[Note: For this archive, the news.zip material has been de-archived and
appended to the newsletter, as has a uuencoded version of the pics.zip
file, and the bibliography.  This was done because our compressor, gzip,
does not do multiple files in one archive. - [email protected]]

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� Computer Underground         �
�       Historical Society '95 �
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� Journal Release: 12/1995     �
� Volume 1  Number 1           �
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�������������������������Ͱ���C.U.H.S Journal۲����������������������������ͻ
������������������������������ Vol. 1 No. 1  ��������������������������������
������������������������������     11/95     ��������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������ͼ

This is the first issue of CUHS (Computer Underground Historical Society).
This journal is dedicated to giving you informational and current stats to
date of underground groups and technological breakthroughs relating to the
underground. As well as court cases and the like that are part of the
underground. CUHS will not try to state any opinion or bias but present
the facts so that you can decide. Enclosed will be pictures, group stats,
a dateline, and news logs.

����������������������������������Ŀ ����������������������������������Ŀ
�-=To Contact CUHS=-               � �-= Courtesy Associates =-         �
�Internet: [email protected]          � �Electronic Frontier Foundation    �
�          http://exo.com/~unreal  � �  Site: eff.org                   �
�-=To Find Current Issues of CUHS=-� �SuperUnknown Archives             �
�Digital Decay (310) xxx-xxxx      � �  Site: http://www.csusm.edu -    �
�SFPD          (714) xxx-xxxx      � �  Path: /public/guests/fm/su.html �
������������������������������������ ������������������������������������
* If you would like to register your group, please contact the SuperUnknown *
* page for information and a form. Also, if you feel the need to report an  *
* incident of interest relating to hpcv.warez.ansi please contact CUHS at   *
* our mail site.                                                            *


Contents:

Group Pictures                :   pics.zip
Court Cases & News            :   news.zip
Member Interviews             :   (Interviews to come in next journal.)

CUHS Contents & Updates       :   cuhs1n1.txt
CUHS Register List            :   (Group Updates in next journal.)
Bibliography                  :   cuhs1n1.res

File-ID                       :   file_id.diz
                                 descript.ion

Updates: (11/95)
N/A "First Issued Journal Entries"

Acknowledgements:
Registery Information    - SuperUnknown WWW Page            (SU)
News & Court Information - Electronic Frontier Foundation   (EFF)
Flash Bug Information    - Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT)
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end
Revised Index File (CUHS)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Files in this Archive

EFF1.TXT
* THE DOCUMENT CASE
       A collection of briefs, judgments
       white papers, rulings, and references of
       moment to the issues of law and order on
       The Electronic Frontier

EFF2.TXT
  bill_of_rights_online.paper
         Harvey Silverglate, "LEGAL OVERVIEW: THE ELECTRONIC FRONTIER
         AND THE BILL OF RIGHTS". Striking balances properly among
         freedom of speech, the right to privacy and protection from
         unwarranted governmental intrusion will not be easy, but if
         they are struck too far in one direction or the other,
         important social and legal values surely will be sacrificed.

EFF3.TXT
  bbs_defamation_liability.paper
         John R. Kahn, "DEFAMATION LIABILITY OF COMPUTERIZED BULLETIN
         BOARD OPERATORS AND PROBLEMS OF PROOF". The scope of this
         Comment is to examine issues that arise in tracing computerized
         defamation to its true source. Must read for all SYSOPS and
         potential SYSOPS concerning your liability for information
         posted on your BBS.

EFF4.TXT
  comp_crime_laws.list
         List of computer crime related statutes by state

EFF5.TXT
  comp_law.biblio
         1991 bibliography of computer-law related materials, especially
         on the subject of copyrights and digital media (computer
         software, CD-ROM, etc.) for librarianship.Reviewed by Martin
         Halbert, from The Public-Access Computer Systems Review.

EFF6.TXT
  comp_privacy_vs_rights.paper
         Michael S. Borella, "COMPUTER PRIVACY VS. FIRST AND FOURTH
         AMENDMENT RIGHTS". This paper discusses cyberspace and its
         increasing role in the life of every human being, not just
         those who actually use a computer, and explores the legal
         battles and rights issues regarding cyberspace.

EFF7.TXT
  copyrt_myths.faq
         A discussion on the facts and myths surrounding copyright law
         including computers and the internet. Written by Terry Carroll
         and contains all six volumes of the FAQ.

EFF8.TXT
  cyber_constitution.paper
         Laurence H. Tribe, "The Constitution in Cyberspace" the keynote
         address at the First Conference on Computers, Freedom and
         Privacy1991

EFF9.TXT
  cyberliberties_kapor.article
         Mitch Kapor, "Civil Liberties in Cyberspace: When does hacking
         turn from an exercise of civil liberties into crime?"

EFF10.TXT
  cyberspace_legal_matrix.article
         Lance Rose, "Cyberspace and the Legal Matrix: Laws or
         Confusion?" Article on legal aspects of electronic networks, or
         "cyberspace". First part is an overview of the many types of
         laws that may apply to different network situations. Second
         part examines some of the problems and results arising from
         clashes between differrent laws and regulations of cyberspace.

EFF11.TXT
  doj_search_seize_epic.analysis
         EPIC Analysis of New Justice Department Draft Guidelines on
         Searching and Seizing Computers

EFF12.TXT
* CuD 2/2 Electronic Publication and the 1st Amendment

EFF13.TXT
  ecpa.law
         the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, with relevant
         sections of other laws as modified by the ECPA (these
         annotations by Mike Godwin and Shari Steele).

EFF14.TXT
  edgar_grant.announce
         November 1993 announcement that Congressman Edward Markey
         (D-MA) announced that the National Science Foundation would
         fund a pilot project to place the Securities and Exchange
         Commission's (SEC) Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis and
         Retrieval (EDGAR) system online for users of the Internet.

EFF15.TXT
  elec_rights_ala.papers
         ASCII version of a printed booklet distributed at the American
         Library Association conference in July 1991 dealing with
         citizen rights and access to electronic information

EFF16.TXT
  nbc_comp_crime.transcript
         Script from the NBC "Almost 2001" computer crime news report
         aired May 1994

EFF17.TXT
  search_and_seizure.speech
         Harvey A. Sliverglate & Thomas C. Viles, "CONSTITUTIONAL,
         LEGAL, AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEALING WITH ELECTRONIC
         FILES IN THE AGE OF CYBERSPACE", from Federal Enforcement
         Conference 1991, Washington DC. How far can governments,
         companies and individuals go when gaining access to
         information?

EFF18.TXT
  sentencing_guidelines.eff
         EFF statement of opposition to 1993 proposed sentencing
         guideline applicable to violations of the Computer Fraud and
         Abuse Act of 1988, 18 U.S.C. 1030 (CFAA). See previous file for
         the result.

EFF19.TXT
* United States Sentencing Commission: Proposed 59th Amendment

EFF20.TXT
  tempest_legal.draft
         Christopher Seline, "Eavesdropping On the Electromagnetic
         Emanations of Digital Equipment: The Laws of Canada, England
         and the United States", draft article. This document explores
         the legal status of a surveillance technology known as TEMPEST.
         Using TEMPEST the information in any digital device may be
         intercepted and reconstructed into useful intelligence without
         the operative ever having to come near his target. The
         technology is especially useful in the interception of
         information stored in computers.

EFF21.TXT
* "ACM COMPUTERS SEIZED BY ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY"

EFF22.TXT
* CompuServe v. Patterson

EFF23.TXT
* MTV Sues Curry

EFF24.TXT
* MCI Worker Charged with Huge Phone-Credit Theft

EFF25.TXT
* Litigation Anaylysis: The cases of: Steve Jackson and Craig Neirdorf

EFF26.TXT
* 2600 Mall Bust

EFF27.TXT
* Scotland and Italy cracks down on "Anarchy Files"

EFF28.TXT
* Commentary: Phiber Optik goes to jail.

EFF29.TXT
* Legions of Doom Indictments (Chicago Members)

EFF30.TXT
* When Copying Isn't Theft:
  How the Government Stumbled in a "Hacker" Case

    _________________________________________________________________

* = All text was Archived under the EFF Web-Site and appended by CUHS.


##########   |
##########   |
###          |   THE DOCUMENT CASE
#######      |
#######      |   A collection of briefs, judgments
###          |   white papers, rulings, and references of
##########   |   moment to the issues of law and order on
##########   |   The Electronic Frontier
            |
##########   |
##########   |
###          |  Document #: 1
#######      |  Title: EFF Amicus Brief in U.S. v. Riggs
#######      |  challenging computer-use prohibition
###          |  in "hacker" defendant's sentencing
###          |  Archived/Published to the Net: May 23, 1991
###          |  Filename: riggs.brief
            |
##########   |
##########   |  Anonymous ftp archive maintained by
###          |  Mike Godwin and Chris Davis at
#######      |  The Electronic Frontier Foundation (eff.org)
#######      |
###          |  These files are in the "docs" subdirectory
###          |  of the ftp directory. Related files may be
###          |  found in the EFF and SJG subdirectories.



IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT


NO. 90-9108
NO. 90-9129


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

                                                  Plaintiff-Appellee,

v.

ROBERT J. RIGGS

                                                  Defendant-Appellant.



A DIRECT APPEAL OF A CRIMINAL CASE
FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR
THE NORTHERN DISTRICT OF GEORGIA, ATLANTA DIVISION


BRIEF OF AMICUS CURIAE
ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION



ERIC M. LIEBERMAN
NICHOLAS E. POSER
RABINOWITZ, BOUDIN, STANDARD,
 KRINSKY & LIEBERMAN, P.C.
740 Broadway - Fifth Floor
New York, New York 10003
(212) 254-1111

HARVEY A. SILVERGLATE
SHARON L. BECKMAN
SILVERGLATE & GOOD
The Batterymarch Building
80 Broad Street - 14th Floor
Boston, Massachusetts 02110
(617) 542-6663

Counsel for Amicus Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation
----------------------


United States v. Riggs, Nos. 90-9108 and 90-9129


CERTIFICATE OF INTERESTED PERSONS AND
CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

       Pursuant to Local Rule 26.1 of this Court, it is hereby certified
that the following persons and entities have an interest in the outcome of
this case or have participated as attorneys or as judges in the
adjudication of this case:

Kent B. Alexander, Assistant United States Attorney
Sharon L. Beckman, Attorney for Amicus Curiae
  Electronic Frontier Foundation

Electronic Frontier Foundation, Amicus Curiae

Honorable J. Owen Forrester, United States
       District Judge, Northern District of Georgia

Paul S. Kish, Attorney for defendant-appellant

Eric M. Lieberman, Attorney for Amicus Curiae
       Electronic Frontier Foundation

Nicholas E. Poser, Attorney for Amicus Curiae
       Electronic Frontier Foundation

Rabinowitz, Boudin, Standard, Krinsky
       & Lieberman, P.C., Attorneys for Amicus
       Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation

Robert J. Riggs, defendant-appellant

Harvey A. Silverglate, Attorney for Amicus
       Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation

Silverglate & Good, Attorneys for Amicus
       Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation



___________________________
    NICHOLAS E. POSER

STATEMENT OF INTEREST OF AMICUS
CURIAE ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION

       Amicus curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation submits this brief to
assist the Court's review of the special condition of the defendant's
supervised release imposed by the district court prohibiting him from
owning or personally using a computer.  Pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 29,
the Foundation submits this brief with the written consent of both the
defendant and the government.  The letters of the parties consenting to
the filing of this brief have been contemporaneously submitted to the
clerk of the Court.
       The Electronic Frontier Foundation believes the condition barring
computer ownership and personal use substantially infringes First
Amendment rights of expression and association.  The legality of the
condition presents a novel and important question, whose resolution by
this Court will have a profound impact on the development of the law. As
explained below, the question presented here is precise of the kind which
the Foundation was established to address and about which it has
considerable expertise.
       The Electronic Frontier Foundation is a nonprofit organization
established in 1990 to promote the public interest in the development of
computer-based communication technology.
       The founders and directors of the Electronic Frontier Foundation
include Mitchell Kapor and Steven Wozniak, two of our nation's leading
experts in the area of computer technology.  Mr. Kapor founded the Lotus
Development Corporation and designed and developed the Lotus 1-2-3
spreadsheet software.  Mr. Wozniak was one of the co-founders of Apple
Computer, Incorporated.  These individuals have comprehensive knowledge of
the developing computer-based technologies and the promises and threats
they present.
       The Foundation's goals, as set forth in its mission statement, are
as follows:

Engage in and support educational activities which increase popular
understanding of the opportunities and challenges posed by developments in
computing and telecommunications.

Develop among policy-makers a better understanding of the issues
underlying free and open telecommunications, and support the creation of
legal and structural approaches which will ease the assimilation of these
new technologies by society.

Raise public awareness about civil liberties issues arising from the rapid
advancement in the area of new computer-based communications media.
Support litigation in the public interest to preserve, protect, and extend
First Amendment rights within the realm of computing and
telecommunications technology.

Encourage and support the development of new tools which will endow
non-technical users with full and easy access to computer-based
telecommunication.

       While the Foundation regards unauthorized entry into computer
systems as wrong and deserving of punishment, it also believes that
legitimate law enforcement goals must be served by means that do not
violate the rights and interest of the users of electronic technology and
that do not chill use and development of this technology.

       The novel question presented in this appeal falls squarely within
the expertise and interest of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.  The
Foundation believes it can be of assistance to the Court in determining
whether the condition imposing a computer ban infringes rights of speech
and association in a broader manner than is reasonably necessary to
achieve the goals of the supervised release statute.

       Accordingly, the Foundation submits this brief.


STATEMENT REGARDING ORAL ARGUMENT
       Amicus curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation requests oral
argument in this appeal, which presents the novel question of the legality
of generally prohibiting computer ownership and personal use as a
condition of supervised release.  Because computers are means of
communication and association with others, the prohibition raises
important issues under the First Amendment.  Amicus has comprehensive
knowledge of computer-based technologies and a deep interest both in
developing public understanding of those technologies and of the civil
liberties implications of governmental restrictions on their use.  (See
Statement of Interest of Amicus at pp. i-iii.)  Amicus believes oral
argument will assist the court in resolving the legal issue presented by
the computer ban.



TABLE OF CONTENTS


               Pages

CERTIFICATE OF INTERESTED PARTIES ..................... C-1

STATEMENT OF INTEREST OF AMICUS
CURIAE ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION ................. i

STATEMENT REGARDING ORAL ARGUMENT ..................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................... v

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES .................................. vii

STATEMENT OF JURISDICTION ............................. xi

STATEMENT OF THE ISSUE ................................ 1

STATEMENT OF THE CASE ................................. 1

       (i) Course of Proceedings and
           Disposition Below ............................      1

   (ii) Statement of Facts ........................... 2

  (iii) Scope of Review .............................. 2

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ................................... 3

I.  THE PROHIBITION ON OWNERSHIP AND
   PERSONAL USE OF COMPUTERS TRENCHES
   HEAVILY ON RIGHTS OF EXPRESSION
   AND ASSOCIATION PROTECTED BY THE
   FIRST AMENDMENT ................................... 5

II. THE DISTRICT COURT'S PROHIBITION
   ON MR. RIGGS' OWNERSHIP AND PERSONAL
   USE OF COMPUTERS AS A CONDITION OF
   HIS SUPERVISED RELEASE IS IMPROPER
   BECAUSE IT CREATES A GREATER DEPRI-
   VATION OF LIBERTY THAN IS REASONABLY
   NECESSARY TO EFFECTUATE STATUTORY GOALS ........... 13

    A.  The Sentencing Reform Act Requires
        That Conditions Of Supervised
        Release Not Impinge Unnecessarily
        On Liberty Interests ......................... 13

    B.  The Prohibition On Ownership And
        Personal Use Of Computers Is A
        Deprivation of Liberty Not Reason-
        ably Necessary to Carry Out The
        Purposes Of The Sentencing ................... 17


           1.  The Computer Ban Is Far Too Broad To
                  Be Reasonably Necessary To The
                  Statutory Purposes Of Deterrence,
                       Public Protection And Rehabilitation .....      17

           2.  Discretionary Conditions Specifically
                       Authorized By Statute Or Imposed In
                       Other Contexts Provide No Support For
                       The Imposition Of The Computer Ban
                       Here .....................................      22

           3.  This Court Has Authority To
                       Strike Down The Computer Ban .............      25

CONCLUSION ............................................ 25


TABLE OF AUTHORITIES


Page

Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520 (1979) .................. 17

Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976) ................... 9

Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753 (1972) ............ 7

Owens v. Kelley, 681 F.2d 1362
       (11th Cir. 1982) .................................      16

Pell v. Procunier, 417 U.S. 817 (1974) ................ 17

Porth v. Templar, 453 F.2d 330
       (10th Cir. 1971) .................................      21

Roberts v. United States Jaycees,
       468 U.S. 609 (1984) ..............................      11

United States v. Consuelo-Gonzalez, 521 F.2d 259
       (9th Cir. 1975) ..................................      3,17

United States v. Cothran, 855 F.2d 749
       (11th Cir. 1988) .................................      3,16

United States v. Holloway, 740 F.2d 1373 (6th Cir.),
       cert. denied, 460 U.S. 1021     (1989) ...............  19,20,

               21

United States v. Holmes, 614 F.2d 985
       (5th Cir. 1980) ..................................      16

United States v. Jalilian, 896 F.2d, 447
       (10th Cir. 1990) .................................      2

United States v. Jimenez, 600 F.2d 1172
       (5th Cir. 1979) ..................................      25

United States v. Lawson, 670 F.2d 923
       (10th Cir. 1982) .................................      3,17,

               21,23

United States v. Patterson, 627 F.2d 760
       (5th Cir. 1980) ..................................      23

United States v. Pierce, 561 F.d 735 (9th Cir. 1982),
       cert. denied, 435 U.S. 923 (1978) ................      16


United States v. Smith, 618 F.2d 280 (5th Cir.),
       cert. denied, 449 U.S. 868 (1980) ................      21,22-

               23

United States v. Stine, 646 F.2d 839
       (3rd Cir. 1981) ..................................      15

United States v. Tonry, 605 F.2d 144
       (5th Cir. 1979) ..................................      3,16,

               17,24


COURT RULES

Eleventh Circuit Rule 26.1 ...........................  C-1

Fed. R. App. P. 29 ...................................  i

Fed. R. Crim. Pro. 20 ................................. 1


STATUTES

18 U.S.C.  371 ......................................   1

18 U.S.C.  1343 ......................................  1

18 U.S.C.  2314 ......................................  1

18 U.S.C.  2701 et seq. ..............................  7

18 U.S.C.  3551 et seq. ..............................  13

18 U.S.C.  3553(a) ...................................  13,14

18 U.S.C.  3553(a)(2)(A) .............................  18

18 U.S.C.  3563(b) ...................................  14

18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(1)-(10), (12)-(20) ................  14,22

18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(6) ................................  24

18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(7) ................................  22

18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(9) ................................  23

18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(21) ...............................  14

18 U.S.C.  3583(a) ...................................  13



18 U.S.C.  3583(d) ...................................  3,13,14

               19,22

18 U.S.C.  3583(d)(2) ................................  13,18

18 U.S.C.  3651 ......................................  15,16

28 U.S.C.  991-998 ...................................  13

28 U.S.C.  1291 ......................................  x


UNITED STATES SENTENCING GUIDELINES

5B1.4 ...............................................  14

5F1.5, Commentary ...................................  24


LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS

S. Rep. No. 225, 98th Cong. 2d Sess.
       reprinted in 1984 U.S. Code Cong.
       & Ad News 3182 ...................................      14,15,

          16,22,24


PERIODICALS

An Electronic Soapbox:  Computer Bulletin Boards and
       the First Amendment, 39 Fed. Com L. J. (1987) ....      passim


Becker, The Liability of Computer Bulletin
       Board Operators for Defamation Posted
       by Others, 22 Conn. L. Rev. (1989) ...............      6,7,9

Computer Bulletin Board Operator Liability
       for User Misuse, 54 Ford. L. Rev. (1985) .........      6,9,10

Soma, Smith and Sprague, Legal Analysis of
       Electronic Bulletin Board Activities,
       7 W. New Eng. L. Rev. (1985) .....................      6


MISCELLANEOUS

Boardwatch Magazine (May 1991) ........................ 8

Brand, The Media Lab (1987) ........................... 8


Levy, Macworld (Jan. 1991) ............................ 8

Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Harvard University
       Press, 1983) .....................................      5,9,11

Talking On the Computer Redefines Human Contact,
       The New York Times, May 13, 1990 .................      10

Tribe, American Constitutional Law (1988) ............. 11


STATEMENT OF JURISDICTION
       The Court has jurisdiction over this appeal pursuant to 28 U.S.C.
1291.

