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Indians 101: Some American Indian events of 1923, 100 years ago [1]
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Date: 2023-06-20
American Indians, according to the non-Indian social philosophers, bureaucrats, and politicians of the nineteenth century, were going to simply disappear. Many history books about Indians stop their histories at the end of the nineteenth century, adding to the illusion that Indians somewhat stopped being Indians when the twentieth century began. One hundred years ago, in 1923, American Indians were adapting to the economic, social, and political realities of twentieth-century life in the United States.
It should be noted that in 1923, American Indians did not have birthright citizenship in the U.S.: they could only become citizens if certain conditions, such as serving in the military during World War I, were met. In general, Indians living on reservations were unable to vote and were considered “under guardianship,” meaning that they were unable to make certain decisions for themselves.
Briefly described below are some of the American Indian events of 100 years ago, in 1923.
Peyote and the American Indian Church
The Native American Church arose in the late nineteenth century as a pan-Indian religious movement. It incorporates many Christian elements as well as Indian elements. A century ago, in 1923, American Indian religions, both traditional religions and the more recent ones, were illegal. In addition, the Native American Church uses peyote as a sacrament. Thus, the Native American Church was under attack not only for being an American Indian religion, but for using a hallucinogenic drug.
An article in the New York Times called the Native American Church a “cult of death” and reported that it integrated “ancient beliefs and practices dating back to the Aztecs, among whom the use of the drug in connection with religious rites is supposed to have originated.” According to the article, peyote use results in imbecility, insanity, and suicide.
In an effort to stop the Native American Church, Montana, Arizona, North Dakota, and South Dakota prohibited peyote.
Indian Education
In 1923, American Indian parents had little voice in or control over their children’s education. In North Carolina, some Waccamaw parents, wanting control over their children’s’ school, moved their children to a church where they could be taught. The Wide Awake Indian Council persuaded the public-school board to accept this situation and reimbursed the Council for expenses incurred in using the church as a school.
Segregated schools in 1923 were common and Indian children were often not allowed to attend public schools. In California, Pomo leader Stephen Knight filed suit to allow his daughter to attend public school. He won the right for Indian children in California to attend public schools.
Yaquis
Due to political unrest and persecution in Mexico in the early twentieth century, many Yaquis left their traditional villages in Sonora and migrated to Arizona. In 1923, after many concerns and complaints about the Yaquis who were occupying some land near the Tucson dump, a local realtor plotted a subdivision near the edge of town for them. The new community was named Pascua (Easter in Spanish) after their religious ceremonials. Individual plots were sold under an installment plan at $1 per month. About 20 families moved to the new community, but many were afraid of being under the surveillance of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
The Pascua Yaquis built a church of railroad ties and scrap at the center of the barrio. The new church was called San Ignacio de Loyola. The City of Tucson opened a public school in the new community.
Movies, Sports, and Culture
In Wyoming, the Famous Players-Lasky Studio shot the film The Covered Wagon on location using Indians from the Wind River Reservation. According to Nicolas Rosenthal, in an article in the Western Historical Quarterly:
“To promote the film, the studio hired thirty-five Arapaho women, men, and children from the Wind River Reservation to perform a live prologue before each showing at Grauman’s Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood, where The Covered Wagon was playing.”
Sunset magazine published an article by John Collier in which he stated:
“The Pueblos are fighting desperately against quick destruction.”
According to Collier, those opposing the New Mexico Pueblos were land grabbing interests and the executive branch of the federal government. He appealed to Americans to use their voice and vote to prevent the continuation of the poor treatment of Indians.
John Collier arranged for a delegation of Pueblo Indians from New Mexico to put on a session of drumming and singing at the New York Stock Exchange.
Note: during the administration of President Franklin Roosevelt, John Collier would serve as the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
Washington’s Suquamish Indian baseball team visited Japan and attempted to introduce the game to the Japanese.
Water Rights
In the American west the right to use water, both from flowing rivers and streams and from underground sources, is determined by a legal concept that can be summarized as “first in time, first in right.” Since Indian people have been in the area as the owners and users of the land since time immemorial it would seem that they should have the oldest, and therefore most important water rights.
The most important river in the Southwest is the Colorado. In 1923, the seven Colorado River Basin states negotiated a compact which divided the river’s water among themselves. The negotiations were chaired by Herbert Hoover who would later become President of the United States. In his book American Indian Water Rights and the Limits of the Law, Lloyd Burton observes:
“Conspicuously absent (because they had not been invited) were representatives of any of the scores of tribes inhabiting the basin, whose rights if enforced would constitute the largest claim on the river.”
Indian Organizations
The American Indian Defense Association (AIDA) was founded in 1823. This was an organization composed primarily of middle to upper class non-Indians which was dedicated to Indian rights. John Collier served as the organization’s executive secretary. AIDA maintained an office in Washington, D.C. to be able to lobby Congress regarding Indian poverty, the granting of greater cultural and religious freedom for Indians, and recognizing tribal organizations.
The final conference of the Society of American Indians (SAI) was held in 1923. According to historian Thomas Cowger, in his book The National Congress of American Indians: The Founding Years:
“By promoting assimilation and ignoring tribalism, SAI leadership alienated the mass of Indians on reservations.”
The Grand Council Fire of Chicago was formed in 1923. While the membership was primarily Indian, it did have some non-Indian members.
The Indian Council of New England was formed to cultivate interest in Indian heritage and cultural survival. The Council’s motto:
Algonquin: I Still Live
The organization was a coalition of New England Indians, non-Indian amateur historians, and others.
In Virginia, an organization called the Powhatan Confederacy was formed. In her book Pocahontas: The Life and the Legend, Frances Mossiker reports:
“Not that this motley crew can any longer claim to be full-blooded: racially heterogeneous, showing Caucasoid and Negroid ancestry, yet they cling tenaciously to the classification of American Indian.”
In Idaho, the Nez Perce Home and Farm Association (NPHFA) was organized as an expression of the tribe’s desire for independence. The NPHFA drew up plans for improving education, health, and the economy.
More twentieth century American Indian histories
In general, twentieth century American Indians are invisible, their histories generally segregated in early histories. By making American Indians invisible in history courses, history textbooks, and the news media, it is easier to ignore their concerns and the causes of their concerns. According to the standard histories, the Indian wars ended in the 1890s (not true), the Ghost Dance ended in the 1890s (not true), and Indians, like other immigrants, were fully integrated into American society (except, of course, for the racism of this society).
Indians 101: American Indian art and heritage 100 years ago, 1923
Indians 101: The U.S. Government replaces the Navajo Council in 1923
Indians 101: Reservations 100 years ago, 1923
Indians 101: Some American Indians events of 100 years ago, 1922
Indians 101: Suppressing Indian religions in Montana, 1900-1934
Indians 101: The Grand Coulee Dam and the Colville Indians
Indians 101: The Hopi Reservation, 1900-1936
Indians 101: World War II Veterans Come Home
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