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Ancient America: The Great Southwestern Drought, 1276-1299 [1]
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Date: 2025-03-01
Throughout the world the transition from hunting and gathering economies to lifeways based on raising domesticated plants has resulted in the development of permanent settlements. This development has usually evolved over long periods of time. In the Four Corners Region of the American Southwest—the present-day states of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Arizona–-the archaeological record shows evidence of agriculture as early as 2000 BCE. By 400 BCE, plants originally domesticated in Mexico had become dominant in the Four Corners Region.
In her chapter in The Oxford Handbook Handbook of North American Archaeology, Deborah Pearsall writes:
“Maize, beans (common and tepary), and pepo squash form the core of Southwestern agriculture, with cotton and bottle gourd also introduced early, and other beans and squashes later arrivals.”
By 100 BCE, the Ancestral Puebloan (also known as Anasazi) cultural tradition was developing in the Four Corners Region. This cultural tradition is characterized by an increase in population and the development of pueblos (towns), such as Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde.
In his chapter in North American Archaeology, Stephen Lekson writes:
“Population in the Four Corners area (including the Mesa Verde, Totah, and other districts) reached as many as 30,000 people by about 1250. By 1300, the region was almost entirely empty.”
The Drought
An economy dependent on agriculture is also dependent on water. In 1276, a long period of drought (23 years) began. As a result of this drought, many areas were abandoned except for spring oases. Archaeologist Scott Wood, in his chapter in Salado, writes:
“While some of these folk may have left the area entirely, it seems reasonable that the majority merely gravitated toward the existing settlements along the rivers, where they would have had the strongest kin ties and best hope for assistance.”
With food scarcity, violence increases and is expressed with warfare.
In a report in American Archaeology, Tamara Jager Stewart writes:
“A 23-year-long drought beginning in A.D. 1276, combined with warfare, over-population, and limited resources, caused Mesa Verdeans to leave the entire region, including Hovenweep, and migrate south by the end of the 13th century.”
Stephen Lekson writes:
“Most of the Four Corners population migrated to the areas of today’s pueblos in Arizona and New Mexico.”
Sand Canyon Pueblo
In 1277, construction stopped at Sand Canyon Pueblo in Colorado. The abandonment of the pueblo began. The residents were now consuming less domesticated turkey and more cottontail rabbit, deer, and pronghorn. Corn was still an important part of their diet and there was no indication of dietary stress. However, the regional drought which started the year before may have reduced the agricultural yield. According to archaeologist Kristin Kuckelman (2010: 519): “With crops diminishing, or failing entirely, under droughty conditions, villagers were probably forced to consume maize stores.” In an article in American Antiquity, Kristin Kuckelman reports:
“Failed crops could have led to diminished turkey flocks: the low frequencies of turkey bone in abandonment contexts site-wide suggest that few turkeys remained near the time of village depopulation.”
Many of the villagers began to emigrate, probably planning to return when the climate improved. It has been estimated that from one-fourth to three fourths of the population emigrated. Those who stayed were forced to use a hunting and gathering strategy which meant that they were now competing with other communities for these resources. Kristin Kuckelman reports:
“Those hunting and foraging away from home returned to the safety of the village whenever possible, bringing whatever provisions they had been able to procure.”
In 1280, Sand Canyon Pueblo was abandoned. The village was attacked and many villagers died. At least 35 people were killed and were not formally buried. One middle-aged man was killed by a face-to-face blow delivered by a right-handed assailant. He was on the roof at the time he was killed. In another room block, an adolescent male (12-15 years old) was killed in a kiva by being struck from behind, perhaps while attempting to flee. This individual was scalped. Another man, about 20 years old, was killed on a rooftop by being struck from behind. An eight-year child was killed by being struck from behind and was scalped.
Archaeologist Kristin Kuckelman reports:
“Death might have resulted from arrows with stone projectile points that were then retrieved from victims. Wood-tipped arrows would also have left no visible traces; recent research suggests that this type of arrow was much more widely used than previously thought.”
In seeking to answer the question as to who attacked the village, Kristin Kuckelman writes:
“Overall, the data—mostly negative evidence—lead to the conclusion that the attackers were residents of one or more Pueblo settlements from within the Mesa Verde region.”
The attack did not appear to involve non-Pueblo invaders.
Some of the abandoned kivas were burned. This was not a simple task, but a labor-intensive process requiring a great deal of time, perseverance, and determination. The roofs of the kivas were set on fire as a part of a closing ritual. This could have been done by villagers who were away from the village when it was attacked or by a delegation of emigrating survivors who returned after the attackers had departed.
In summarizing the reasons for the abandonment of Sand Canyon Pueblo, Kristin Kuckelman writes:
“Overexploitation of natural resources, high population levels, and overdependence on one crop left Ancestral Pueblo residents of the region catastrophically vulnerable to the vagaries of weather and climate, resulting in social turmoil, massive relocations of population, and far-reaching, permanent changes in Pueblo culture.”
Pueblos abandoned, migrations, violence
From 1280 until the end of the drought many pueblos were abandoned, some due to increased violence in the region. For example, in 1280 Castle Rock Pueblo in Colorado was abandoned and the archaeological evidence suggests that this abandonment was accompanied by warfare. In 1285 at least 41 people were killed in Castle Rock Pueblo in McElmo Canyon, Colorado. This ended the occupation of the village of 75 to 150 people.
There were also migrations out of the area. The archaeological record shows population increases at several sites, including Chodistaas Pueblo and Point of Pines, both in Arizona.
Conclusion
By 1300, most of the Ancestral Puebloan communities in the Four Corners Region were abandoned. The prolonged drought meant that these communities could not grow sufficient crops to maintain their population.
While there are still a few people who insist that the Anasazi people vanished, it is clear that the communities were evacuated, and useful goods were taken with those who left. Today’s Pueblo peoples of New Mexico and Arizona are descended from this cultural tradition. Archaeologist William Lipe, in his chapter in American Indian Places, writes:
“The people who left Mesa Verde and the adjacent areas did not disappear; they moved south, often to areas where related Pueblo people lived.”
Modern Pueblo people know that the Ancestral Puebloan communities were abandoned because the serpent god mysteriously left them. This is the deity which controls rain and fertility. The people left the towns and followed the snake’s trail until they found a river where they once again built their communities.
According to Pueblo oral tradition, the last Mesa Verde chief was Salavi (whose name means “Spruce.”) This respected elder sent his people away in search of better land even though he was too old to travel with them. As the people left, he told them to return in four years. If he was to blame for the lack of rain and the withering fields, then they would find no trace of him. However, if his heart was pure, they would find a sign. According to Badger Clan history, when the people returned, they found a four-year old spruce tree next to a spring which was gushing water. A clan historian then wrote the events of this story on the rocks at Pictograph Point.
More Ancient America
Ancient America: The prehistoric Southwest, 1375-1425 CE
Ancient America: A very short overview of the prehistory of the Grand Canyon
Ancient America: Linking people to the cosmos in ancient Ohio
Ancient America: The Paleo-Indian Period in Texas (prior to 8000 BCE)
Ancient America: Avonlea, the early bow hunters
Ancient America: The Old Copper People
Ancient America: Astronomy
Ancient America: Solar Calendars
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