STATEMENT OF THE ISSUE

       Amicus curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation, with the written
consent of the parties, addresses the following issue on appeal:  Whether
the district court erred in imposing a condition of supervised release
prohibiting Appellant from owning or personally using a computer.

STATEMENT OF THE CASE

(i)  Course of Proceedings and Deposition Below
       Appellant Robert J. Riggs pleaded guilty to one count of
conspiracy to defraud (18 U.S.C.  371) of an eight count indictment
returned in the Northern District of Georgia.  He also pleaded guilty to
one count of wire fraud (18 U.S.C.  1343) of an eleven count indictment
returned in the Northern District of Illinois. (FN1)
       Pursuant to Fed. R. Crim. Pro. 20, the Illinois case was
transferred to the Northern District of Georgia for entry of the plea and
sentencing.  United States District Judge J. Owen Forrester, Northern
District of Georgia, sentenced Mr. Riggs to 21 months imprisonment,
ordered him to pay restitution in theamount of $233,880.00, and placed him
on supervised release for a term of two years.  The court ordered that Mr.
Riggs may not "own personally or directly have control over a computer of
any type for [his] own personal use during the period of supervised
release."  R3-75.

(ii) Statement of Facts
       The conduct with which Mr. Riggs was charged involved unauthorized
accessing and dissemination of data and information maintained on private
computer networks.  At the conclusion of the sentencing hearing for Mr.
Riggs and his two codefendants, the district court imposed the following
special condition of supervised release:

None of the three of you may own personally or directly have control over
a computer of any type for your own personal use during the period of
supervised release.  You may operate computers under your community
service situation and in employment situations where you are employed by a
third person and are being supervised by a third person.  I'm simply
saying that during the period of your supervised release, you may not
personally use or own a PC or any other kind of computer; is that clear?

(R3-75-76). The condition was neither requested nor commented on by
counsel for the government.

(iii) Scope of Review
       The district court, in imposing the ban on computer ownership and
personal use, exceeded its authority under the supervised release statute.
De novo review of the legality of the condition is therefore appropriate.
Cf. United States v.Jalilian, 896 F.2d 447, 448 (10th Cir. 1990) (review
of probation condition).
       Even if imposition of the condition were not beyond
statutory authority, where, as here, a condition of supervised release (or
probation) restricts constitutional rights, the condition must be
subjected to "special scrutiny."  See, e.g., United States v. Lawson, 670
F.2d 923, 930 (10th Cir. 1982), quoting United States v.
Consuelo-Gonzalez, 521 F.2d 259, 265 (9th Cir. 1975) (en banc); see also
United States v. Tonry, 605 F.2d 144, 150 (5th Cir. 1979) (applying Ninth
Circuit's standard to condition infringing First Amendment rights).(FN2)

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT

       The district court placed appellant Robert J. Riggs on supervised
release for a period of two years and made a condition of the supervised
release that Mr. Riggs neither "personally use nor own a PC [personal
computer] or any other kind of computer."  R3-76.  The statute governing
conditions of supervised release requires that conditions create no
greater deprivation of fundamental rights than is "reasonably necessary"
to achieve specified purposes of the 1984 Sentencing Reform Act.  See 18
U.S.C.  3583(d).  The computer ban cannot meet this standard andthe
district court's sentence should be modified to eliminate this condition.
       The ban on personal ownership and use of computers heavily burdens
rights of expression and association protected by the First Amendment.
Because of technological advances in computers and telecommunicatons in
recent years, computers have become a major, and in some circumstances the
primary, way that individuals express their views, receive information and
ideas, and associate with those sharing their interests.  Individuals
proficient in the new technology now exercise these fundamental rights
through electronic bulletin boards, computer networks and electronic mail.
(These facilities are defined infra.)  The ban on computer ownership and
personal use will make it impossible for Mr. Riggs to exercise his rights
of expression and association through these facilities for two years after
his release from prison.
       A complete ban on computer ownership and personal use is a grossly
overbroad restriction that is not "reasonably necessary" to accomplishing
the statutory purposes of deterrence, public protection and rehabilitation
of the defendant.  Just as a complete ban on personal telephone use would
be an overbroad condition of supervised release for a defendant convicted
of wire fraud by use of the interstate telephone lines or a complete ban
on personal use of the mails would be an overbroad restriction for a
defendant convicted of mail fraud, so the computer ban is overly broad.
       The computer prohibition is far more sweeping than necessary to
effect such purposes as deterring the defendant from committing and
protecting the public from further crimes. The ban indiscriminately
prevents not just illegal conduct, but all activities on computers,
including wholly legitimate ones involving expression and association.
Similarly, it prevents all associations with others that can be
accomplished through
computers, not merely associations with specific individuals who have
committed computer crimes.
       Comparison with narrow discretionary conditions authorized by the
statute demonstrates the inappropriateness and overbreadth of the computer
ban.
I.  THE PROHIBITION ON OWNERSHIP AND PERSONAL
   USE OF COMPUTERS TRENCHES HEAVILY ON RIGHTS
   RIGHTS OF EXPRESSION AND ASSOCIATION PRO-
   TECTED BY THE FIRST AMENDMENT

       The rise of computer technology, particularly over the past ten
years, has created new and increasingly important means for citizens to
communicate and associate with one another.  For individuals, like Robert
Riggs, who have become literate in the forms of communication made
possible by computer technology, a prohibition on ownership and personal
use of computers represents a major restraint on rights of expression and
association protected by the First Amendment.
       Advances in electronic communications technology have
revolutionized citizens' abilities to and methods of communicating.  As
one distinguished scholar has put it:

The technologies used for self-expression, human intercourse, and
recording of knowledge are in unprecedented flux.  A panoply of electronic
devices puts at everyone's hand capacities far beyond anything that the
printing press could offer.  Machines that think, that bring great
libraries into anybody's study, that allow discourse among persons a
half-world apart, are expanders of human culture.  They allow people to do
anything that could be done with the communications tools of the past, and
many more things too.

Pool, Technologies of Freedom 226 (1983).
       For the individual citizen, the personal computer has
been the foremost means by which the ability to communicate has been
expanded.  The owner of a personal computer may, from his or her own home,
use electronic bulletin board systems, electronic mail and computer
networks systems.  Each of these services offers unprecedented means of
expression and association.
       Electronic bulletin board systems are computer systems which
permit users to communicate with others in a variety of ways.(FN3)  Users
can send or "post" messages, read messages left by others, and hold direct
conversations.  Electronic Soapbox, 39 Fed. Com. L. J. at 217.  Electronic
bulletin boards allow electronic conversations, which can occur between
two or among hundreds of people.  Id. at 218.  The boards offer

a unique way for a group of people to discuss an idea or an event.  One
person starts the discussion by posting a message.  Others read the
message and add their comments.  One need not respond immediately -- a
person can carefully prepare a reply and post it later.  The people
involved need not be in the same place at the same time and do not have to
know each other.  The participants in the discussion do not even have to
know each other.  Those not actually adding to the discussion can benefit
simply by reading the posted comments.

Note, Computer Bulletin Board Operator Liability for User Misuse, 54 Ford.
L. Rev. 439, 440-41 (1985).  Boards can be used to hold conferences, which
can be unstructured discussions or structured events such as professional
meetings or press conferences.  Computer Bulletin Board Defamation, 22
Conn. L. Rev. at 212.  Computer networks, like the bulletin boards, offer
the opportunity for numerous individuals to participate in a
conference.(FN4)  Bulletin boards and networks thus offer not only a forum
for individuals to exercise their rights of free expression, but also a
forum for exercise of the right to receive ideas.  See, e.g., Kleindienst
v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753, 762-63 (1972), and cases cited therein.
       Many electronic bulletin boards and computer networks offer a
service known as electronic mail ("E-mail") by which a subscriber to a
computer system may send correspondence to another user of the system via
a central computer.  E-mail is addressed to one or more accounts on a
computer system assigned to specific users, and is typically stored on the
system until read and deleted or stored again.  The privacy of E-mail is
typically secured by means of a password so that only individuals with
knowledge of an account's password can obtain access to mail sent to that
account.  Thus computer systems provide a method for individuals to engage
in private(FN5) conversations with one another.  Like the use of
electronic bulletin boards, use of E-mail is widespread.  See Electronic
Soapbox, at 219 n.10; see also Brand, The Media Lab 23, 24 (1987),
estimating that by 1987, two and a half million homes were linked to
services providing E-mail and related services and estimating 250 million
to one billion messages a year are transmitted by E-mail.
       Because of the popularity and widespread use of personal
computers, electronic bulletin boards provide a very significant new
channel of communication.  Bulletin Board systems range in size from small
systems operated by individual using personal computers in their homes to
larger systems operated by commercial organizations.  Two of the largest
systems -- Prodigy, operated by IBM and Sears, and CompuServe, operated by
H&R Block -- have over 330,00 users and half a million users respectively.
See Levy, Macworld 69 (Jan. 1991), Computer Bulletin BoardDefamation, 22
Conn. L. Rev. at 204 n.4.  Industry estimates indicate there are
approximately 32,000 bulletin board systems in operation in the United
States today.  Boardwatch Magazine 8 (May, 1991).
       The possibilities for speech and association presented by computer
bulletin boards are easily and cheaply available to the public.  "If one
has a personal computer, gaining access to a computer bulletin board is as
easy as dialing a phone number."  Electronic Soapbox, 39 Fed. Com. L. J.
at 218.  In fact, in one sense bulletin board systems are simply
extensions of telephone service, since it is usually through a modem
connected to telephone lines that the personal computer user is linked to
the computer operating the board and to other people who themselves are in
telecommunication with the board.  Id.
       The ease and economy with which communications can be made through
boards makes them an increasingly important method for the individual
citizen to be heard.  "In an age when most forms of mass communication,
and thus public debate, are controlled by a small number of people,
bulletin boards have the potential to play an important role in the
exploration and exchange of ideas."  Bulletin Board Operator, 54 Ford. L.
Rev. at 441.  Thus, the boards fairly have been analogized to Hyde
ParkCorner, town meetings, the Democracy Wall, or leafletting, and called
the printing presses of the twenty-first century.(FN6)
       Electronic bulletin boards permit communication on an unlimited
variety of topics.  Boards have been recognized as an effective forum for
individual expression of opinion on matters of public interest and for
public debate of controversial issues.  Bulletin Board Operator, 54 Ford.
L. Rev. at 440 and 444.  Boards are thus a forum for speech acnowledged to
lie at the heart of the First Amendment.  See, e.g., Buckley v. Valeo, 424
U.S. 1, 14 (1976), and cases cited therein.
       But electronic bulletin boards also address a wide variety of
other subjects and interests, ranging from business to religion.
Electronic Soapbox, at 222.  One common subject is computers themselves.
Id.  Individuals accessing a board devoted to computer use can, for
example, ask technical questions about particular computer programs or
seek advice about computer products and their capabilities.  See Computer
Bulletin Board Operator, at 440.(FN7)
       Denial of access to computers may close off the sole or at least
the primary means of associating with those who share one's interests.
Electronic bulletin boards may be the only place in which issues one is
interested in are being addressed, audiences one wishes to reach can be
found, or information one needs is being offered.  Because of the
possibilities for conversation among many people and the enormous
distances that separate individuals interested in a particular topic, use
of an electronic bulletin board may be the only feasible means of
communication on that topic.  See, e.g., 'Talking' on the Computer
Redefines Human Contact,  The New York Times, May 13, 1990 at 1
("[C]omputer networks often become electronic communities that give people
thousands of miles apart the feeling of being connected in a small
village, with all the intimacy and ease of communication that implies.")
       Electronic bulletin boards have also become a means for
individuals to meet and socialize with others who share their interests.
The growth of computer networks is changing how people "find friends [and]
seek entertainment."  'Talking' on the Computer Redefines Human Contact,
The New York Times, May 13, 1990 at 1.(FN8)  Therefore, a prohibition on
personal ownership and use of computers can grossly interfere with an
individual's right to associate for personal as well as professional and
political purposes.  See Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609,
622 (1984) ("[W]e have long understood as implicit in the right to engage
in activities protected by the First Amendment a corresponding right to
associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political, social,
economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends") (citations omitted).
       The rapid advance of computer technology to this point has
outstripped our legal system's ability to understand the proper place the
new technology should hold in our scheme of constitutional
protections.(FN8)  This disjuncture has surfaced in this case, where the
district court's restriction on computer use has swept too broadly,
infringing the freedom of speech and association that the First Amendment
guarantees.
       The ban on computer ownership and personal use significantly
impinges on Mr. Riggs' exercise of fundamental rights.  Like a growing
segment of our society, Mr. Riggs communicates primarily through the
written rather than the spoken word.(FN10)  In his preference for the
written word Mr. Riggs is similar to many who communicate via computer.
It has been recognized that for some people:

[electronic bulletin] boards offer an opportunity to know and be known by
a nationwide circle, a process called "networking."  Written conversation
favors the witty turn of phrase, not the loudest voice. The instant
interaction allows board communication to avoid the fate of the well
written, but slow moving letter.  Finally, anonymity allows the timid to
flower:  identity, appearance, possibly even personality, become
unimportant.

Electronic Soapbox, at 224 (footnotes omitted).  To deny Mr. Riggs the
right to own and to personally use a computer is to deny him his primary
means of expressing himself, receiving advice and information, and
associating with others.
       The district court's prohibition is extremely broad.  It does not
merely prohibit particular, illegal uses of computers.  Rather, it
prevents any use of a computer by Mr. Riggs for his own personal speech or
association.  While the district court contemplated Mr. Riggs may use
computers in his community service work and employment, R3-74-76, those
efforts will be on behalf of others and will offer him no opportunity to
express himself, receive information of his choosing or associate with
whom he wishes to communicate.(FN11)  The district court's condition will
result in a two-year prohibition on Mr. Riggs' exercise of his
constitutionally protected rights to communicate and associate with others
through electronic means.


II.  THE DISTRICT COURT'S PROHIBITION ON MR. RIGGS'
    OWNERSHIP AND PERSONAL USE OF COMPUTERS AS A
    CONDITION OF HIS SUPERVISED RELEASE IS IMPROPER
    BECAUSE IT CREATES A GREATER DEPRIVATION OF
     LIBERTY THAN IS REASONABLY NECESSARY TO
          EFFECTUATE STATUTORY GOALS

A.  The Sentencing Reform Act Requires That Con-
   ditions Of Supervised Release Not Impinge
   Unnecessarily On Liberty Interests

       The Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, as amended, 18 U.S.C.  3551 et
seq. and 28 U.S.C.  991-998, provides, in pertinent part, that the
district court which is imposing a term of imprisonment may, and in some
circumstances must "include as a part of the sentence a requirement that
the defendant be placed on a term of supervised release after
imprisonment. . . ."  18 U.S.C.  3583(a).  Where a term of supervised
release is imposed, the statute provides that certain conditions must be
imposed and others may be imposed.  In pertinent part, the statute
provides that discretionary conditions on supervised release may be
imposed only to the extent that any such condition:

   (2) involves no greater deprivation of liberty than is reasonably
necessary for the purposes set forth in section 3553(a)(2)(B), (a)(2)(C),
and (a)(2)(D). . . .

18 U.S.C.  3583(d).(FN12)
       The statute specifies the types of discretionary conditions which
may be imposed on a supervised release by reference to the statutory
provisions listing discretionary conditions of probation.  See 18 U.S.C.
3583(d), incorporating 18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(1) through (b)(10) and (b)(12)
through (b)(20).(FN13)  The supervised release statutory provisions also
permit the court to impose other "appropriate" conditions, but only to the
extent permitted by the restriction quoted above.  18 U.S.C.  3853(d).
The probation statute contains a similar "wildcard" provision.  18 U.S.C.
3563(b)(21).
       As specified in  3583(d)(2), conditions on supervised release must
involve "no greater deprivation of liberty than is reasonably necessary"
to serve the purposes of deterrence ( 3553(a)(2)(B)), public protection (
3553(a)(2)(C)), and training, care or treatment of the defendant (
3553(a)(2)(D)).  The concern that civil liberties not be unnecessarily
impinged is reflected in the legislative history of  3583.  See S. Rep. No.
225, 98th Cong., 2d Sess. 125, reprinted in 1984 U.S. Code Cong. & Ad.
News 3182, 3307 (hereinafter "S. Rep. at ___, 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. at ___")
("Whatever conditions are imposed may not involve a greater deprivation of
liberty than is necessary. . . .").
       The Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 was intended to codify an
approach to the imposition of conditions in sentencing more protective of
civil liberties than under prior law, which authorized the imposition of
probation "upon such terms and conditions as the court deems best."  See
former 18 U.S.C.  3651, repealed by Pub. L. 98-473, Title II, c. II,
212(a)(1),(2), Oct. 12, 1984.(FN14)
       The change in approach is unequivocally spelled out in the
legislative history of  3563(b), the provision which sets out the
discretionary conditions which may be applied in probation and supervised
release:

Unlike current law, subsection (b) specifically states . . . that any
condition that involves a restriction of liberty must be reasonably
necessary to the purposes of sentencing set forth in section 3553(a)(2).
This language is designed to allay the fears of such disparate groups as
the ACLU and the Business Roundtable that probation conditions might be
too restrictive in a particular case or might involve more supervision
than is justified by the case.  The judge is limited in imposing
conditions of probation to imposing only those that carry out the purposes
of sentencing in a particular case.  He cannot restrain the liberty of a
defendant who does not need that level of punishment or incapacitation. .
.

S. Rep. at 99, 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3282.  The Senate report repeatedly
emphasizes that conditions involving deprivations of liberty or property
must be "reasonably necessary" to the purposes of the statutory sentencing
provisions to be upheld.  See, e.g., S. Rep. at 94, 95, 96, 1984
U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3277, 3278, 3279.
       Because of the significant change in the law, the case law under
former 18 U.S.C.  3651 upholding probation conditions provides the Court
little guidance in reviewing conditions imposed under the Sentencing
Reform Act.  See United States v. Cothran, 855 F.2d 749, 751 n.2 (11th
Cir. 1988) (noting change in the law).  Whereas previously, conditions
affecting the exercise of constitutionally protected rights could be
upheld if they were "reasonably related" to the purposes of the former 18
U.S.C.  3651, see, e.g., Owens v. Kelley, 681 F.2d 1362, 1366 (11th Cir.
1982)(FN15), under the current law such conditions may only be upheld if
they effect no greater deprivation of rights than "reasonably necessary" to
achieve statutory purposes.(FN16)


B.  The Prohibition On Ownership And Personal Use
   Of Computers Is A Deprivation Of Liberty Not
   Reasonably Necessary To Carry Out The Purposes
   Of The Sentencing Statute

    1.  The Computer Ban Is Far Too Broad To Be
        Reasonably Necessary Or Reasonably Related
        To The Statutory Purposes Of Deterrence,
        Public Protection And Rehabilitation

       A fundamental premise of our law is that those subject to the
corrections system retain their constitutional rights except to the extent
that well-articulated requirements of that system necessitate incursions
into those rights.  Since this proposition is true for those who are
incarcerated, see, e.g., Pell v. Procunier, 417 U.S. 817, 822 (1974)
("[An] inmate retains those First Amendment rights that are not
inconsistent with his status as a prisoner or with the legitimate . . .
objectives of the corrections system"), it is a fortiori true for
probationers and those on supervised release.  See, e.g., United States v.
Tonry, 605 F.2d 144, 150 (5th Cir. 1979).(FN17)
       For this reason, "probation conditions that restrict
constitutional rights merit 'special scrutiny.'"  United States v. Lawson,
670 F.2d 923, 930 (10th Cir. 1982), quoting United States v.
Consuelo-Gonzales, 521 F.2d 259, 265 (9th Cir. 1975) (en banc).  Under
current law, to survive this special scrutiny, a condition impinging
fundamental rights must be "reasonably necessary" to the needs of the
probation or supervised release system.  Amicus submits that under the
current standard -- or even under the former "reasonably related" standard
-- the computer ban cannot survive.
       The district court acted outside its statutory and discretionary
authority when it imposed the condition that Mr. Riggs may not own or use
for personal reasons any computer during the two years of his supervised
release.  As demonstrated in Point I, ante, the court's condition impinges
on Mr. Riggs' First Amendment interests, and therefore the condition must
meet the requirement of  3583(d)(2).  The ban on computer ownership and
personal use is grossly overbroad and is not reasonably necessary to
achieve the statutory goals of deterrence, protection of the public, and
rehabilitation.(FN18) Furthermore, it is counterproductive to the purpose
of rehabilitation.
       The overbreadth of the ban is most graphically illustrated by
analogy.  The condition imposed here is equivalent to a condition
prohibiting an individual convicted of committing wire fraud by means of
interstate telephone calls from owning (or leasing) a telephone and from
making any personal, unsupervised calls.  Analogy to telephone calls is
particularly appropriate here, since it is generally by use of telephone
lines that the user of a personal computer communicates with bulletin
boards, networks and other individual computer users.  See Electronic
Soapbox, 39 Fed. Com. L. J. at 218.  Presumably, it is precisely Mr.
Riggs' ability to "call out" from his computer that the sentencing judge
intended to halt, so that he cannot gain unauthorized access to network
services or data.(FN19)  But the ban does not merely prevent Mr. Riggs
from calling systems he is not authorized to enter.  It prohibits him from
calling any system or person.  It also prevents him from receiving
communications.  A sentencing judge in a wire fraud case would
unquestionably conclude that a complete ban on telephone possession and
personal use would be an impermissibly overbroad means of preventing a
recurrence of the wire fraud.  So, too, a ban on personal computer use and
ownership to prevent a repeat of unauthorized accessing of computers is
impermissibly overbroad.(FN20)
       The ban on personal computer use is also analogous to a general
prohibition on personal use of the mails as a condition imposed on one
convicted of crimes involving fraudulent use of the mails.  One such
condition prohibiting use of the mails was recognized to be an overbroad
restriction on First Amendment rights and was struck down.  United States
v. Holloway, 740 F.2d 1373 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1021 (1984).
       Holloway involved a prison inmate who was convicted of a
conspiracy with other inmates to file false tax returns.  She received a
sentence that included periods of incarceration and probation.  The
district court imposed two restrictions on Holloway regarding her
correspondence.  One prevented her during the period of her probation from
corresponding with prison inmates.  Id. at 1381.  The court of appeals
upheld this limited prohibition, finding it served purposes of
rehabilitation and public protection.  Id. at 1383.  The court found it
significant that "Holloway became involved in the scheme only by virtue of
her extended correspondence with inmates," and that Holloway made use of
the mails in committing her crime.  Id.
       The district court's second restriction provided that "Holloway
could 'communicate by mail only with her relatives, legal counsel and
other recognized counselors' during the period of her incarceration."  Id.
Observing that this prohibition would "forbid Holloway from writing
letters to a wide range of persons who had nothing to do with her criminal
conduct," the court stated:

The limitation on Holloway's ability to communicate with friends, informal
advisors and holders of public office is sufficiently broad to affect
values and principles which are undoubtedly at the core of the first
amendment.

