyme activities in the fusion protein [70]. The fusion of two enzymes brings the active site together, and the product of one enzyme-catalyzed reaction will be immediately utilized as a substrate for the other. These strategies will be helpful for the biotransformation of various raw materials by generating a fusion of enzymes from different pathways. In the present studies, an active bifunctional protein was constructed, which presented the activities of chitinase and protease, respectively, through specific substrate analysis. E.coli has been the host of choice for cloning and heterologous expression of a wide range of proteins. Due to its well-studied genetics, faster growth rate, ability to grow on cost-effective media, safety, ample availability of vectors, ease in extracellular production using signal sequences, and convenient in the extraction of the product, E.coli is preferred over the other hosts. The fusion and Co-expression of endoglucanase and beta-glucosidase were successfully carried out in E.coli [36]. Several other reports indicating fusion and co-expression of proteins belong to endoglucanase and β-glucosidase for hydrolyzing sugarcane bagasse [38]. Thus chitinase and protease can be successfully fused and expressed in E.coli without changing their catalytic activities, properties, and kinetics. However, more studies on kinetics, molecular aspects, and protein characterization are required to claim the success of fusion protein.

Conclusion Heterologous expression of the fusion protein is successfully carried out by using a pUC18-T7 mini vector with an ompA signal sequence. The bicistronic vector expresses fusion protein using glycine-serine linker as a single peptide appears to be a feasible and cost-effective approach of combining two enzymes in a single protein. A single fusion protein exhibiting the activities of two enzymes can effectively degrade the complex substrates made up of chitin and protein. Improved activities of these enzymes in fusion protein offer higher biodegradation rates than the biodegradation by a single enzyme. Moreover, the biodegradation of chitin mediated by fusion protein holds merits in terms of safety, higher productivity, and the formation of a good number of monomers. Cloning of genes of two enzymes in the fast-growing host that also gives better co-expression, higher enzyme yield, and improved activities compared to individual enzymes will have more and broader applications. This report is the first report on a single fusion protein that has chitinase and protease activities. However, further studies on enzyme kinetics, molecular studies on genes involved, and studies on protein structure may further enhance the activities, yield, and stability of fusion under diverse physicochemical conditions.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to Taif University Researchers Supporting Project Number (TURSP-2020/208), Taif University, Saudi Arabia and RMC, UTM, Malaysia for grant No. RJ130000.7609.4C359 and RJ130000.7609.4C336.

[END]

[1] Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0265969

(C) Plos One. "Accelerating the publication of peer-reviewed science."
Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0)
URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


via Magical.Fish Gopher News Feeds:
gopher://magical.fish/1/feeds/news/plosone/

You are viewing proxied material from magical.fish. The copyright of proxied material belongs to its original authors. Any comments or complaints in relation to proxied material should be directed to the original authors of the content concerned. Please see the disclaimer for more details.