Id.  Finding the condition overbroad, the court struck it down:

The present restriction on mailing simply is not carefully drawn to
"serve the dual objectives of rehabilitation and public safety."  Rather,
it imposes a restriction on Holloway which, because of its breadth, does
not bear a logical relationship to the criminal conduct in which Holloway
has engaged.  The restriction is not, therefore, reasonably related to
achieving rehabilitation and to protecting the public.  Cf. [United States
v.] Lawson, 670 F.2d [923,] 929-30 [10th Cir. 1982]; [United States v.]
Smith, 618 F.2d [280,] 282 [5th Cir. 1980]; Porth v. Templar, 453 F.2d
330, 334 (10th Cir. 1971).

Id. (footnote omitted).

       Like the mail restriction struck down in Holloway, the ban on
computer use is "not carefully drawn" to effectuate statutory purposes and
"because of its breadth, does not bear a logical relationship to the
criminal conduct" in which Mr. Riggs engaged.(FN21)  Like the Holloway
ban, the computer ban prohibits Mr. Riggs from communicating with a wide
range of persons having nothing to do with his criminal conduct.  While
the fact that Holloway corresponded with inmates as part of her criminal
conspiracy could justify a ban on her correspondence with inmates, it
could not justify a broader ban on her use of the mails.  Similarly, Mr.
Riggs' use of a computer to commit his crime does not justify a wholesale
ban on his communicating with anyone by computer.
       Amicus submits that no rehabilitation is effected by the wholesale
prohibition on personal computer use.  Community service work, which is
contemplated in Mr. Riggs' sentence, is a proper means of rehabilitating
him.  Prohibiting development of his skills and isolating him from
legitimate uses and users of computers is surely not "reasonably
necessary" to his rehabilitation.

    2.  Discretionary Conditions Specifically Authorized
        By Statute Or Imposed In Other Contexts Provide No
        Support For The Imposition Of The Computer Ban Here

       The computer ban condition is not authorized by the "wildcard"
provision of  3583(d), which permits "appropriate" conditions other than
those specified in the statute.  Nor do the conditions in  3563(b)(1)-(10)
and (12)-(20) authorize the computer ban.  Furthermore, comparison with
some of the discretionary conditions specified in the statute demonstrates
the inappropriateness and overbreadth of the computer ban.
       The statute contemplates that in appropriate cases an individual
may be required to refrain "from associating unnecessarily with specified
persons."  18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(7).  As the legislative history of this
provision makes clear, a condition limiting associations must be specific,
and tailored to the particular circumstances of the defendant.  S. Rep. at
97, 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3280.  Here the condition in effect prohibits Mr.
Riggs' association not just with individuals known to have committed
computer crimes, but with everyone who uses computers.
       Even under prior law, reviewing courts have struck down or
modified probation conditions requiring disassociation which swept too
broadly.  The former Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, in a case
involving a tax protester's conviction for violating the tax laws,
disapproved a condition that the protester "divorce [himself] from any
organization advocating the willful disobedience of any local, state or
federal law...." United States v. Smith, 618 F.2d 280, 282 (5th Cir.), cert.
denied, 449 U.S. 868 (1980).  The Court modified the condition to prohibit
only association with organizations advocating disobedience to the tax
laws.  Id.  See also United States v. Patterson, 627 F.2d 760, 761 (5th
Cir. 1980) (following Smith); United States v. Lawson, 670 F.2d 923,
929-30 (10th Cir. 1982) (in order to save condition, court interprets it
to prohibit only tax protester's associating with groups urging
disobedience of, as opposed to disagreement with tax laws.)  In this case,
the computer prohibition requires wholesale disassociation with everyone
who communicates by computer, and could not withstand scrutiny even under
the analysis of cases decided under prior law.
       The prohibition on possession of a computer suggests that the
sentencing court had in mind another of the statutory discretionary
conditions -- that the defendant "refrain from possessing a firearm,
destructive device, or other dangerous weapon."   3563(b)(9).  Any analogy
between firearms and computers is extremely inapt.  A computer is not a
dangerous weapon; rather, it is primarily a means of communication and
association.
       Analogies to revocations of drivers' licenses are also entirely
inappropriate.  Unlike a computer, an automobile is not essentially a
means of communication and association.  Driving is an activity licensed
by the State, while computer use is First Amendment speech which is not and
cannot be regulated or licensed by the government.
       Finally, the provision of the statute allowing restraints on
individuals from engaging in specified occupations, businesses or
professions, 18 U.S.C.  3563(b)(6), provides no support for the imposition
of the computer ban.  There is no constitutional right to engage in a
particular job.  For example, it violates no fundamental right to prohibit
a stockbroker who has committed crimes in the course of his or her work
from selling stock for a period of time.  In contrast, again, the computer
ban is a limitless incursion into fundamental First Amendment rights.
       In rare circumstances, First Amendment rights do attach to a job
-- for example, the holding of political office.  See, e.g., United States
v. Tonry, 605 F.2d at 150.  But in such cases, an individual's commission
of a crime while in public office makes it particularly appropriate to
protect the public by "determining that the very limited activity" of
running for or holding public office "should not be accorded him during
probation. . . ."  605 F.2d at 151.
       The condition of restricting employment "should only be used as
reasonably necessary to protect the public."  United States Sentencing
Guidelines,  5F1.5, Commentary, quoting S. Rep. at 96, 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N.
at 3279.  While protection of the public may have necessitated banning the
defendant in Tonry from the "very limited activity" of public office, it
is not necessary to bar Mr. Riggs from all personal computer use to protect
the public.

    3.  This Court Has Authority To
        Strike Down The Computer Ban

       It is within this Court's authority to modify the district court's
sentence by eliminating the prohibition on computer ownership and personal
use.  See, e.g., United States v. Jimenez, 600 F.2d 1172, 1175 (5th Cir.
1979).  Amicus submits that because the ban clearly trenches on First
Amendment rights and is not reasonably necessary to statutory objectives
of deterrence, public protection or rehabilitation, the Court should
strike it down, rather than remand to the district court.
CONCLUSION
       For the foregoing reasons, the sentence of the district court
should be modified to eliminate the condition of Mr. Riggs' supervised
release prohibiting his ownership and personal use of a computer.
Dated:  May 17, 1991
Respectfully submitted,



_____________________________
ERIC M. LIEBERMAN
NICHOLAS E. POSER
RABINOWITZ, BOUDIN, STANDARD,
         KRINSKY & LIEBERMAN, P.C.
740 Broadway - Fifth Floor
New York, New York 10003
(212) 254-1111

HARVEY A. SILVERGLATE
SHARON L. BECKMAN
SILVERGLATE & GOOD
       The Batterymarch Building
80 Broad Street - 14th Floor
Boston, Massachusetts 02110
(617) 542-6663

Counsel for Amicus Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation



FOOTNOTES:

FN1.  Riggs pleaded guilty to a second count of the Illinois indictment,
charging interstate transportation of stolen property, 18 U.S.C.  2314,
but the government moved to dismiss the plea as to this count after it was
revealed that the property was valued at under $5,000, the statutory
minimum.  The government did not make a similar motion as to the wire
fraud count because 18 U.S.C.  1343 has no minimum dollar threshold.  See
Sentencing Information Filed on Behalf of the Northern District of
Illinois United States Attorney's Office, submitted with the Government's
Sentencing Memorandum and S.G.  5K1.1 Motion.  R1-50-1-2 and 7-8.

FN2.  Because the condition applied in this case burdens First Amendment
rights, the abuse of discretion standard, see, e.g., United States v.
Cothran, 855 F.2d 749, 751 (11th Cir. 1988), is supplanted by a stricter
level of review.

FN3.  See generally Note, An Electronic Soapbox:  Computer Bulletin Boards
and the First Amendment, 39 Fed. Com. L. J. 217 (1987) ("Electronic
Soapbox"), Soma, Smith and Sprague, Legal Analysis of Electronic Bulletin
Board Activities, 7 W. New Eng. L. Rev. 571 (1985) (hereinafter
"Electronic Bulletin Board Activities"), and Becker, The Liability of
Computer Bulletin Board Operators for Defamation Posted by Others, 22
Conn. L. Rev. 203 (1989) ("Computer Bulletin Board Defamation").

FN4.    Some boards and networks provide for instantaneous conversations.

FN5.    Operators of electronic bulletin board systems, like operators of
telephone systems, generally have the technological capability to access
private communications.  The privacy of electronic communications is
protected by law.  See Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 18 U.S.C.
2701 et seq.  Some systems operators as a matter of policy or by contract
with users ensure that no one but the intended recipient can read E-mail.

FN6.  See, e.g., Computer Bulletin Board Defamation, 22 Conn. L. Rev. at
204; Pool, Technologies of Freedom 189.

FN7.  As the government noted, one of Robert Riggs' three main objectives
was to "learn C Programmming".  Government's Sentencing Memorandum and
S.G.  5K1. 1 Motion at 11.  R1-50-11.  The computer ban will cut him off
from useful sources of information on this subject.

FN8.  Stories have been reported of on-line courtships, id., and on-line
wedding receptions and parties.  Electronic Soapbox at 219 n.9.

FN9.  See Tribe, American Constitutional law 1007 (1988) (quoting Pool,
Technologies of Freedom 7 (1983)).

FN10.  As his attorney emphasized at the sentencing hearing, Mr. Riggs
does not speak well, but "writes very well."  R3-38.  In fact, in
preparing his case, he communicated with his attorney primarily through
written notes and observations.  Id.

FN11.  It is unclear whether the district court intended to permit
"supervised" personal use of a computer.  Even if so, it is simply
unrealistic to suppose that Mr. Riggs will obtain "supervision" from
probation personnel or anyone approved by them which would permit him to
engage in personal use of a computer.

FN12.  Section  3553(a) sets out the factors to be considered in imposing
a sentence.  The provisions of  3553(a) relevant to a determination under
3583(d)(2) are:

(2) the need for the sentence imposed . . .

       (B) to afford adequate deterrence to criminal conduct;

       (C) to protect the public from further crimes of the defendant;
and

       (D) to provide the defendant with needed educational or vocational
training, medical care, or other correctional treatment in the most
effective manner. . . .

FN13.  See "Recommended Conditions of Probation and Supervised Release
(Policy Statement)," which set out "standard" and "special" conditions
that apply to both probation and supervised release.  Sentencing
Guidelines  5B1.4.

FN14.  See, e.g., U.S. v. Stine, 646 F.2d 839, 842 (3rd Cir. 1981),
quoting former 18 U.S.C.  3651.

FN15.  See also United States v. Tonry, 605 F.2d 144, 150 (5th Cir. 1979).
This standard was held to facilitate "'an accommodation between the
practical needs of the probation system and the constitutional guarantees
of the Bill of Rights.'"  Owens v. Kelley, 681 F.2d at 1366, quoting
United States v. Pierce, 561 F.2d 735, 739 (9th Cir. 1977), cert. denied,
435 U.S. 923 (1978).

FN16.  The change in statutory language from "as the court deems best" to
"reasonably necessary" unquestionably reflects a change to a more
restrictive standard allowing less intrusion on fundamental rights.  Cf.
United States v. Holmes, 614 F.2d 985, 988 (5th Cir. 1980).

FN17.  The justifications for restricting the freedoms of probationers and
those on supervised release will always be lesser than those for
restricting prisoners.  Safeguarding  institutional security is a central
objective of prison administration used to justify intrusions on
prisoners' rights, see, e.g., Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 546-47
(1979), which has no relevance to individuals living outside the prisons.

FN18.  Section 3583(d)(2) notably excludes from consideration the factors
set out in  3553(a)(2)(A), including the "seriousness of the offense" and
"just punishment."

FN19.  There is no conceivable justification for a prohibition on Mr.
Riggs' engaging in activities on a personal computer disconnected from any
other computer, such as word processing.  Yet, the judge's overbroad
condition also prohibits these solitary activities.

FN20.  It is a mandatory condition of supervised release that Mr. Riggs
not commit another crime.  18 U.S.C  3583(d).  Imposing a discretionary
condition completely barring him from computer ownership and personal use
is an extremely blunt and unnecessary tool for securing his compliance
with the condition that he commit no crimes to which he is already bound.

FN21.  The district court's computer ban is broader than the mail
restriction struck down in Holloway.

[Note: First published in _Boardwatch_, June 1991.]

Cyberspace and the Legal Matrix: Laws or Confusion?
by Lance Rose <[email protected]>

Cyberspace, the "digital world", is emerging as a global arena of social,
commercial and political relations. By "Cyberspace", I mean the sum total
of all electronic messaging and information systems, including BBS's,
commercial data services, research data networks, electronic publishing,
networks and network nodes, e-mail systems, electronic data interchange
systems, and electronic funds transfer systems.

Many like to view life in the electronic networks as a "new frontier", and
in certain ways that remains true. Nonetheless, people remain people, even
behind the high tech shimmer. Not surprisingly, a vast matrix of laws and
regulations has trailed people right into cyberspace.

Most of these laws are still under construction for the new electronic
environment. Nobody is quite sure of exactly how they actually apply to
electronic network situations. Nonetheless, the major subjects of legal
concern can now be mapped out fairly well, which we will do in this section
of the article. In the second section, we will look at some of the ways in
which the old laws have trouble fitting together in cyberspace, and suggest
general directions for improvement.

LAWS ON PARADE

- Privacy laws. These include the federal Electronic Communications Privacy
Act ("ECPA"), originally enacted in response to Watergate, and which now
prohibits many electronic variations on wiretapping by both government and
private parties. There are also many other federal and state privacy laws
and, of course, Constitutional protections against unreasonable search and
seizure.

- 1st Amendment. The Constitutional rights to freedom of speech and freedom
of the press apply fully to electronic messaging operations of all kinds.

- Criminal laws. There are two major kinds of criminal laws.  First, the
"substantive" laws that define and outlaw certain activities. These include
computer-specific laws, like the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and
Counterfeit Access Device Act on the federal level, and many computer crime
laws on the state level. Many criminal laws not specific to "computer
crime" can also apply in a network context, including laws against stealing
credit card codes, laws against obscenity, wire fraud laws, RICO, drug
laws, gambling laws, etc.

The other major set of legal rules, "procedural" rules, puts limits on law
enforcement activities. These are found both in statutes, and in rulings of
the Supreme Court and other high courts on the permissible conduct of
government agents. Such rules include the ECPA, which prohibits wiretapping
without a proper warrant; and federal and state rules and laws spelling out
warrant requirements, arrest requirements, and evidence seizure and
retention requirements.

- Copyrights. Much of the material found in on-line systems and in networks
is copyrightable, including text files, image files, audio files, and
software.

- Moral Rights. Closely related to copyrights, they include the rights of
paternity (choosing to have your name associated or not associated with
your "work") and integrity (the right not to have your "work" altered or
mutilated). These rights are brand new in U.S. law (they originated in
Europe), and their shape in electronic networks will not be settled for
quite a while.

- Trademarks. Anything used as a "brand name" in a network context can be a
trademark. This includes all BBS names, and names for on-line services of
all kinds. Materials other than names might also be protected under
trademark law as "trade dress": distinctive sign-on screen displays for
BBS's, the recurring visual motifs used throughout videotext services, etc.

- Right of Publicity. Similar to trademarks, it gives people the right to
stop others from using their name to make money. Someone with a famous
on-line name or handle has a property right in that name.

- Confidential Information. Information that is held in secrecy by the
owner, transferred only under non-disclosure agreements, and preferably
handled only in encrypted form, can be owned as a trade secret or other
confidential property. This type of legal protection is used as a means of
asserting ownership in confidential databases, from mailing lists to
industrial research.

- Contracts. Contracts account for as much of the regulation of network
operations as all of the other laws put together.

The contract between an on-line service user and the service provider is
the basic source of rights between them. You can use contracts to create
new rights, and to alter or surrender your existing rights under state and
federal laws.

For example, if a bulletin board system operator "censors" a user by
removing a public posting, that user will have a hard time showing his
freedom of speech was violated. Private system operators are not subject to
the First Amendment (which is focused on government, not private, action).
However, the user may have rights to prevent censorship under his direct
contract with the BBS or system operators.

You can use contracts to create entire on-line legal regimes. For example,
banks use contracts to create private electronic funds transfer networks,
with sets of rules that apply only within those networks. These rules
specify on a global level which activities are permitted and which are not,
the terms of access to nearby systems and (sometimes) to remote systems,
and how to resolve problems between network members.

Beyond the basic contract between system and user, there are many other
contracts made on-line. These include the services you find in a
CompuServe, GEnie or Prodigy, such as stock quote services, airline
reservation services, trademark search services, and on-line stores. They
also include user-to-user contracts formed through e-mail. In fact, there
is a billion-dollar "industry" referred to as "EDI" (for Electronic Data
Interchange), in which companies exchange purchase orders for goods and
services directly via computers and computer networks.

- Peoples' Rights Not to be Injured. People have the right not to be
injured when they venture into cyberspace. These rights include the right
not to be libelled or defamed by others on-line, rights against having your
on-line materials stolen or damaged, rights against having your computer
damaged by intentionally harmful files that you have downloaded (such as
files containing computer "viruses"), and so on.

There is no question these rights exist and can be enforced against other
users who cause such injuries. Currently, it is uncertain whether system
operators who oversee the systems can also be held responsible for such
user injuries.

- Financial Laws. These include laws like Regulations E & Z of the Federal
Reserve Board, which are consumer protection laws that apply to credit
cards, cash cards, and all other forms of electronic banking.

- Securities Laws. The federal and state securities laws apply to various
kinds of on-line investment related activities, such as trading in
securities and other investment vehicles, investment advisory services,
market information services and investment management services.

- Education Laws. Some organizations are starting to offer on-line degree
programs. State education laws and regulations come into play on all
aspects of such services.

The list goes on, but we have to end it somewhere. As it stands, this list
should give the reader a good idea of just how regulated cyberspace already
is.


LAWS OR CONFUSION?

The legal picture in cyberspace is very confused, for several reasons.

First, the sheer number of laws in cyberspace, in itself, can create a
great deal of confusion. Second, there can be several different kinds of
laws relating to a single activity, with each law pointing to a different
result.

Third, conflicts can arise in networks between different laws on the same
subject. These include conflicts between federal and state laws, as in the
areas of criminal laws and the right to privacy; conflicts between the laws
of two or more states, which will inevitably arise for networks whose user
base crosses state lines; and even conflicts between laws from the same
governmental authority where two or more different laws overlap. The last
is very common, especially in laws relating to networks and computer law.

Some examples of the interactions between conflicting laws are considered
below, from the viewpoint of an on-line system operator.

1. System operators Liability for "Criminal" Activities.

Many different activities can create criminal liabilities for service
providers, including:

- distributing viruses and other dangerous program code;

- publishing "obscene" materials;

- trafficking in stolen credit card numbers and other unauthorized access
data;

- trafficking in pirated software;

- and acting as an accomplice, accessory or conspirator in these and other
activities.

The acts comprising these different violations are separately defined in
statutes and court cases on both the state and federal levels.

For prosecutors and law enforcers, this is a vast array of options for
pursuing wrongdoers. For service providers, it's a roulette wheel of risk.

Faced with such a huge diversity of criminal possibilities, few service
providers will carefully analyze the exact laws that may apply, nor the
latest case law developments for each type of criminal activity. Who has
the time? For system operators who just want to "play it safe", there is a
strong incentive to do something much simpler: Figure out ways to restrict
user conduct on their systems that will minimize their risk under *any*
criminal law.

The system operator that chooses this highly restrictive route may not
allow any e-mail, for fear that he might be liable for the activities of
some secret drug ring, kiddie porn ring or stolen credit card code ring.
The system operator may ban all sexually suggestive materials, for fear
that the extreme anti- obscenity laws of some user's home town might apply
to his system. The system operator may not permit transfer of program files
through his system, except for files he personally checks out, for fear
that he could be accused of assisting in distributing viruses, trojans or
pirated software; and so on.

In this way, the most restrictive criminal laws that might apply to a given
on-line service (which could emanate, for instance, from one very
conservative state within the system's service area) could end up
restricting the activities of system operators all over the nation, if they
happen to have a significant user base in that state. This results in less
freedom for everyone in the network environment.

2. Federal vs. State Rights of Privacy.

Few words have been spoken in the press about network privacy laws in each
of the fifty states (as opposed to federal laws). However, what the privacy
protection of the federal Electronic Communications Privacy Act ("ECPA")
does not give you, state laws may.

This was the theory of the recent Epson e-mail case. An ex- employee
claimed that Epson acted illegally in requiring her to monitor e-mail
conversations of other employees. She did not sue under the ECPA, but under
the California Penal Code section prohibiting employee surveillance of
employee conversations.

The trial judge denied her claim. In his view, the California law only
applied to interceptions of oral telephone discussions, and not to visual
communication on video display monitors. Essentially, he held that the
California law had not caught up to modern technology - making this law
apply to e-mail communications was a job for the state legislature, not
local judges.

Beyond acknowledging that the California law was archaic and not applicable
to e-mail, we should understand that the Epson case takes place in a
special legal context - the workplace. E- mail user rights against
workplace surveillance are undeniably important, but in our legal and
political system they always must be "balanced" (ie., weakened) against the
right of the employer to run his shop his own way. Employers' rights may
end up weighing more heavily against workers' rights for company e-mail
systems than for voice telephone conversations, at least for employers who
use intra-company e-mail systems as an essential backbone of their
business. Fortunately, this particular skewing factor does not apply to
*public* communications systems.

I believe that many more attempts to establish e-mail privacy under state
laws are possible, and will be made in the future. This is good news for
privacy advocates, a growing and increasingly vocal group these days.

It is mixed news, however, for operators of BBS's and other on-line
services. Most on-line service providers operate on an interstate basis -
all it takes to gain this status is a few calls from other states every now
and then. If state privacy laws apply to on-line systems, then every BBS
operator will be subject to the privacy laws of every state in which one or
more of his users are located! This can lead to confusion, and inability to
set reasonable or predictable system privacy standards.

It can also lead to the effect described above in the discussion of
criminal liability. On-line systems might be set up "defensively", to cope
with the most restrictive privacy laws that might apply to them. This could
result in declarations of *absolutely no privacy* on some systems, and
highly secure setups on others, depending on the individual system
operator's inclinations.

3. Pressure on Privacy Rights Created by Risks to Service Providers.

There are two main kinds of legal risks faced by a system operator. First,
the risk that the system operator himself will be found criminally guilty
or civilly liable for being involved in illegal activities on his system,
leading to fines, jail, money damages, confiscation of system, criminal
record, etc.

Second, the risk of having his system confiscated, not because he did
anything wrong, but because someone else did something suspicious on his
system. As discussed above, a lot of criminal activity can take place on a
system when the system operator isn't looking. In addition, certain
non-criminal activities on the system could lead to system confiscation,
such copyright or trade secret infringement.

This second kind of risk is very real. It is exactly what happened to Steve
Jackson Games last year. Law enforcement agents seized Steve's computer
(which ran a BBS), not because they thought he did anything wrong, but
because they were tracking an allegedly evil computer hacker group called
the "Legion of Doom". Apparently, they thought the group "met" and
conspired on his BBS. A year later, much of the dust has cleared, and the
Electronic Frontier Foundation is funding a lawsuit against the federal
agents who seized the system. Unfortunately, even if he wins the case Steve
can't get back the business he lost. To this day, he still has not regained
all of his possessions that were seized by the authorities.

For now, system operators do not have a great deal of control over
government or legal interference with their systems. You can be a solid
citizen and report every crime you suspect may be happening using your
system. Yet the chance remains that tonight, the feds will be knocking on
*your* door looking for an "evil hacker group" hiding in your BBS.

This Keystone Kops style of "law enforcement" can turn system operators
into surrogate law enforcement agents. System operators who fear random
system confiscation will be tempted to monitor private activities on their
systems, intruding on the privacy of their users. Such intrusion can take
different forms. Some system operators may declare that there will be no
private discussions, so they can review and inspect everything. More
hauntingly, system operators may indulge in surreptitious sampling of
private e-mail, just to make sure no one's doing anything that will make
the cops come in and haul away their BBS computer systems (By the way, I
personally don't advocate either of these things).

This situation can be viewed as a way for law enforcement agents to do an
end run around the ECPA's bar on government interception of electronic
messages. What the agents can't intercept directly, they might get through
fearful system operators. Even if you don't go for such conspiracy
theories, the random risk of system confiscation puts great pressure on the
privacy rights of on-line system users.

4. Contracts Versus Other Rights.

Most, perhaps all, of the rights between system operators and system users
can be modified by the basic service contract between them. For instance,
the federal ECPA gives on-line service users certain privacy rights. It
conspicuously falls short, however, by not protecting users from privacy
intrusions by the system operator himself.

Through contract, the system operator and the user can in effect override
the ECPA exception, and agree that the system operator will not read
private e-mail. Some system operators may go the opposite direction, and
impose a contractual rule that users should not expect any privacy in their
e-mail.

Another example of the power of contracts in the on-line environment
occurred recently on the Well, a national system based in San Francisco
(and highly recommended to all those interested in discussing on-line legal
issues). A Well user complained that a message he had posted in one Well
conference area had been cross-posted by other users to a different
conference area without his permission.

A lengthy, lively discussion among Well users followed, debating the
problem. One of the major benchmarks for this discussion was the basic
service agreement between the Well and its users. And a proposed resolution
of the issue was to clarify the wording of that fundamental agreement.
Although "copyrights" were discussed, the agreement between the Well and
its users was viewed as a more important source of the legitimate rights
and expectations of Well users.

Your state and federal "rights" against other on-line players may not be
worth fighting over if you can get a contract giving you the rights you
want. In the long run, the contractual solution may be the best way to set
up a decent networked on- line system environment, except for the old
bogeyman of government intrusion (against whom we will all still need our
"rights", Constitutional and otherwise).

CONCLUSION

There are many different laws that system operators must heed in running
their on-line services. This can lead to restricting system activities
under the most oppressive legal standards, and to unpredictable,
system-wide interactions between the effects of the different laws.

The "net" result of this problem can be undue restrictions on the
activities of system operators and users alike.

The answers to this problem are simple in concept, but not easy to execute.
First, enact (or re-enact) all laws regarding electronic services on a
national level only, overriding individual state control of system
operators activities in cyberspace. It's time to realize that provincial
state laws only hinder proper development of interstate electronic systems.

As yet, there is little movement in enacting nationally effective laws.
Isolated instances include the Electronic Communications Privacy Act and
the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which place federal "floors" beneath
privacy protection and certain types of computer crime, respectively. On
the commercial side, the new Article 4A of the Uniform Commercial Code,
which normalizes on-line commercial transactions, is ready for adoption by
the fifty states.

Second, all laws regulating on-line systems must be carefully designed to
interact well with other such laws. The goal is to create a well-defined,
reasonable legal environment for system operators and users.

The EFF is fighting hard on this front, especially in the areas of freedom
of the press, rights of privacy, and rights against search and seizure for
on-line systems. Reducing government intrusion in these areas will help
free up cyberspace for bigger and better things.

However, the fight is just beginning today.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Lance Rose is an attorney who works primarily in the fields of computer and
high technology law and intellectual property. His clients include on-line
publishers, electronic funds transfer networks, data transmission services,
individual system operators, and shareware authors and vendors. He is
currently revising SYSLAW, The Sysop's Legal Manual. Lance is a partner in
the New York City firm of Greenspoon, Srager, Gaynin, Daichman & Marino,
and can be reached by voice at (212)888-6880, on the Well as "elrose", and
on CompuServe at 72230,2044.

Copyright 1991 Lance Rose




From: [email protected] (Dave Banisar)
Newsgroups: comp.org.eff.talk,alt.privacy,alt.2600,comp.org.cpsr.talk
Subject: DOJ Guidelines on Searching and Siezing Computers
Date: Fri, 20 Jan 1995 20:20:25 -0400
Organization: Electronic Privacy Information Center


EPIC Analysis of New Justice Department Draft Guidelines on Searching and
Seizing Computers

Dave Banisar
Electronic Privacy Information Center


The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) has obtained the
Department of Justice's recently issued draft "Federal Guidelines for
Searching and Seizing Computers."  EPIC obtained the document under the
Freedom of Information Act.  The guidelines provide an overview of the
law surrounding searches, seizures and uses of computer systems and
electronic information in criminal and civil cases.  They discuss current
law and suggest how it may apply to situations involving computers.  The
draft guidelines were developed by the Justice Department's Computer
Crime Division and an informal group of federal agencies known as the
Computer Search and Seizure Working Group.


Seizing Computers

A major portion of the document deals with the seizure of computers.  The
draft recommends the use of the "independent component doctrine" to
determine if a reason can be articulated to seize each separate piece of
hardware.  Prosecutors are urged to "seize only those pieces of equipment
necessary for basic input/output so that the government can successfully
execute the warrant."  The guidelines reject the theory that because a
device is connected to a target computer, it should be seized, stating
that "[i]n an era of increased networking, this kind of approach can lead
to absurd results."

However, the guidelines also note that computers and accessories are
frequently incompatible or booby trapped, thus recommending that
equipment generally should be seized to ensure that it will work.  They
recommend that irrelevant material should be returned quickly.  "[O]nce
the analyst has examined the computer system and data and decided that
some items or information need not be kept, the government should return
this property as soon as possible."  The guidelines suggest that it may
be possible to make exact copies of the information on the storage
devices and return the computers and data to the suspects if they sign
waivers stating that the copy is an exact replica of the original data.

On the issue of warrantless seizure and "no-knock warrants," the
guidelines note the ease of destroying data.  If a suspect is observed
destroying data, a warrantless seizure may occur, provided that a warrant
is obtained before an actual search can proceed.  For "no-knock"
warrants, the guidelines caution that more than the mere fact that the
evidence can be easily destroyed is required before such a warrant can be
issued.  "These problems . . . are not, standing alone, sufficient to
justify dispensing with the knock-and-announce rule."


Searching Computers

Generally, warrants are required for searches of computers unless there
is a recognized exception to the warrant requirement.  The guidelines
recommend that law enforcement agents use utility programs to conduct
limited searches for specific information, both because the law prefers
warrants that are narrowly tailored and for reasons of economy.  "The
power of the computer allows analysts to design a limited search in other
ways as well . . . by specific name, words, places. . . ."

For computer systems used by more than one person, the guidelines state
that the consent of one user is enough to authorize a search of the
entire system, even if each user has a different directory.  However, if
users have taken "special steps" to protect their privacy, such as using
passwords or encryption, a search warrant is necessary.  The guidelines
suggest that users do not have an expectation of privacy on commercial
services and large mainframe systems because users should know that
system operators have the technical ability to read all files on such
systems.  They recommend that the most prudent course is to obtain a
warrant, but suggest that in the absence of a warrant prosecutors should
argue that "reasonable users will also expect system administrators to be
able to access all data on the system."  Employees may also have an
expectation of privacy in their computers that would prohibit employers
from consenting to police searches.  Public employees are protected by
the Fourth Amendment and searches of their computers are prohibited
except for ""non-investigatory, work related intrusions" and
"investigatory searches for evidence of suspected work-related employee
misfeasance."

The guidelines discuss the Privacy Protection Act of 1980, which was
successfully used in the Steve Jackson Games case against federal agents.
They recommend that "before searching any BBS, agents must carefully
consider the restrictions of the PPA."  Citing the Jackson case, they
leave open the question of whether BBS's by themselves are subject to the
PPA and state that "the scope of the PPA has been greatly expanded as a
practical consequence of the revolution in information technology -- a
result which was probably not envisioned by the Act's drafters."  Under
several DOJ memos issued in 1993, all applications for warrants under the
Privacy Protection Act must be approved by a Deputy Assistant Attorney
General of the Criminal Division or the supervising DOJ attorney.

For computers that contain private electronic mail protected by the
Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, prosecutors are advised to
inform the judge that private email may be present and avoid reading
communications not covered in the warrant.  Under the ECPA, a warrant is
required for email on a public system that is stored for less than 180
days.  If the mail is stored for more than 180 days, law enforcement
agents can obtain it either by using a subpoena (if they inform the
target beforehand) or by using a warrant without notice.

For computers that contain confidential information, the guidelines
recommend that forensic experts minimize their examination of irrelevant
files.  It may also be possible to appoint a special master to search
systems containing privileged information.

One important section deals with issues relating to encryption and the
Fifth Amendment's protection against self-incrimination.  The guidelines
caution that a grant of limited immunity may be necessary before
investigators can compel disclosure of an encryption key from a suspect.
This suggestion is significant given recent debates over the Clipper Chip
and the possibility of mandatory key escrow.


Computer Evidence

The draft guidelines also address issues relating to the use of
computerized information as evidence.  The guidelines note that "this
area may become a new battleground for technical experts."  They
recognize the unique problems of electronic evidence: "it can be created,
altered, stored, copied, and moved with unprecedented ease, which creates
both problems and opportunities for advocates."  The guidelines discuss
scenarios where digital photographs can be easily altered without a trace
and the potential use of digital signatures to create electronic seals.
They also raise questions about the use of computer generated evidence,
such as the results of a search failing to locate an electronic tax
return in a computer system.  An evaluation of the technical processes
used will be necessary:  "proponents must be prepared to show that the
process is reliable."


Experts

The DOJ guidelines recommend that experts be used in all computer
seizures and searches -- "when in doubt, rely on experts."  They provide
a list of experts from within government agencies, such as the Electronic
Crimes Special Agent program in the Secret Service (with 12 agents at the
time of the writing of the guidelines), the Computer Analysis and
Response Team of the FBI, and the seized recovery specialists (SERC) in
the IRS.  The guidelines reveal that "[m]any companies such as IBM and
Data General employ some experts solely to assist various law enforcement
agencies on search warrants."  Other potential experts include local
universities and the victims of crimes themselves, although the
guidelines caution that there may be potential problems of bias when
victims act as experts.


Obtaining a Copy of the Guidelines

EPIC, with the cooperation of the Bureau of National Affairs, is making
the guidelines available electronically.  The document is available via
FTP/Gopher/WAIS/listserv from the EPIC online archive at cpsr.org
/cpsr/privacy/epic/fed_computer_siezure_guidelines.txt. A printed version
appears in the Bureau of National Affairs publication, Criminal Law
Reporter, Vol. 56, No. 12 (December 21 1994).

About EPIC

The Electronic Privacy Information Center is a public interest research
center in Washington, DC.  It was established in 1994 to focus public
attention on emerging privacy issues relating to the National Information
Infrastructure, such as the Clipper Chip, the Digital Telephony proposal,
medical record privacy, and the sale of consumer data.  EPIC is sponsored
by the Fund for Constitutional Government and Computer Professionals for
Social Responsibility.  EPIC publishes the EPIC Alert and EPIC Reports,
pursues Freedom of Information Act litigation, and conducts policy
research on emerging privacy issues.  For more information email
[email protected], or write EPIC, 666 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E., Suite 301,
Washington, DC 20003. +1 202 544 9240 (tel), +1 202 547 5482 (fax).

The Fund for Constitutional Government is a non-profit organization
established in 1974 to protect civil liberties and constitutional rights.
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility is a national membership
organization of people concerned about the impact of technology on
society. For information contact: [email protected].

Tax-deductible contributions to support the work of EPIC should be made
payable to the Fund for Constitutional Government.




Date: Thu, 28 Feb 91 09:53:50 EST
From: "Brian J. Peretti" <[email protected]>
Subject: Computer Publication and the First Amendment

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***  CuD #3.09: File 2 of 2: Computers & First Amendment         ***
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              Computer Publication and The First Amendment


                       Copyright Brian J. Peretti
                          Computers and the Law


Since their introduction, personal computers have had a tremendous impact
on society.  Computer, printers and their software have replaced
accountants, secretaries and even typewriters in many offices across the
United States.  With the advent of this new way to gather, process and
distribute information, new problems, many that could never have been
perceived by the Framers of the Constitution, have developed.  The
Constitution is the basis of law in the United States.  Although created in
1787, it still governs the manner in which legal decisions are made with
very few changes.  It, along with the Bill of Rights and other amendments,
has established what may or may not be done to a person, group,
organization or business without infringing on its rights.  The broad
language was created so that the Constitution would be able to change and
expand with the times.  Although the founding fathers did have an idea of
what the press was in their day, it has been expanded to cover television
and radio.  This coverage should be expanded to encompass the new media of
computer publications.  By deciding that computer publications will have
the same rights under the first amendment as newspapers, information will
be dispersed throughout the nation in a more efficient manner so that the
goal of the first amendment will become reality.

I.   What is a computer publication

Computer publications can take many forms.  It has been
argued that bulletin boards should be considered computer
publications.  The reason is that since the people who are in
contact with the bulletin boards must communicate with the boards
through the written word, that these communications should thus
be considered publications.
This paper is concerned with publications that are created
exclusively on a computer or computer system.  There have been
only a few such computer publications.1
There has not been a definition defining what is a computer
publication.  However, there are many similarities between the
various newsletters that will give us a definition of what one
is.  First, all of the material which makes up the publication
must have been created on a computer.  This is to say, that
although the information may have been written on paper as rough
drafts or may have been gleaned from printed books or newspaper,
the articles that compose the publication must have been written
IN FINAL FORM ON THE COMPUTER.
The production of the newsletter must also occur exclusively
on the computer.  This includes the editing, the check for
spelling and formatting errors and the actual production of what
the newsletter will look like, including the letterhead of the
publication, if there is to be one.
The transportation of the material that is to be contained
in the newsletter must occur via a computer network2 or by an
exchange of magnetic disk3, magnetic tape4, electrical impulses
or other non-print media.  This includes not only the gathering
of the stories, but also the distribution of the newsletter to
its subscribers.
The computer magazines or newsletters that have existed in
the past also had a common denominator in that they almost
exclusively were published by computer users, for computer users
and concerned computer topics.  Although this could be a
criteria, it would be to restrictive.  It is very likely, with
the continued proliferation of computers in our society, that
publications with a much different orientations will emerge.  If
computer publications are to be protected, the topic of their
publication should not be determinative of whether they fall
under the definition of a computer publication.
There are other publications that address the same issues
that have been published in "Phrack".  An example is 2600 on Long
Island, New York which publishes material in printed form
concerning generally the same information.5  However, it is the
form in which "Phrack" was published and not the content of the
magazine that is the issue of this paper.

II.  Phrack6

Craig Neidorf is a student at the University of Missouri.
At sixteen, he and a friend started to publish Phrack7.    The
way in which he went about creating his newsletter was to accept
articles written by persons throughout the country.  These
articles would be left in his mailbox at the university or to
retrieve articles written on computer bulletin boards.  After he
logged on to the system, he would then mail the articles from the
mainframe computer to his person computer at his residence.  If
these articles would need to be edited, he would then do any
necessary editing.  Once he complied a large enough group of
articles, he would then send the articles to the mainframe
computer along with a heading and send it to his 250 subscribers.
There was no charge for the newsletter.8

III. The Historic Rights of the Press

In order to discover whether or not the protections afforded
to the press in the first amendment should be extended to this
new form of information distribution, a look to the past is
essential.  Originally, control of the press by government was
total.  However, as time passed, both the monarch of Great
Britain and their rulers in the American Colonies allowed greater
freedom to publish.

A.   The English Experience.

At first, England was an absolute monarchy, in which the
king could do as he pleased.  In 1215, the Magna Carta was
signed, whereby the lords of England put restrictions on the
King, which he pledged not to violate.9  The document, although
not seen as an admission of the King that there were civil right,
he did acknowledge that there were some basic human rights.10
In 1275, the De Scandalis Magnatum was enacted which
punished anyone who disseminated untrue information or "tales"
that could disrupt the atmosphere between the king and his
people.11  Over time this statute was gradually expanded.  In
1378, it was broadened to cover "peers, prelates, justices and
various other officials and in the 1388 reenactment, offenders
could be punished "by the advice of said council."12
The first printing presses were established in Great Britain
toward the end of the 15th century.  When the  De Scandalis
Magnatum was reenacted in 1554 and 1559, "seditious words" were
included as words that could bring punishment.13  This law,
enforced by the Court of the Star Chamber, was a criminal statute
to punish political scandal.14
Regulations placed upon printers soon followed.  In 1585,
the Star Chamber required that in order to print a book, the
publisher would have to get a license.15  A monopoly was created
in the Stationers' Company, which had 97 London stationers, that
could seize the publications of all outsiders.16 A 1637 ordnance
limited the number of printers, presses and apprentices.17
Punishment, at the time, was not limited to just printing, but
also to "epigram[s] or rhyme[s] in writing sung and repeated in
the presence of others . . . [or] an ignominious or shameful
painting or sign."18
Although the Star Chamber had been abolished in 1641, the
licensing system remained through the orders of 1642 and 1643.19
The Licensing Act of 1662 was a temporary statute which kept the
licensing provisions until 1679, when it expired.20 During the
reign of James II, licensing was renewed only to expire and not
be reenacted in 1695.21
Having realized that licensing was not the answer, Queen
Anne in 1711 enacted a Stamp Act, by which a duty was imposed on
all newspapers and advertisements.22 The purpose was to both
restrain the press and destroy all but the larger newspapers.23
Blackstone summed up the state of the law Great Britain
concerning the press in his Commentaries by writing:
The liberty of the press is indeed essential to the
nature of a free state; but this consists in laying no
previous restraints upon publications, and not in freedom
from censure for criminal matter when published.  Every
freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he
pleases before the public; to forbid this, is to destroy
the freedom of the press; but if he publishes what is
improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the
consequences of his own temerity.24

B.   The Colonial Experience
The first presses arrived at Harvard University in 1638 and
were used to disseminate church information.25 Aside from this
purpose the colonial governments, when still under the power of
Great Britain did not look favorably upon the press.  However,
with power in the colony moving toward the people, the press
gained more freedom from the strict control imposed by the
government.
Each colony treated the press differently, although each did
restrict the press.  In 1671, Governor Berkeley of Virginia wrote
"But I thank God, there are no free schools nor printing, and I
hope we shall not have these hundred years; for learning has
brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and
printing has divulged them, and libels against the best
government.  God keep us from both!"26  In New York, until 1719,
all governors "had been instructed to permit no press, book,
pamphlets or other printed matter `without your especial leave &
license first obtained.'"27
Gradually, state controls of the press gradually
diminished.28 The Trial of John Peter Zenger, 17 Howell's St. Tr.
675 (1735) illustrates how much the colonists were opposed to
restrictions on the press.  Zenger had printed material in his
New York Weekly Journal a satiric article critical of New York
Governor William Cosby.  The governor had Zenger charged with
seditious liable by the Attorney General after neither a Grand
Jury would indict nor the General Assembly take action.29
Although all the jury had to do was find him guilty was to
declare that he published the paper, Zenger's attorney, Andrew
Hamilton of Philadelphia argued a much larger issue.  He put
before the jury the argument that truth is a defense to liable,
although the court rejected it.30  He was able to win an
acquittal of Zenger by requesting that the jury give a general
verdict of not guilty instead of a special verdict, which the
court requested, and which the jury did.31

C.   The Adoption of the First Amendment
"The struggle for the freedom of the press was primarily
directed against the power of the licensor. . . . And the liberty
of the press became initially a right  to publish `without a
license what formerly could be published only with one.'  While
this freedom from previous restraint upon publication cannot be
regarded as exhausting the guaranty of liberty, the prevention of
that restraint was a leading purpose in the adoption of the
constitutional provision."32  The purpose of the first amendment
is "to prevent all such previous restraints upon publication as
had been practiced by other government."33
The first amendment states "Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the
press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to
petition the Government for a redress of grievances."34  It was
originally proposed as part of twelve amendments to the United
States Constitution during the first session of Congress in 1789.
On December 15, 1791, the Bill of Rights, minus the first two
amendments, became part of the Constitution.
What the first amendment means as applied to the press has
never been completely set forth.  The only statement in Congress
as to what the press and speech clause was to stand for was
express by  James Madison:  "The right of freedom of speech is
secured; the liberty of the press is expressly declared to be
beyond the reach of this government."35  This, however, will be
of little help for us when considering whether computer
publications should receive first amendment protections.

IV.  Does Computer Publications fall within the meaning of
Press as stated in the first Amendment.

Since the legislative history of the First Amendment will
not lead to a discovery concerning what is covered under it, we
must look to how it has been interpreted by the courts.  An
examination must be undertook to determine what the courts have
decided concerning both the purpose of the amendment and whether
any physical manifestation guidelines on what fall within the
definition of the "press".
By examining what the drafters of the first amendment
thought that press was during their time, the only media which
would receive first amendment protections the printed press,
which  would include newspapers, handbills and leaflets.
However, the court has not held the clause so narrowly.
The United States Supreme Court has taken a broad view in
considering what is the "press".36  "The liberty of the press is
not confined to newspapers and periodicals.  It necessarily
embraces pamphlets and leaflets. . . . The press in its
historical connotation comprehends every sort of publication
which affords a vehicle of information and opinion."37  Thus, the
Court has ruled that motion pictures38 also deserve such
protection.  Lower courts have held that the protection applies
to doctor directories,39 college newspapers40 and computer
bulletin boards.41
Computer publications satisfy the definition that the Court
has given to what is to be covered by the first amendment.  By
their very nature, computer publications are a vehicle by which
information can be disseminated.  In Phrack's first issue, the
purpose was to gather "philes [which] may include articles on
telcom (phreaking/hacking), anarchy (guns and death &
destruction) or kracking.  Other (sic) topics will be allowed
also to a certain extent."42  These articles were to be
distributed to members of the community who wished to obtain
information on the topics in the "newsletter-type project".43
Since this publication passes the Lovell test,44 because of it
allows information to be distributed, these publication deserve
the protection given to the media by the first amendment.45

VI.  Freedom of Newspapers and Broadcasting Media46


Currently there can be called two separate first amendment
doctrines.  The first applies to newspapers.  Newspapers can have
only a few restrictions placed on them.  The second applies to
radio and television, which can  have many types of controls
placed upon them.  Computer publications, because of their
similarity to the former, should have the least amount of
restriction necessary placed upon them.
As stated, supra, the first amendment had no legislative
history that came along with it.   Courts have had to interpret
how it should be applied to the "press" since they had no
guidance from the Congress.  Although not to be applied in an
absolute sense, Breard v. City of Alexandria, La.,47 the Supreme
Court has only set forth three exceptions where prior restraint
of the newspapers are allowed.  These restrictions, as stated in
dictum in  Near v. Minnesota48 are 1) when it is necessary in
order that "a government might prevent actual obstruction to its
recruiting service or the publication of the sailing dates of
transports or the number and location of troops", 2) the
requirements of decency to prevent publication of obscene
materials, and 3) "[t]he security of the community life may be
protected against incitement to acts of violence and the
overthrow of force of orderly government."   These exceptions,
although not having the force of law when stated, have been the
only exceptions allowed.
In the electronic realm, the Supreme Court has allowed
greater restraints to be placed on radio and television.
Licenses, although never allowed on newspapers,49 possibly as a
result of the English experience,50 have been allowed on
broadcast communication.51  Broadcaster must be fair to all sides
of an issue,52 whereas newspapers may be bias.53  Broadcaster are
required to meet the need of their community.54  However no court
has held that this may be applied to a newspaper.55
The main difference between these two groups is that
"[u]nlike other modes of expression, radio inherently is not
available to all.  That is its unique characteristic, and that is
why, unlike other modes of expression, it is subject to
government regulation."56  This reasoning has been followed by
the court on many occasions.57
In the case concerning computer publishers, the less
restrictive newspaper limitations should be used.  A computer
publisher does not send his information over a limited band or
airwaves.  Any individual or group can become a computer publish
by obtaining a computer or access to a computer and a modem an
information to publish.  The amount of these newsletters are not
limited by technology.
Because of the large number of publications that can appear,
there is no need to require that these publications be responsive
to the public.  The dissemination of the information can be
terminated if the reader wants to by asking for his name to be
removed from the subscription list, similar to that of a magazine
or newspaper.58

V.   Conclusion
Computer based publications are a new development in the
traditional way in which information is disseminated.  The
history of the United States and the first amendment has been
against placing restrictions on the press.  These new types of
publications, because of their similarity to other types of
media, should be granted first amendment protection.
The rational for placing restrictions on radio and
television should not apply to computer publications.  Anyone who
has access to this technology, which is becoming more prevalent
in society, can publish in this manner.  The least amount of
restrictions on their publication, similar to those placed on
newspapers, should be applied to this new media.
             BIBLIOGRAPHY

Freedom of Speech and Press in America,  Edward G. Hudon (Public
Affairs Press, Washington, D.C.  1963)

MacMillan Dictionary of Personal Computing & Communications
Dennis Longley and Michael Shain, eds.  (MacMillan Press Ltd,
London 1986)

Shaping the First Amendment:  The Development of Free Expression,
John D. Stevens (Sage Publications, Beverly Hills,  1982)

Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History:  Legacy of
Suppression, Leonard W. Levy (Harvard Press, Cambridge  1960)

American Broadcasting and the First Amendment, Lucas A. Powe, Jr.
(University of California Press, Berkeley 1987)

Printers and Press Freedom:  The Ideology of Early American
Journalism, Jeffery A. Smith (Oxford University Press, New York
1988).


Seven Dirty Words and Six Other Stories:  Controlling the Content
of Print and Broadcast, Matthew L. Spitzer (Yale University
Press, New Haven  1986).

Emergence of a Free Press, Leonard W. Levy (Oxford University
Press, New York 1985).

Computer Underground Digest, volume 2, Issue #2.12, file 1
(November 17, 1990).

















               Endnotes

1.  Phrack, see infra, CCCAN, a Canadian publication, The
LEGION OF DOOM TECHNICAL JOURNAL, COMPUTER UNDERGROUND DIGEST AND VIRUS-L
DIGEST ARE A FEW OF THE MANY PUBLICATIONS.

2.  MacMillan Dictionary of Personal Computing &
Communication (1986 ed) defines it as:  "A network of computer
systems that allow the fast and easy flow of data between the
systems and users of the system."  Id. at 68.

3.  "[A] flat disk with a magnetizable surface layer on
which data can be stored by magnetic recording."  Id. at 215

4.  "A plastic tape having a magnetic surface for storing
data in a code of magnetized spots."  Webster's NewWorld
Dictionary of Computer Terms (1988 3 ed.) at 223.

5.  Frenzy over Phrack; First Amendment concerns raised in
computer hacker case, Communications Daily, June 29, 1990, at 6.

6.  Information from this section was gathered in part from
Dorothy Denning's paper The United States vs. Craig Neidorf:  A
Viewpoint on Electronic Publishing, Constitutional Rights, and
Hacking." [hereinafter Denning] and Interview with Craig Neidorf,
editor of Phrack (Oct. 16, 1990).

7.  The name of the publication was derived from two words,
phrack (telecommunication systems) and hack (from computer
hacking).  Denning.  Hacking has been defined as "one who gains
unauthorized, use non-fraudulent access to another's computer
system."  Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary (1984)
at 557.  For other definitions, see United States v. Riggs, 739
F. Supp. 414, 423-24 (N.D. Ill. 1990).

8.  Mr. Neidorf was indicted after he published a Bell South
E911 document which was downloaded from the Bell South computer
system in Atlanta, Georgia.  Determining if Mr. Neidorf should be
punished for publishing such information is beyond the scope of
this paper.

9.  John Stevens, Shaping the First Amendment:  The
Development of Free Expression at 27 (1982). [hereinafter
Stevens]

10.  Id.

11.  Edward Hudon, Freedom of Speech and Press in America,
8-9 (1963).
12.  Id. at 9.

13.  Id.

14.  Id.

15.  Id. at 10.

16.  Id.

17.  Id.

18.  Id.

19.  Id. at 11.

20.  Id.

21.  Id.

22.  Id.

23.  Id.

24.  Leonard Levy, Freedom of Speech and Press in Early
American History:  Legacy of Suppression, 14 (1963) [hereinafter
Levy] citing Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of
England 2:112-113 (1936).

25.  Stevens, at 29.

26.  Levy, at 21-22, quoting William Waller Hening, The
Statutes at Large Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia
(1619-1792) (Richmond, 1809-1823), 2:517. [emphasis in original]

27.  Levy, at 24, quoting "Instructions to Governor Dongan,"
1686, in E.B. O'Callaghan and B. Fernow, eds., Documents Relative
to the Colonial History of the State of New York 3:375 (Albany,
1856-1887).

28.  By 1721, Massachusetts effectively ended censorship by
licensing.  Levy, at 36.

29.  Edward Hudson, Freedom of Speech and Press in America
(1963) 19.

30.  John D. Stevens, Shaping the First Amendment:  The
Development of Free Expression (1982), 31.

31.  Hudson, at 19.

32.  Lovell v. City of Griffen, Ga., 303 U.S. 444, 451-52
(1938) [footnotes omitted].

33.  Patterson v. Colorado, 205 U.S. 454, 462 (1907),
quoting Commonwealth v. Blanding, 3 Pick. [Mass.] 304, 313-14.
[emphasis in original]

34.  U.S. Const. amend. I.

35.  Leonard W. Levy, Freedom of Speech and Press in Early
American History:  Legacy of Suppression (1960),  quoting The
Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States
(Washington, 1834 ff.) I:766, 1st Cong., 1st Sess.

36.  "The Protection of the First Amendment, mirrored in the
Fourteenth, is not limited to the  Blackstonian idea that freedom
of the press means only freedom from  restraint prior to
publication."  Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 572, n.3,
(1941) citing Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931).

37.  Lovell v. City of Griffin, Ga. 303 U.S. 444, 452
(1938).

38.  "We have no doubt that moving pictures, like newspapers
and radio, are included in the press whose freedom is guaranteed
by the First Amendment."  334 U.S. 131, 166 (1948).  "Expression
by means of motion pictures in included within the free speech
and speech and free press guaranty of the  First and Fourteenth
Amendments."  Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. 495, 502
(1952).

39.  "The propose directory [of physicians] contains
information  of interest to people who need physicians.  The
directory, therefore, is embraced by the term "press" as used in
the first amendment." Health Systems Agency of Northern Virginia
v. Virginia State Board of Medicine, 424 F. Supp. 267, 272 (E.D.
Va. 1976).

40.  "A campus newspaper is part of the "press" for the
purpose of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United
States."  Arrington v. Taylor, 380 F.Supp. 1348, 1365 (M.D.N.C.
1974).

41.  Legi-Tech v. Keiper, 766 F.2d 728, 734-35 (2d Cir.
1985).

42.  Phrack, volume 1, issue 1, phile 1, reprinted in
Computer Underground Digest, volume 2, Issue #2.12, file 1
(November 17, 1990).

43.  Id.
44.  See, infra, note 35 and text.

45.  This is not to say that publication of information in
furtherance of a crime or criminal activity should receive the
protection of the first amendment.

46.  This section has been completed with the help of
Spitzer, Seven Dirty Words and Six Other Stories (1986).

47.  341 U.S. 622, 642 (1951),  "The First and Fourteenth
Amendments have never been treated as absolutes."

48.  283 U.S. 697, 716.

49.  Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931), New York Times
Co. v. Sullivan, 403 U.S. 713 (1971), Minneapolis Star and
Tribune Co. v. Minnesota Comm'r of Revenue, 460 U.S. 575 (1983).

50.  See, supra, notes 9 through 24 and text.

51.  Communications Act of 1934.  47 U.S.C.  301 et. seq.
(1988) (Requiring that radio stations and television stations
obtain licenses).

52.  Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. F.C.C., 395 U.S. 367
(1969).

53.  See, e.g., Evans v. American Federation of Television
and Radio Artists, 354 F.Supp 823, 838 (S.D.N.Y. 1973), rev'd on
other grounds, 496 F.2d 305 (2nd Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 419
U.S. 1093.  ("In editorial comment, the New York Times and the
Washington Post may be unreservedly liberal, while the
Indianapolis News or the Manchester Union Leader may be
unremittingly conservative.")

54.  47 U.S.C.  309(a).  Trinity Methodist Church v. Federal
Radio Commission, 62 F.2d 850, (D.C. Cir. 1932), cert. denied,
288 U.S. 599 (1933).  (holding that if radio broadcasts were not
in the public interest, a license could be revoked and not
violate the first amendment.)

55.  Of course, if a newspaper is not responsive to its
readers, it may lose subscribers and either be forced to change
or go out of business.  However, since in that hypothetical there
would be no state action, there would be no first amendment
issue.

56.  National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, 319 U.S.
190, 226 (1943).  The dissenting opinion also followed similar
reasoning.  "Owing to its physical  characteristics radio, unlike
the other methods of conveying information, must be regulated and
rationed by the government."  Id. at 319.

57.  Red Lion Broadcasting v. Federal Communication
Commission,  395 U.S. 367 (1969), and Federal Communication
Commission v. League of Women Voters, 468 U.S. 364 (1984).

58.  For the same reason, the fairness doctrine should not
be applied to these types of publications.

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                          **END OF CuD #3.09**
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[Electronic Communications Privacy Act, full text.  Revised 02/21/94]


In response to a number of requests from different sources, Shari Steele
has compiled and I've edited and formatted an ASCII version of the Electronic
Communications Privacy Act, including all amendments to the original Wiretap
Act (18 USC 2510 et seq.), the complete chapter on stored communications
(18 USC 2701 et seq.), and the amendments to pen-register and trap-and-trace
procedures (18 USC 3121 et seq.)

Please let me know if you catch any errors or typos.


--Mike Godwin
 Online Counsel
 Electronic Frontier Foundation
 [email protected]


-----------




TITLE 18.  CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE


PART I.  CRIMES


CHAPTER 119.  WIRE AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS INTERCEPTION AND
INTERCEPTION OF ORAL COMMUNICATIONS


Sec. 2510.  Definitions


  As used in this chapter --


  (1) "wire communication" means any aural transfer made in whole or in
part through the use of facilities for the transmission of communications
by the aid of wire, cable, or other like connection between the point of
origin and the point of reception (including the use of such connection in
a switching station) furnished or operated by any person engaged in
providing or operating such facilities for the transmission of interstate
or foreign communications or communications affecting interstate or
foreign commerce and such term includes any electronic storage of such
communication, but such term does not include the radio portion of a
cordless telephone communication that is transmitted between the cordless
telephone handset and the base unit;


  (2) "oral communication" means any oral communication uttered by a
person exhibiting an expectation that such communication is not subject to
interception under circumstances justifying such expectation, but such
term does not include any electronic communication;


  (3) "State" means any State of the United States, the District of
Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and any territory or possession
of the United States;


  (4) "intercept" means the aural or other acquisition of the contents of
any wire, electronic, or oral communication through the use of any
electronic, mechanical, or other device.


  (5) "electronic, mechanical, or other device" means any device or
apparatus which can be used to intercept a wire, oral, or electronic
communication other than--


  (a) any telephone or telegraph instrument, equipment or facility, or
any component thereof, (i) furnished to the subscriber or user by a
provider of wire or electronic communication service in the ordinary
course of its business and being used by the subscriber or user in the
ordinary course of its business or furnished by such subscriber or user
for connection to the facilities of such service and used in the ordinary
course of its business; or (ii) being used by a provider of wire or
electronic communication service in the ordinary course of its business,
or by an investigative or law enforcement officer in the ordinary course
of his duties;


  (b) a hearing aid or similar device being used to correct subnormal
hearing to not better than normal;


  (6) "person" means any employee, or agent of the United States or any
State or political subdivision thereof, and any individual, partnership,
association, joint stock company, trust, or corporation;


  (7) "Investigative or law enforcement officer" means any officer of the
United States or of a State or political subdivision thereof, who is
empowered by law to conduct investigations of or to make arrests for
offenses enumerated in this chapter, and any attorney authorized by law to
prosecute or participate in the prosecution of such offenses;


  (8) "contents," when used with respect to any wire, oral, or electronic
communication, includes any information concerning the substance, purport,
or meaning of that communication;


  (9) "Judge of competent jurisdiction" means--


  (a) a judge of a United States district court or a United States court
of appeals; and


  (b) a judge of any court of general criminal jurisdiction of a State
who is authorized by a statute of that State to enter orders authorizing
interceptions of wire, oral, or electronic communications;


  (10) "communication common carrier" shall have the same meaning which
is given the term "common carrier" by section 153(h) of title 47 of the
United States Code;


  (11) "aggrieved person" means a person who was a party to any
intercepted wire, oral, or electronic communication or a person against
whom the interception was directed;


  (12) "electronic communication" means any transfer of signs, signals,
writing, images, sounds, data, or intelligence of any nature transmitted
in whole or in part by a wire, radio, electromagnetic, photoelectronic or
photooptical system that affects interstate or foreign commerce, but does
not include--


  (A) the radio portion of a cordless telephone communication that is
transmitted between the cordless telephone handset and the base unit;


  (B) any wire or oral communication;


  (C) any communication made through a tone-only paging device; or


  (D) any communication from a tracking device (as defined in section
3117 of this title);


  (13) "user" means any person or entity who--


  (A) uses an electronic communication service; and


  (B) is duly authorized by the provider of such service to engage in
such use;


  (14) "electronic communications system" means any wire, radio,
electromagnetic, photooptical or photoelectronic facilities for the
transmission of electronic communications, and any computer facilities or
related electronic equipment for the electronic storage of such
communications;


  (15) "electronic communication service" means any service which
provides to users thereof the ability to send or receive wire or
electronic communications;


  (16) "readily accessible to the general public" means, with respect to
a radio communication, that such communication is not--


  (A) scrambled or encrypted;


  (B) transmitted using modulation techniques whose essential parameters
have been withheld from the public with the intention of preserving the
privacy of such communication;


  (C) carried on a subcarrier or other signal subsidiary to a radio
transmission;


  (D) transmitted over a communication system provided by a common
carrier, unless the communication is a tone only paging system
communication; or


  (E) transmitted on frequencies allocated under part 25, subpart D, E,
or F of part 74, or part 94 of the Rules of the Federal Communications
Commission, unless, in the case of a communication transmitted on a
frequency allocated under part 74 that is not exclusively allocated to
broadcast auxiliary services, the communication is a two-way voice
communication by radio;


  (17) "electronic storage" means--


  (A) any temporary, intermediate storage of a wire or electronic
communication incidental to the electronic transmission thereof; and


  (B) any storage of such communication by an electronic communication
service for purposes of backup protection of such communication; and


  (18) "aural transfer" means a transfer containing the human voice at
any point between and including the point of origin and the point of
reception.


Sec. 2511.  Interception and disclosure of wire, oral, or electronic
communications prohibited


  (1) Except as otherwise specifically provided in this chapter any
person who--


  (a) intentionally intercepts, endeavors to intercept, or procures any
other person to intercept or endeavor to intercept, any wire, oral, or
electronic communication;


  (b) intentionally uses, endeavors to use, or procures any other person
to use or endeavor to use any electronic, mechanical, or other device to
intercept any oral communication when--


  (i) such device is affixed to, or otherwise transmits a signal through,
a wire, cable, or other like connection used in wire communication; or


  (ii) such device transmits communications by radio, or interferes with
the transmission of such communication; or


  (iii) such person knows, or has reason to know, that such device or any
component thereof has been sent through the mail or transported in
interstate or foreign commerce; or


  (iv) such use or endeavor to use (A) takes place on the premises of any
business or other commercial establishment the operations of which affect
interstate or foreign commerce; or (B) obtains or is for the purpose of
obtaining information relating to the operations of any business or other
commercial establishment the operations of which affect interstate or
foreign commerce; or


  (v) such person acts in the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico, or any territory or possession of the United States;


  (c) intentionally discloses, or endeavors to disclose, to any other
person the contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication,
knowing or having reason to know that the information was obtained through
the interception of a wire, oral, or electronic communication in violation
of this subsection; or


  (d) intentionally uses, or endeavors to use, the contents of any wire,
oral, or electronic communication, knowing or having reason to know that
the information was obtained through the interception of a wire, oral, or
electronic communication in violation of this subsection;


  shall be punished as provided in subsection (4) or shall be subject to
suit as provided in subsection (5).


  (2)(a)(i) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter for an operator
of a switchboard, or an officer, employee, or agent of a provider of wire
or electronic communication service, whose facilities are used in the
transmission of a wire communication, to intercept, disclose, or use that
communication in the normal course of his employment while engaged in any
activity which is a necessary incident to the rendition of his service or
to the protection of the rights or property of the provider of that
service, except that a provider of wire communication service to the
public shall not utilize service observing or random monitoring except for
mechanical or service quality control checks.


  (ii) Notwithstanding any other law, providers of wire or electronic
communication service, their officers, employees, and agents, landlords,
custodians, or other persons, are authorized to provide information,
facilities, or technical assistance to persons authorized by law to
intercept wire, oral, or electronic communications or to conduct
electronic surveillance, as defined in section 101 of the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 if such provider, its officers,
employees, or agents, landlord, custodian, or other specified person, has
been provided with--


  (A) a court order directing such assistance signed by the authorizing
judge, or


  (B) a certification in writing by a person specified in section 2518(7)
of this title or the Attorney General of the United States that no warrant
or court order is required by law, that all statutory requirements have
been met, and that the specified assistance is required, setting forth the
period of time during which the provision of the information, facilities,
or technical assistance is authorized and specifying the information,
facilities, or technical assistance required. No provider of wire or
electronic communication service, officer, employee, or agent thereof, or
landlord, custodian, or other specified person shall disclose the
existence of any interception or surveillance or the device used to
accomplish the interception or surveillance with respect to which the
person has been furnished an order or certification under this
subparagraph, except as may otherwise be required by legal process and
then only after prior notification to the Attorney General or to the
principal prosecuting attorney of a State or any political subdivision of
a State, as may be appropriate. Any such disclosure, shall render such
person liable for the civil damages provided for in section 2520. No cause
of action shall lie in any court against any provider of wire or
electronic communication service, its officers, employees, or agents,
landlord, custodian, or other specified person for providing information,
facilities, or assistance in accordance with the terms of a court order or
certification under this chapter.


  (b) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter for an officer,
employee, or agent of the Federal Communications Commission, in the normal
course of his employment and in discharge of the monitoring
responsibilities exercised by the Commission in the enforcement of chapter
5 of title 47 of the United States Code, to intercept a wire or electronic
communication, or oral communication transmitted by radio, or to disclose
or use the information thereby obtained.


  (c) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter for a person acting
under color of law to intercept a wire, oral, or electronic communication,
where such person is a party to the communication or one of the parties to
the communication has given prior consent to such interception.


  (d) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter for a person not acting
under color of law to intercept a wire or oral communication where such
person is a party to the communication or where one of the parties to the
communication has given prior consent to such interception unless such
communication is intercepted for the purpose of committing any criminal or
tortious act in violation of the Constitution or laws of the United States
or of any State.


  (e) Notwithstanding any other provision of this title or section 705 or
706 of  the Communications Act of 1934 , it shall not be unlawful for an
officer, employee, or agent of the United States in the normal course of
his official duty to conduct electronic surveillance, as defined in
section 101 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, as
authorized by that Act.


  (f) Nothing contained in this chapter or chapter 121, or section 705 of
the Communications Act of 1934, shall be deemed to affect the acquisition
by the United States Government of foreign intelligence information from
international or foreign communications, or foreign intelligence
activities conducted in accordance with otherwise applicable Federal law
involving a foreign electronic communications system, utilizing a means
other than electronic surveillance as defined in section 101 of the
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, and procedures in this
chapter and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 shall be the
exclusive means by which electronic surveillance, as defined in section
101 of such Act, and the interception of domestic wire, oral, or
electronic communications may be conducted.


  (g) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter or chapter 121 of this
title for any person--


  (i) to intercept or access an electronic communication made through an
electronic communication system that is configured so that such electronic
communication is readily accessible to the general public;


  (ii) to intercept any radio communication which is transmitted--


  (I) by any station for the use of the general public, or that relates
to ships, aircraft, vehicles, or persons in distress;


  (II) by any governmental, law enforcement, civil defense, private land
mobile, or public safety communications system, including police and fire,
readily accessible to the general public;


  (III) by a station operating on an authorized frequency within the
bands allocated to the amateur, citizens band, or general mobile radio
services; or


  (IV) by any marine or aeronautical communications system;


  (iii) to engage in any conduct which--


  (I) is prohibited by section 633 of the Communications Act of 1934; or


  (II) is excepted from the application of section 705(a) of the
Communications Act of 1934 by section 705(b) of that Act;


  (iv) to intercept any wire or electronic communication the transmission
of which is causing harmful interference to any lawfully operating station
or consumer electronic equipment, to the extent necessary to identify the
source of such interference; or


  (v) for other users of the same frequency to intercept any radio
communication made through a system that utilizes frequencies monitored by
individuals engaged in the provision or the use of such system, if such
communication is not scrambled or encrypted.


  (h) It shall not be unlawful under this chapter--


  (i) to use a pen register or a trap and trace device (as those terms
are defined for the purposes of chapter 206 (relating to pen registers and
trap and trace devices) of this title); or


  (ii) for a provider of electronic communication service to record the
fact that a wire or electronic communication was initiated or completed in
order to protect such provider, another provider furnishing service toward
the completion of the wire or electronic communication, or a user of that
service, from fraudulent, unlawful or abusive use of such service.


  (3)(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this subsection, a person
or entity providing an electronic communication service to the public
shall not intentionally divulge the contents of any communication (other
than one to such person or entity, or an agent thereof) while in
transmission on that service to any person or entity other than an
addressee or intended recipient of such communication or an agent of such
addressee or intended recipient.


  (b) A person or entity providing electronic communication service to
the public may divulge the contents of any such communication--


  (i) as otherwise authorized in section 2511(2)(a) or 2517 of this
title;


  (ii) with the lawful consent of the originator or any addressee or
intended recipient of such communication;


  (iii) to a person employed or authorized, or whose facilities are used,
to forward such communication to its destination; or


  (iv) which were inadvertently obtained by the service provider and
which appear to pertain to the commission of a crime, if such divulgence
is made to a law enforcement agency.


  (4)(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this subsection or in
subsection (5), whoever violates subsection (1) of this section shall be
fined under this title or imprisoned not more than five years, or both.


  (b) If the offense is a first offense under paragraph (a) of this
subsection and is not for a tortious or illegal purpose or for purposes of
direct or indirect commercial advantage or private commercial gain, and
the wire or electronic communication with respect to which the offense
under paragraph (a) is a radio communication that is not scrambled or
encrypted, then--


  (i) if the communication is not the radio portion of a cellular
telephone communication, a public land mobile radio service communication
or a paging service communication, and the conduct is not that described
in subsection (5), the offender shall be fined under this title or
imprisoned not more than one year, or both; and


  (ii) if the communication is the radio portion of a cellular telephone
communication, a public land mobile radio service communication or a
paging service communication, the offender shall be fined not more than $
500.


  (c) Conduct otherwise an offense under this subsection that consists of
or relates to the interception of a satellite transmission that is not
encrypted or scrambled and that is transmitted--


  (i) to a broadcasting station for purposes of retransmission to the
general public; or


  (ii) as an audio subcarrier intended for redistribution to facilities
open to the public, but not including data transmissions or telephone
calls,


  is not an offense under this subsection unless the conduct is for the
purposes of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private financial
gain.


  (5)(a)(i) If the communication is--


  (A) a private satellite video communication that is not scrambled or
encrypted and the conduct in violation of this chapter is the private
viewing of that communication and is not for a tortious or illegal purpose
or for purposes of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private
commercial gain; or


  (B) a radio communication that is transmitted on frequencies allocated
under subpart D of part 74 of the rules of the Federal Communications
Commission that is not scrambled or encrypted and the conduct in violation
of this chapter is not for a tortious or illegal purpose or for purposes
of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private commercial gain,


  then the person who engages in such conduct shall be subject to suit by
the Federal Government in a court of competent jurisdiction.


  (ii) In an action under this subsection--


  (A) if the violation of this chapter is a first offense for the person
under paragraph (a) of subsection (4) and such person has not been found
liable in a civil action under section 2520 of this title, the Federal
Government shall be entitled to appropriate injunctive relief; and


  (B) if the violation of this chapter is a second or subsequent offense
under paragraph (a) of subsection (4) or such person has been found liable
in any prior civil action under section 2520, the person shall be subject
to a mandatory $ 500 civil fine.


  (b) The court may use any means within its authority to enforce an
injunction issued under paragraph (ii)(A), and shall impose a civil fine
of not less than $ 500 for each violation of such an injunction.


Sec. 2512.  Manufacture, distribution, possession, and advertising of
wire, oral, or electronic communication intercepting devices prohibited


  (1) Except as otherwise specifically provided in this chapter, any
person who intentionally--


  (a) sends through the mail, or sends or carries in interstate or
foreign commerce, any electronic, mechanical, or other device, knowing or
having reason to know that the design of such device renders it primarily
useful for the purpose of the surreptitious interception of wire, oral, or
electronic communications;


  (b) manufactures, assembles, possesses, or sells any electronic,
mechanical, or other device, knowing or having reason to know that the
design of such device renders it primarily useful for the purpose of the
surreptitious interception of wire, oral, or electronic communications,
and that such device or any component thereof has been or will be sent
through the mail or transported in interstate or foreign commerce; or


  (c) places in any newspaper, magazine, handbill, or other publication
any advertisement of--


  (i) any electronic, mechanical, or other device knowing or having
reason to know that the design of such device renders it primarily useful
for the purpose of the surreptitious interception of wire, oral, or
electronic communications; or


  (ii) any other electronic, mechanical, or other device, where such
advertisement promotes the use of such device for the purpose of the
surreptitious interception of wire, oral, or electronic communications,


  knowing or having reason to know that such advertisement will be sent
through the mail or transported in interstate or foreign commerce,


  shall be fined not more than $ 10,000 or imprisoned not more than five
years, or both.


  (2) It shall not be unlawful under this section for--


  (a) a provider of wire or electronic communication service or an
officer, agent, or employee of, or a person under contract with, such a
provider, in the normal course of the business of providing that wire or
electronic communication service, or


  (b) an officer, agent, or employee of, or a person under contract with,
the United States, a State, or a political subdivision thereof, in the
normal course of the activities of the United States, a State, or a
political subdivision thereof, to send through the mail, send or carry in
interstate or foreign commerce, or manufacture, assemble, possess, or sell
any electronic, mechanical, or other device knowing or having reason to
know that the design of such device renders it primarily useful for the
purpose of the surreptitious interception of wire, oral, or electronic
communications.


Sec. 2513.  Confiscation of wire, oral, or electronic communication
intercepting devices


  Any electronic, mechanical, or other device used, sent, carried,
manufactured, assembled, possessed, sold, or advertised in violation of
section 2511 or section 2512 of this chapter may be seized and
forfeited to the United States. All provisions of law relating to (1) the
seizure, summary and judicial forfeiture, and condemnation of vessels,
vehicles, merchandise, and baggage for violations of the customs laws
contained in title 19 of the United States Code, (2) the disposition of
such vessels, vehicles, merchandise, and baggage or the proceeds from the
sale thereof, (3) the remission or mitigation of such forfeiture, (4) the
compromise of claims, and (5) the award of compensation to informers in
respect of such forfeitures, shall apply to seizures and forfeitures
incurred, or alleged to have been incurred, under the provisions of this
section, insofar as applicable and not inconsistent with the provisions of
this section; except that such duties as are imposed upon the collector of
customs or any other person with respect to the seizure and forfeiture of
vessels, vehicles, merchandise, and baggage under the provisions of the
customs laws contained in title 19 of the United States Code shall be
performed with respect to seizure and forfeiture of electronic,
mechanical, or other intercepting devices under this section by such
officers, agents, or other persons as may be authorized or designated for
that purpose by the Attorney General.


[Sec. 2514. Repealed. Pub.L. 91-452, Title II, Sec. 227(a), Oct. 15, 1970,
84 Stat. 930]


Sec. 2515.  Prohibition of use as evidence of intercepted wire or oral
communications


  Whenever any wire or oral communication has been intercepted, no part
of the contents of such communication and no evidence derived therefrom
may be received in evidence in any trial, hearing, or other proceeding in
or before any court, grand jury, department, officer, agency, regulatory
body, legislative committee, or other authority of the United States, a
State, or a political subdivision thereof if the disclosure of that
information would be in violation of this chapter.


Sec. 2516.  Authorization for interception of wire, oral, or electronic
communications


  (1) The Attorney General, Deputy Attorney General, Associate Attorney
General, or any Assistant Attorney General, any acting Assistant Attorney
General, or any Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Criminal Division
specially designated by the Attorney General, may authorize an application
to a Federal judge of competent jurisdiction for, and such judge may grant
in conformity with section 2518 of this chapter an order authorizing or
approving the interception of wire or oral communications by the Federal
Bureau of Investigation, or a Federal agency having responsibility for the
investigation of the offense as to which the application is made, when
such interception may provide or has provided evidence of--


  (a) any offense punishable by death or by imprisonment for more than
one year under sections 2274 through 2277 of title 42 of the United States
Code (relating to the enforcement of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954),
section 2284 of title 42 of the United States Code (relating to sabotage
of nuclear facilities or fuel), or under the following chapters of this
title: chapter 37 (relating to espionage), chapter 105 (relating to
sabotage), chapter 115 (relating to treason), chapter 102 (relating to
riots), chapter 65 (relating to malicious mischief), chapter 111 (relating
to destruction of vessels), or chapter 81 (relating to piracy);


  (b) a violation of section 186 or section 501(c) of title 29, United
States Code (dealing with restrictions on payments and loans to labor
organizations), or any offense which involves murder, kidnapping, robbery,
or extortion, and which is punishable under this title;


  (c) any offense which is punishable under the following sections of
this title: section 201 (bribery of public officials and witnesses),
section 215 (relating to bribery of bank officials), section 224 (bribery
in sporting contests), subsection (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), or (i) of
section 844 (unlawful use of explosives), section 1032 (relating to
concealment of assets), section 1084 (transmission of wagering
information), section 751 (relating to escape), section 1014 (relating to
loans and credit applications generally; renewals and discounts), sections
1503, 1512, and 1513 (influencing or injuring an officer, juror, or
witness generally), section 1510 (obstruction of criminal investigations),
section 1511 (obstruction of State or local law enforcement), section 1751
(Presidential and Presidential staff assassination, kidnaping, and
assault), section 1951 (interference with commerce by threats or
violence), section 1952 (interstate and foreign travel or transportation
in aid of racketeering enterprises), section 1958 (relating to use of
interstate commerce facilities in the commission of murder for hire),
section 1959 (relating to violent crimes in aid of racketeering activity),
section 1954 (offer, acceptance, or solicitation to influence operations
of employee benefit plan), section 1955 (prohibition of business
enterprises of gambling), section 1956 (laundering of monetary
instruments), section 1957 (relating to engaging in monetary transactions
in property derived from specified unlawful activity), section 659 (theft
from interstate shipment), section 664 (embezzlement from pension and
welfare funds), section 1343 (fraud by wire, radio, or television),
section 1344 (relating to bank fraud), sections 2251 and 2252 (sexual
exploitation of children), sections 2312, 2313, 2314, and 2315 (interstate
transportation of stolen property), section 2321 (relating to trafficking
in certain motor vehicles or motor vehicle parts), section 1203 (relating
to hostage taking), section 1029 (relating to fraud and related activity
in connection with access devices), section 3146 (relating to penalty for
failure to appear), section 3521(b)(3) (relating to witness relocation and
assistance), section 32 (relating to destruction of aircraft or aircraft
facilities), section 1963 (violations with respect to racketeer influenced
and corrupt organizations), section 115 (relating to threatening or
retaliating against a Federal official), and section 1341 (relating to
mail fraud), or section 351 (violations with respect to congressional,
Cabinet, or Supreme Court assassinations, kidnaping, and assault), section
831 (relating to prohibited transactions involving nuclear materials),
section 33 (relating to destruction of motor vehicles or motor vehicle
facilities), section 175 (relating to biological weapons), or section 1992
(relating to wrecking trains);


  (d) any offense involving counterfeiting punishable under section 471,
472, or 473 of this title;


  (e) any offense involving fraud connected with a case under title 11
or the manufacture, importation, receiving, concealment, buying, selling,
or otherwise dealing in narcotic drugs, marihuana, or other dangerous
drugs, punishable under any law of the United States;


  (f) any offense including extortionate credit transactions under
sections 892, 893, or 894 of this title;


  (g) a violation of section 5322 of title 31, United States Code
(dealing with the reporting of currency transactions);


  (h) any felony violation of sections 2511 and 2512 (relating to
interception and disclosure of certain communications and to certain
intercepting devices) of this title;


  (i) any felony violation of chapter 71 (relating to obscenity) of this
title;


  (j) any violation of section 11(c)(2) of the Natural Gas Pipeline
Safety Act of 1968 (relating to destruction of a natural gas pipeline) or
subsection (i) or (n) of section 902 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958
(relating to aircraft piracy);


  (k) any criminal violation of section 2778 of title 22 (relating to the
Arms Export Control Act);


  (l) the location of any fugitive from justice from an offense described
in this section;


  (m) any felony violation of sections 922 and 924 of title 18, United
States Code (relating to firearms);


  (n) any violation of section 5861 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986
(relating to firearms); and


  (o) any conspiracy to commit any offense described in any subparagraph
of this paragraph.


  (2) The principal prosecuting attorney of any State, or the principal
prosecuting attorney of any political subdivision thereof, if such
attorney is authorized by a statute of that State to make application to a
State court judge of competent jurisdiction for an order authorizing or
approving the interception of wire or oral communications, may apply to
such judge for, and such judge may grant in conformity with section 2518
of this chapter and with the applicable State statute an order
authorizing, or approving the interception of wire or oral communications
by investigative or law enforcement officers having responsibility for the
investigation of the offense as to which the application is made, when
such interception may provide or has provided evidence of the commission
of the offense of murder, kidnapping, gambling, robbery, bribery,
extortion, or dealing in narcotic drugs, marihuana or other dangerous
drugs, or other crime dangerous to life, limb, or property, and punishable
by imprisonment for more than one year, designated in any applicable State
statute authorizing such interception, or any conspiracy to commit any of
the foregoing offenses.


  (3) Any attorney for the Government (as such term is defined for the
purposes of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure) may authorize an
application to a Federal judge of competent jurisdiction for, and such
judge may grant, in conformity with section 2518 of this title, an order
authorizing or approving the interception of electronic communications by
an investigative or law enforcement officer having responsibility for the
investigation of the offense as to which the application is made, when
such interception may provide or has provided evidence of any Federal
felony.


Sec. 2517.  Authorization for disclosure and use of intercepted wire,
oral, or electronic communications


  (1) Any investigative or law enforcement officer who, by any means
authorized by this chapter, has obtained knowledge of the contents of any
wire, oral, or electronic communication, or evidence derived therefrom,
may disclose such contents to another investigative or law enforcement
officer to the extent that such disclosure is appropriate to the proper
performance of the official duties of the officer making or receiving the
disclosure.


  (2) Any investigative or law enforcement officer who, by any means
authorized by this chapter, has obtained knowledge of the contents of any
wire, oral, or electronic communication or evidence derived therefrom may
use such contents to the extent such use is appropriate to the proper
performance of his official duties.


  (3) Any person who has received, by any means authorized by this
chapter, any information concerning a wire, oral, or electronic
communication, or evidence derived therefrom intercepted in accordance
with the provisions of this chapter may disclose the contents of that
communication or such derivative evidence while giving testimony under
oath or affirmation in any proceeding held under the authority of the
United States or of any State or political subdivision thereof.


  (4) No otherwise privileged wire, oral, or electronic communication
intercepted in accordance with, or in violation of, the provisions of this
chapter shall lose its privileged character.


  (5) When an investigative or law enforcement officer, while engaged in
intercepting wire, oral, or electronic communications in the manner
authorized herein, intercepts wire, oral, or electronic communications
relating to offenses other than those specified in the order of
authorization or approval, the contents thereof, and evidence derived
therefrom, may be disclosed or used as provided in subsections (1) and (2)
of this section. Such contents and any evidence derived therefrom may be
used under subsection (3) of this section when authorized or approved by a
judge of competent jurisdiction where such judge finds on subsequent
application that the contents were otherwise intercepted in accordance
with the provisions of this chapter. Such application shall be made as
soon as practicable.



Sec. 2518.  Procedure for interception of wire, oral, or electronic
communications


  (1) Each application for an order authorizing or approving the
interception of a wire, oral, or electronic communication under this
chapter shall be made in writing upon oath or affirmation to a judge of
competent jurisdiction and shall state the applicant's authority to make
such application. Each application shall include the following
information:


  (a) the identity of the investigative or law enforcement officer making
the application, and the officer authorizing the application;


  (b) a full and complete statement of the facts and circumstances relied
upon by the applicant, to justify his belief that an order should be
issued, including (i) details as to the particular offense that has been,
is being, or is about to be committed, (ii) except as provided in
subsection (11), a particular description of the nature and location of
the facilities from which or the place where the communication is to be
intercepted, (iii) a particular description of the type of communications
sought to be intercepted, (iv) the identity of the person, if known,
committing the offense and whose communications are to be intercepted;


  (c) a full and complete statement as to whether or not other
investigative procedures have been tried and failed or why they reasonably
appear to be unlikely to succeed if tried or to be too dangerous;


  (d) a statement of the period of time for which the interception is
required to be maintained. If the nature of the investigation is such that
the authorization for interception should not automatically terminate when
the described type of communication has been first obtained, a particular
description of facts establishing probable cause to believe that
additional communications of the same type will occur thereafter;


  (e) a full and complete statement of the facts concerning all previous
applications known to the individual authorizing and making the
application, made to any judge for authorization to intercept, or for
approval of interceptions of, wire, oral, or electronic communications
involving any of the same persons, facilities or places specified in the
application, and the action taken by the judge on each such application;
and


  (f) where the application is for the extension of an order, a statement
setting forth the results thus far obtained from the interception, or a
reasonable explanation of the failure to obtain such results.


  (2) The judge may require the applicant to furnish additional testimony
or documentary evidence in support of the application.


  (3) Upon such application the judge may enter an ex parte order, as
requested or as modified, authorizing or approving interception of wire,
oral, or electronic communications within the territorial jurisdiction of
the court in which the judge is sitting (and outside that jurisdiction but
within the United States in the case of a mobile interception device
authorized by a Federal court within such jurisdiction), if the judge
determines on the basis of the facts submitted by the applicant that--


  (a) there is probable cause for belief that an individual is
committing, has committed, or is about to commit a particular offense
enumerated in section 2516 of this chapter;


  (b) there is probable cause for belief that particular communications
concerning that offense will be obtained through such interception;


  (c) normal investigative procedures have been tried and have failed or
reasonably appear to be unlikely to succeed if tried or to be too
dangerous;


  (d) except as provided in subsection (11), there is probable cause for
belief that the facilities from which, or the place where, the wire, oral,
or electronic communications are to be intercepted are being used, or are
about to be used, in connection with the commission of such offense, or
are leased to, listed in the name of, or commonly used by such person.


  (4) Each order authorizing or approving the interception of any wire,
oral, or electronic communication under this chapter shall specify--


  (a) the identity of the person, if known, whose communications are to
be intercepted;


  (b) the nature and location of the communications facilities as to
which, or the place where, authority to intercept is granted;


  (c) a particular description of the type of communication sought to be
intercepted, and a statement of the particular offense to which it
relates;


  (d) the identity of the agency authorized to intercept the
communications, and of the person authorizing the application; and


  (e) the period of time during which such interception is authorized,
including a statement as to whether or not the interception shall
automatically terminate when the described communication has been first
obtained.


  An order authorizing the interception of a wire, oral, or electronic
communication under this chapter shall, upon request of the applicant,
direct that a provider of wire or electronic communication service,
landlord, custodian or other person shall furnish the applicant forthwith
all information, facilities, and technical assistance necessary to
accomplish the interception unobtrusively and with a minimum of
interference with the services that such service provider, landlord,
custodian, or person is according the person whose communications are to
be intercepted. Any provider of wire or electronic communication service,
landlord, custodian or other person furnishing such facilities or
technical assistance shall be compensated therefor by the applicant for
reasonable expenses incurred in providing such facilities or assistance.


  (5) No order entered under this section may authorize or approve the
interception of any wire, oral, or electronic communication for any period
longer than is necessary to achieve the objective of the authorization,
nor in any event longer than thirty days. Such thirty-day period begins on
the earlier of the day on which the investigative or law enforcement
officer first begins to conduct an interception under the order or ten
days after the order is entered. Extensions of an order may be granted,
but only upon application for an extension made in accordance with
subsection (1) of this section and the court making the findings required
by subsection (3) of this section. The period of extension shall be no
longer than the authorizing judge deems necessary to achieve the purposes
for which it was granted and in no event for longer than thirty days.
Every order and extension thereof shall contain a provision that the
authorization to intercept shall be executed as soon as practicable, shall
be conducted in such a way as to minimize the interception of
communications not otherwise subject to interception under this chapter,
and must terminate upon attainment of the authorized objective, or in any
event in thirty days. In the event the intercepted communication is in a
code or foreign language, and an expert in that foreign language or code
is not reasonably available during the interception period, minimization
may be accomplished as soon as practicable after such interception. An
interception under this chapter may be conducted in whole or in part by
Government personnel, or by an individual operating under a contract with
the Government, acting under the supervision of an investigative or law
enforcement officer authorized to conduct the interception.


  (6) Whenever an order authorizing interception is entered pursuant to
this chapter, the order may require reports to be made to the judge who
issued the order showing what progress has been made toward achievement of
the authorized objective and the need for continued interception. Such
reports shall be made at such intervals as the judge may require.


  (7) Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter, any
investigative or law enforcement officer, specially designated by the
Attorney General, the Deputy Attorney General, the Associate Attorney
General, or by the principal prosecuting attorney of any State or
subdivision thereof acting pursuant to a statute of that State, who
reasonably determines that--


  (a) an emergency situation exists that involves--


  (i) immediate danger of death or serious physical injury to any person,


  (ii) conspiratorial activities threatening the national security
interest, or


  (iii) conspiratorial activities characteristic of organized crime,


  that requires a wire, oral, or electronic communication to be
intercepted before an order authorizing such interception can, with due
diligence, be obtained, and


  (b) there are grounds upon which an order could be entered under this
chapter to authorize such interception,


  may intercept such wire, oral, or electronic communication if an
application for an order approving the interception is made in accordance
with this section within forty-eight hours after the interception has
occurred, or begins to occur. In the absence of an order, such
interception shall immediately terminate when the communication sought is
obtained or when the application for the order is denied, whichever is
earlier. In the event such application for approval is denied, or in any
other case where the interception is terminated without an order having
been issued, the contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication
intercepted shall be treated as having been obtained in violation of this
chapter, and an inventory shall be served as provided for in subsection
(d) of this section on the person named in the application.


  (8)(a) The contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication
intercepted by any means authorized by this chapter shall, if possible, be
recorded on tape or wire or other comparable device. The recording of the
contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication under this
subsection shall be done in such way as will protect the recording from
editing or other alterations. Immediately upon the expiration of the
period of the order, or extensions thereof, such recordings shall be made
available to the judge issuing such order and sealed under his directions.
Custody of the recordings shall be wherever the judge orders. They shall
not be destroyed except upon an order of the issuing or denying judge and
in any event shall be kept for ten years. Duplicate recordings may be made
for use or disclosure pursuant to the provisions of subsections (1) and
(2) of section 2517 of this chapter for investigations. The presence of
the seal provided for by this subsection, or a satisfactory explanation
for the absence thereof, shall be a prerequisite for the use or disclosure
of the contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication or evidence
derived therefrom under subsection (3) of section 2517.


  (b) Applications made and orders granted under this chapter shall be
sealed by the judge. Custody of the applications and orders shall be
wherever the judge directs. Such applications and orders shall be
disclosed only upon a showing of good cause before a judge of competent
jurisdiction and shall not be destroyed except on order of the issuing or
denying judge, and in any event shall be kept for ten years.


  (c) Any violation of the provisions of this subsection may be punished
as contempt of the issuing or denying judge.


  (d) Within a reasonable time but not later than ninety days after the
filing of an application for an order of approval under section 2518(7)(b)
which is denied or the termination of the period of an order or extensions
thereof, the issuing or denying judge shall cause to be served, on the
persons named in the order or the application, and such other parties to
intercepted communications as the judge may determine in his discretion
that is in the interest of justice, an inventory which shall include
notice of--


  (1) the fact of the entry of the order or the application;


  (2) the date of the entry and the period of authorized, approved or
disapproved interception, or the denial of the application; and


  (3) the fact that during the period wire, oral, or electronic
communications were or were not intercepted.


  The judge, upon the filing of a motion, may in his discretion make
available to such person or his counsel for inspection such portions of
the intercepted communications, applications and orders as the judge
determines to be in the interest of justice. On an ex parte showing of
good cause to a judge of competent jurisdiction the serving of the
inventory required by this subsection may be postponed.


  (9) The contents of any wire, oral, or electronic communication
intercepted pursuant to this chapter or evidence derived therefrom shall
not be received in evidence or otherwise disclosed in any trial, hearing,
or other proceeding in a Federal or State court unless each party, not
less than ten days before the trial, hearing, or proceeding, has been
furnished with a copy of the court order, and accompanying application,
under which the interception was authorized or approved. This ten-day
period may be waived by the judge if he finds that it was not possible to
furnish the party with the above information ten days before the trial,
hearing, or proceeding and that the party will not be prejudiced by the
delay in receiving such information.


  (10)(a) Any aggrieved person in any trial, hearing, or proceeding in or
before any court, department, officer, agency, regulatory body, or other
authority of the United States, a State, or a political subdivision
thereof, may move to suppress the contents of any wire or oral
communication intercepted pursuant to this chapter, or evidence derived
therefrom, on the grounds that--


  (i) the communication was unlawfully intercepted;


  (ii) the order of authorization or approval under which it was
intercepted is insufficient on its face; or


  (iii) the interception was not made in conformity with the order of
authorization or approval.


  Such motion shall be made before the trial, hearing, or proceeding
unless there was no opportunity to make such motion or the person was not
aware of the grounds of the motion. If the motion is granted, the contents
of the intercepted wire or oral communication, or evidence derived
therefrom, shall be treated as having been obtained in violation of this
chapter. The judge, upon the filing of such motion by the aggrieved
person, may in his discretion make available to the aggrieved person or
his counsel for inspection such portions of the intercepted communication
or evidence derived therefrom as the judge determines to be in the
interests of justice.


  (b) In addition to any other right to appeal, the United States shall
have the right to appeal from an order granting a motion to suppress made
under paragraph (a) of this subsection, or the denial of an application
for an order of approval, if the United States attorney shall certify to
the judge or other official granting such motion or denying such
application that the appeal is not taken for purposes of delay. Such
appeal shall be taken within thirty days after the date the order was
entered and shall be diligently prosecuted.


  (c) The remedies and sanctions described in this chapter with respect
to the interception of electronic communications are the only judicial
remedies and sanctions for nonconstitutional violations of this chapter
involving such communications.


  (11) The requirements of subsections (1)(b)(ii) and (3)(d) of this
section relating to the specification of the facilities from which, or the
place where, the communication is to be intercepted do not apply if--


  (a) in the case of an application with respect to the interception of
an oral communication--


  (i) the application is by a Federal investigative or law enforcement
officer and is approved by the Attorney General, the Deputy Attorney
General, the Associate Attorney General, an Assistant Attorney General, or
an acting Assistant Attorney General;


  (ii) the application contains a full and complete statement as to why
such specification is not practical and identifies the person committing
the offense and whose communications are to be intercepted; and


  (iii) the judge finds that such specification is not practical; and


  (b) in the case of an application with respect to a wire or electronic
communication--


  (i) the application is by a Federal investigative or law enforcement
officer and is approved by the Attorney General, the Deputy Attorney
General, the Associate Attorney General, an Assistant Attorney General, or
an acting Assistant Attorney General;


  (ii) the application identifies the person believed to be committing
the offense and whose communications are to be intercepted and the
applicant makes a showing of a purpose, on the part of that person, to
thwart interception by changing facilities; and


  (iii) the judge finds that such purpose has been adequately shown.


  (12) An interception of a communication under an order with respect to
which the requirements of subsections (1)(b)(ii) and (3)(d) of this
section do not apply by reason of subsection (11) shall not begin until
the facilities from which, or the place where, the communication is to be
intercepted is ascertained by the person implementing the interception
order. A provider of wire or electronic communications service that has
received an order as provided for in subsection (11)(b) may move the court
to modify or quash the order on the ground that its assistance with
respect to the interception cannot be performed in a timely or reasonable
fashion. The court, upon notice to the government, shall decide such a
motion expeditiously.


Sec. 2519.  Reports concerning intercepted wire, oral, or electronic
communications


  (1) Within thirty days after the expiration of an order (or each
extension thereof) entered under section 2518, or the denial of an order
approving an interception, the issuing or denying judge shall report to
the Administrative Office of the United States Courts--


  (a) the fact that an order or extension was applied for;


  (b) the kind of order or extension applied for (including whether or
not the order was an order with respect to which the requirements of
sections 2518(1)(b)(ii) and 2518(3)(d) of this title did not apply by
reason of section 2518(11) of this title);


  (c) the fact that the order or extension was granted as applied for,
was modified, or was denied;


  (d) the period of interceptions authorized by the order, and the number
and duration of any extensions of the order;


  (e) the offense specified in the order or application, or extension of
an order;


  (f) the identity of the applying investigative or law enforcement
officer and agency making the application and the person authorizing the
application; and


  (g) the nature of the facilities from which or the place where
communications were to be intercepted.


  (2) In January of each year the Attorney General, an Assistant Attorney
General specially designated by the Attorney General, or the principal
prosecuting attorney of a State, or the principal prosecuting attorney for
any political subdivision of a State, shall report to the Administrative
Office of the United States Courts--


  (a) the information required by paragraphs (a) through (g) of
subsection (1) of this section with respect to each application for an
order or extension made during the preceding calendar year;


  (b) a general description of the interceptions made under such order or
extension, including (i) the approximate nature and frequency of
incriminating communications intercepted, (ii) the approximate nature and
frequency of other communications intercepted, (iii) the approximate
number of persons whose communications were intercepted, and (iv) the
approximate nature, amount, and cost of the manpower and other resources
used in the interceptions;


  (c) the number of arrests resulting from interceptions made under such
order or extension, and the offenses for which arrests were made;


  (d) the number of trials resulting from such interceptions;


  (e) the number of motions to suppress made with respect to such
interceptions, and the number granted or denied;


  (f) the number of convictions resulting from such interceptions and the
offenses for which the convictions were obtained and a general assessment
of the importance of the interceptions; and


  (g) the information required by paragraphs (b) through (f) of this
subsection with respect to orders or extensions obtained in a preceding
calendar year.


  (3) In April of each year the Director of the Administrative Office of
the United States Courts shall transmit to the Congress a full and
complete report concerning the number of applications for orders
authorizing or approving the interception of wire, oral, or electronic
communications pursuant to this chapter and the number of orders and
extensions granted or denied pursuant to this chapter during the preceding
calendar year. Such report shall include a summary and analysis of the
data required to be filed with the Administrative Office by subsections
(1) and (2) of this section. The Director of the Administrative Office of
the United States Courts is authorized to issue binding regulations
dealing with the content and form of the reports required to be filed by
subsections (1) and (2) of this section.


Sec. 2520.  Recovery of civil damages authorized


  (a) In general. Except as provided in section 2511(2)(a)(ii), any
person whose wire, oral, or electronic communication is intercepted,
disclosed, or intentionally used in violation of this chapter may in a
civil action recover from the person or entity which engaged in that
violation such relief as may be appropriate.


  (b) Relief. In an action under this section, appropriate relief
includes--


  (1) such preliminary and other equitable or declaratory relief as may
be appropriate;


  (2) damages under subsection (c) and punitive damages in appropriate
cases; and


  (3) a reasonable attorney's fee and other litigation costs reasonably
incurred.


  (c) Computation of damages.


  (1) In an action under this section, if the conduct in violation of
this chapter, is the private viewing of a private satellite video
communication that is not scrambled or encrypted or if the communication
is a radio communication that is transmitted on frequencies allocated
under subpart D of part 74 of the rules of the Federal Communications
Commission that is not scrambled or encrypted and the conduct is not for a
tortious or illegal purpose or for purposes of direct or indirect
commercial advantage or private commercial gain, then the court shall
assess damages as follows:


  (A) If the person who engaged in that conduct has not previously been
enjoined under section 2511(5) and has not been found liable in a prior
civil action under this section, the court shall assess the greater of the
sum of actual damages suffered by the plaintiff, or statutory damages of
not less than $ 50 and not more than $ 500.


  (B) If, on one prior occasion, the person who engaged in that conduct
has been enjoined under section 2511(5) or has been found liable in a
civil action under this section, the court shall assess the greater of the
sum of actual damages suffered by the plaintiff, or statutory damages of
not less than $ 100 and not more than $ 1000.


  (2) In any other action under this section, the court may assess as
damages whichever is the greater of--


  (A) the sum of the actual damages suffered by the plaintiff and any
profits made by the violator as a result of the violation; or


  (B) statutory damages of whichever is the greater of $ 100 a day for
each day of violation or $ 10,000.


  (d) Defense. A good faith reliance on--


  (1) a court warrant or order, a grand jury subpoena, a legislative
authorization, or a statutory authorization;


  (2) a request of an investigative or law enforcement officer under
section 2518(7) of this title; or


  (3) a good faith determination that section 2511(3) of this title
permitted the conduct complained of; is a complete defense against any
civil or criminal action brought under this chapter or any other law.


  (e) Limitation. A civil action under this section may not be commenced
later than two years after the date upon which the claimant first has a
reasonable opportunity to discover the violation.


Sec. 2521.  Injunction against illegal interception


  Whenever it shall appear that any person is engaged or is about to
engage in any act which constitutes or will constitute a felony violation
of this chapter, the Attorney General may initiate a civil action in a
district court of the United States to enjoin such violation. The court
shall proceed as soon as practicable to the hearing and determination of
such an action, and may, at any time before final determination, enter
such a restraining order or prohibition, or take such other action, as is
warranted to prevent a continuing and substantial injury to the United
States or to any person or class of persons for whose protection the
action is brought. A proceeding under this section is governed by the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, except that, if an indictment has been
returned against the respondent, discovery is governed by the Federal
Rules of Criminal Procedure.





CHAPTER 121.  STORED WIRE AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSACTIONAL
RECORDS ACCESS


Sec. 2701.  Unlawful access to stored communications


  (a) Offense. Except as provided in subsection (c) of this section
whoever--


  (1) intentionally accesses without authorization a facility through
which an electronic communication service is provided; or


  (2) intentionally exceeds an authorization to access that facility; and
thereby obtains, alters, or prevents authorized access to a wire or
electronic communication while it is in electronic storage in such system
shall be punished as provided in subsection (b) of this section.


  (b) Punishment. The punishment for an offense under subsection (a) of
this section is--


  (1) if the offense is committed for purposes of commercial advantage,
malicious destruction or damage, or private commercial gain--


  (A) a fine of not more than $ 250,000 or imprisonment for not more than
one year, or both, in the case of a first offense under this subparagraph;
and


  (B) a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than two
years, or both, for any subsequent offense under this subparagraph; and


  (2) a fine of not more than $ 5,000 or imprisonment for not more than
six months, or both, in any other case.


  (c) Exceptions. Subsection (a) of this section does not apply with
respect to conduct authorized--


  (1) by the person or entity providing a wire or electronic
communications service;


  (2) by a user of that service with respect to a communication of or
intended for that user; or


  (3) in section 2703, 2704 or 2518 of this title.


Sec. 2702.  Disclosure of contents


  (a) Prohibitions. Except as provided in subsection (b)--


  (1) a person or entity providing an electronic communication service to
the public shall not knowingly divulge to any person or entity the
contents of a communication while in electronic storage by that service;
and


  (2) a person or entity providing remote computing service to the public
shall not knowingly divulge to any person or entity the contents of any
communication which is carried or maintained on that service--


  (A) on behalf of, and received by means of electronic transmission from
(or created by means of computer processing of communications received by
means of electronic transmission from), a subscriber or customer of such
service; and


  (B) solely for the purpose of providing storage or computer processing
services to such subscriber or customer, if the provider is not authorized
to access the contents of any such communications for purposes of
providing any services other than storage or computer processing.


  (b) Exceptions. A person or entity may divulge the contents of a
communication--


  (1) to an addressee or intended recipient of such communication or an
agent of such addressee or intended recipient;


  (2) as otherwise authorized in section 2517, 2511(2)(a), or 2703 of
this title;


  (3) with the lawful consent of the originator or an addressee or
intended recipient of such communication, or the subscriber in the case of
remote computing service;


  (4) to a person employed or authorized or whose facilities are used to
forward such communication to its destination;


  (5) as may be necessarily incident to the rendition of the service or
to the protection of the rights or property of the provider of that
service; or


  (6) to a law enforcement agency, if such contents--


  (A) were inadvertently obtained by the service provider; and


  (B) appear to pertain to the commission of a crime.


Sec. 2703. Requirements for governmental access


    (a) Contents of electronic communications in electronic storage.--A
governmental entity may  require the disclosure by a provider of
electronic communication service of the  contents of an electronic
communication, that is in electronic  storage in an electronic
communications  system for one hundred and eighty days  or less, only
pursuant to a warrant  issued under the Federal Rules of  Criminal
Procedure or equivalent State warrant.  A governmental entity may  require
the disclosure by a provider of  electronic communications services of
the contents of an electronic  communication that has been in  electronic
storage in an electronic  communications system for more than one  hundred
and eighty days by the means  available under subsection (b) of this
section.


    (b) Contents of electronic communications in a remote computing
service.--(1) A governmental entity may  require a provider of remote
computing  service to disclose the contents of any  electronic
communication to which this  paragraph is made applicable by  paragraph
(2) of this subsection--


    (A) without required notice to  the subscriber or customer, if the
governmental entity obtains a warrant  issued under the Federal Rules of
Criminal Procedure or equivalent State warrant; or


    (B) with prior notice from the governmental entity to the subscriber
or customer if the governmental entity--


    (i) uses an administrative subpoena authorized by a Federal or State
statute or a Federal or State grand jury subpoena; or


    (ii) obtains a court order for such disclosure under subsection (d)
of this section; except that delayed notice may be given pursuant to
section 2705 of this title.


    (2) Paragraph (1) is applicable with respect to any electronic
communications that is held or maintained on that service--


    (A) on behalf of, and received by means of electronic transmission
from (or created by means of computer processing of communications
received by means of electronic transmission from), a subscriber or
customer of such remote computing service; and


    (B) solely for the purpose of providing storage or computer
processing services to such subscriber or customer, if the provider is not
authorized to access the contents of any such communications for purposes
of providing any services other than storage or computer processing.


    (c) Records concerning electronic communications service or remote
computing service.--(1)(A) Except as provided in subparagraph (B), a
provider of electronic communication service or remote computing service
may disclose a record or other information pertaining to a subscriber to
or customer of such service (not including the contents of communications
covered by subsection (a) or (b) of this section) to any person other than
a governmental entity.


    (B) a provider of electronic communication service or remote
computing service shall disclose a record or other information pertaining
to a subscriber to or customer of such service (not including the contents
of communications covered by subsection (a) or (b) of this section) to a
governmental entity only when the governmental entity--


    (i) uses an administrative subpoena authorized by a Federal or State
statute, or a Federal or State grand jury subpoena;


    (ii)obtains a warrant issued under the Federal Rules of Criminal
Procedure or equivalent State warrant;


    (iii)obtains a court order for such disclosure under subsection (d)
of this section; or


    (iv) has the consent of the subscriber or customer to such
disclosure. (2)A governmental entity receiving records or information
under this subsection is not required to provide notice to a subscriber or
customer.


    (d) Requirements for court order.--A court order for disclosure under
subsection (b) or (c) of this section shall issue only if the governmental
entity shows that there is reason to believe the contents of a wire or
electronic communication, or the records or other information sought, are
relevant to a legitimate law enforcement inquiry.  In the case of a State
governmental authority, such a court order shall not issue if prohibited
by the law of such State.  A court issuing an order pursuant to this
section, on a motion made promptly by the service provider, may quash or
modify such order, if the information or records requested are unusually
voluminous in nature or compliance with such order otherwise would cause
an undue burden on such provider.


    (e) No cause of action against a provider disclosing information
under this chapter.--No cause of action shall lie in any court against any
provider of wire or electronic communication service, its officers,
employees, agents, or other specified persons for providing information,
facilities, or assistance in accordance with the terms of a court order,
warrant, subpoena, or certification under this chapter.


Sec. 2704.  Backup preservation


  (a) Backup preservation.


  (1) A governmental entity acting under section 2703(b)(2) may include
in its subpoena or court order a requirement that the service provider to
whom the request is directed create a backup copy of the contents of the
electronic communications sought in order to preserve those
communications. Without notifying the subscriber or customer of such
subpoena or court order, such service provider shall create such backup
copy as soon as practicable consistent with its regular business practices
and shall confirm to the governmental entity that such backup copy has
been made. Such backup copy shall be created within two business days
after receipt by the service provider of the subpoena or court order.


  (2) Notice to the subscriber or customer shall be made by the
governmental entity within three days after receipt of such confirmation,
unless such notice is delayed pursuant to section 2705(a).


  (3) The service provider shall not destroy such backup copy until the
later of--


  (A) the delivery of the information; or


  (B) the resolution of any proceedings (including appeals of any
proceeding) concerning the government's subpoena or court order.


  (4) The service provider shall release such backup copy to the
requesting governmental entity no sooner than fourteen days after the
governmental entity's notice to the subscriber or customer if such service
provider--


  (A) has not received notice from the subscriber or customer that the
subscriber or customer has challenged the governmental entity's request;
and


  (B) has not initiated proceedings to challenge the request of the
governmental entity.


  (5) A governmental entity may seek to require the creation of a backup
copy under subsection (a)(1) of this section if in its sole discretion
such entity determines that there is reason to believe that notification
under section 2703 of this title of the existence of the subpoena or court
order may result in destruction of or tampering with evidence. This
determination is not subject to challenge by the subscriber or customer or
service provider.


  (b) Customer challenges.


  (1) Within fourteen days after notice by the governmental entity to the
subscriber or customer under subsection (a)(2) of this section, such
subscriber or customer may file a motion to quash such subpoena or vacate
such court order, with copies served upon the governmental entity and with
written notice of such challenge to the service provider. A motion to
vacate a court order shall be filed in the court which issued such order.
A motion to quash a subpoena shall be filed in the appropriate United
States district court or State court. Such motion or application shall
contain an affidavit or sworn statement--


  (A) stating that the applicant is a customer or subscriber to the
service from which the contents of electronic communications maintained
for him have been sought; and


  (B) stating the applicant's reasons for believing that the records
sought are not relevant to a legitimate law enforcement inquiry or that
there has not been substantial compliance with the provisions of this
chapter in some other respect.


  (2) Service shall be made under this section upon a governmental entity
by delivering or mailing by registered or certified mail a copy of the
papers to the person, office, or department specified in the notice which
the customer has received pursuant to this chapter. For the purposes of
this section, the term "delivery" has the meaning given that term in the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.


  (3) If the court finds that the customer has complied with paragraphs
(1) and (2) of this subsection, the court shall order the governmental
entity to file a sworn response, which may be filed in camera if the
governmental entity includes in its response the reasons which make in
camera review appropriate. If the court is unable to determine the motion
or application on the basis of the parties' initial allegations and
response, the court may conduct such additional proceedings as it deems
appropriate. All such proceedings shall be completed and the motion or
application decided as soon as practicable after the filing of the
governmental entity's response.


  (4) If the court finds that the applicant is not the subscriber or
customer for whom the communications sought by the governmental entity are
maintained, or that there is a reason to believe that the law enforcement
inquiry is legitimate and that the communications sought are relevant to
that inquiry, it shall deny the motion or application and order such
process enforced. If the court finds that the applicant is the subscriber
or customer for whom the communications sought by the governmental entity
are maintained, and that there is not a reason to believe that the
communications sought are relevant to a legitimate law enforcement
inquiry, or that there has not been substantial compliance with the
provisions of this chapter, it shall order the process quashed.


  (5) A court order denying a motion or application under this section
shall not be deemed a final order and no interlocutory appeal may be taken
therefrom by the customer.


Sec. 2705.  Delayed notice


  (a) Delay of notification.


  (1) A governmental entity acting under section 2703(b) of this title
may--


  (A) where a court order is sought, include in the application a
request, which the court shall grant, for an order delaying the
notification required under section 2703(b) of this title for a period not
to exceed ninety days, if the court determines that there is reason to
believe that notification of the existence of the court order may have an
adverse result described in paragraph (2) of this subsection; or


  (B) where an administrative subpoena authorized by a Federal or State
statute or a Federal or State grand jury subpoena is obtained, delay the
notification required under section 2703(b) of this title for a period not
to exceed ninety days upon the execution of a written certification of a
supervisory official that there is reason to believe that notification of
the existence of the subpoena may have an adverse result described in
paragraph (2) of this subsection.


  (2) An adverse result for the purposes of paragraph (1) of this
subsection is--


  (A) endangering the life or physical safety of an individual;


  (B) flight from prosecution;


  (C) destruction of or tampering with evidence;


  (D) intimidation of potential witnesses; or


  (E) otherwise seriously jeopardizing an investigation or unduly
delaying a trial.


  (3) The governmental entity shall maintain a true copy of certification
under paragraph (1)(B).


  (4) Extensions of the delay of notification provided in section 2703 of
up to ninety days each may be granted by the court upon application, or by
certification by a governmental entity, but only in accordance with
subsection (b) of this section.


  (5) Upon expiration of the period of delay of notification under
paragraph (1) or (4) of this subsection, the governmental entity shall
serve upon, or deliver by registered or first-class mail to, the customer
or subscriber a copy of the process or request together with notice that--


  (A) states with reasonable specificity the nature of the law
enforcement inquiry; and


  (B) informs such customer or subscriber--


  (i) that information maintained for such customer or subscriber by the
service provider named in such process or request was supplied to or
requested by that governmental authority and the date on which the
supplying or request took place;


  (ii) that notification of such customer or subscriber was delayed;


  (iii) what governmental entity or court made the certification or
determination pursuant to which that delay was made; and


  (iv) which provision of this chapter allowed such delay.


  (6) As used in this subsection, the term "supervisory official" means
the investigative agent in charge or assistant investigative agent in
charge or an equivalent of an investigating agency's headquarters or
regional office, or the chief prosecuting attorney or the first assistant
prosecuting attorney or an equivalent of a prosecuting attorney's
headquarters or regional office.


  (b) Preclusion of notice to subject of governmental access. A
governmental entity acting under section 2703, when it is not required to
notify the subscriber or customer under section 2703(b)(1), or to the
extent that it may delay such notice pursuant to subsection (a) of this
section, may apply to a court for an order commanding a provider of
electronic communications service or remote computing service to whom a
warrant, subpoena, or court order is directed, for such period as the
court deems appropriate, not to notify any other person of the existence
of the warrant, subpoena, or court order. The court shall enter such an
order if it determines that there is reason to believe that notification
of the existence of the warrant, subpoena, or court order will result in--


  (1) endangering the life or physical safety of an individual;


  (2) flight from prosecution;


  (3) destruction of or tampering with evidence;


  (4) intimidation of potential witnesses; or


  (5) otherwise seriously jeopardizing an investigation or unduly
delaying a trial.



Sec. 2706.  Cost reimbursement


  (a) Payment. Except as otherwise provided in subsection (c), a
governmental entity obtaining the contents of communications, records, or
other information under section 2702, 2703, or 2704 of this title shall
pay to the person or entity assembling or providing such information a fee
for reimbursement for such costs as are reasonably necessary and which
have been directly incurred in searching for, assembling, reproducing, or
otherwise providing such information. Such reimbursable costs shall
include any costs due to necessary disruption of normal operations of any
electronic communication service or remote computing service in which such
information may be stored.


  (b) Amount. The amount of the fee provided by subsection (a) shall be
as mutually agreed by the governmental entity and the person or entity
providing the information, or, in the absence of agreement, shall be as
determined by the court which issued the order for production of such
information (or the court before which a criminal prosecution relating to
such information would be brought, if no court order was issued for
production of the information).


  (c) Exception. The requirement of subsection (a) of this section does
not apply with respect to records or other information maintained by a
communications common carrier that relate to telephone toll records and
telephone listings obtained under section 2703 of this title. The court
may, however, order a payment as described in subsection (a) if the court
determines the information required is unusually voluminous in nature or
otherwise caused an undue burden on the provider.


Sec. 2707.  Civil action


  (a) Cause of action. Except as provided in section 2703(e), any
provider of electronic communication service, subscriber, or customer
aggrieved by any violation of this chapter in which the conduct
constituting the violation is engaged in with a knowing or intentional
state of mind may, in a civil action, recover from the person or entity
which engaged in that violation such relief as may be appropriate.


  (b) Relief. In a civil action under this section, appropriate relief
includes--


  (1) such preliminary and other equitable or declaratory relief as may
be appropriate;


  (2) damages under subsection (c); and


  (3) a reasonable attorney's fee and other litigation costs reasonably
incurred.


  (c) Damages. The court may assess as damages in a civil action under
this section the sum of the actual damages suffered by the plaintiff and
any profits made by the violator as a result of the violation, but in no
case shall a person entitled to recover receive less than the sum of $
1,000.


  (d) Defense. A good faith reliance on--


  (1) a court warrant or order, a grand jury subpoena, a legislative
authorization, or a statutory authorization;


  (2) a request of an investigative or law enforcement officer under
section 2518(7) of this title; or


  (3) a good faith determination that section 2511(3) of this title
permitted the conduct complained of; is a complete defense to any civil or
criminal action brought under this chapter or any other law.


  (e) Limitation. A civil action under this section may not be commenced
later than two years after the date upon which the claimant first
discovered or had a reasonable opportunity to discover the violation.


Sec. 2708.  Exclusivity of remedies


  The remedies and sanctions described in this chapter  are the only
judicial remedies and sanctions for nonconstitutional violations of this
chapter.


Sec. 2709.  Counterintelligence access to telephone toll and
transactional records


  (a) Duty to provide. A wire or electronic communication service
provider shall comply with a request for subscriber information and toll
billing records information, or electronic communication transactional
records in its custody or possession made by the Director of the Federal
Bureau of Investigation under subsection (b) of this section.


  (b) Required certification. The Director of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (or an individual within the Federal Bureau of Investigation
designated for this purpose by the Director) may request any such
information and records if the Director (or the Director's designee)
certifies in writing to the wire or electronic communication service
provider to which the request is made that--


  (1) the information sought is relevant to an authorized foreign
counterintelligence investigation; and


  (2) there are specific and articulable facts giving reason to believe
that the person or entity to whom the information sought pertains is a
foreign power or an agent of a foreign power as defined in section 101 of
the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (50 U.S.C. 1801).


  (c) Prohibition of certain disclosure. No wire or electronic
communication service provider, or officer, employee, or agent thereof,
shall disclose to any person that the Federal Bureau of Investigation has
sought or obtained access to information or records under this section.


  (d) Dissemination by bureau. The Federal Bureau of Investigation may
disseminate information and records obtained under this section only as
provided in guidelines approved by the Attorney General for foreign
intelligence collection and foreign counterintelligence investigations
conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and, with respect to
dissemination to an agency of the United States, only if such information
is clearly relevant to the authorized responsibilities of such agency.


  (e) Requirement that certain Congressional bodies be informed. On a
semiannual basis the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation shall
fully inform the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence of the House
of Representatives and the Select Committee on Intelligence of the Senate
concerning all requests made under subsection (b) of this section.


Sec. 2710.  Wrongful disclosure of video tape rental or sale records


  (a) Definitions. For purposes of this section--


  (1) the term "consumer" means any renter, purchaser, or subscriber of
goods or services from a video tape service provider;


  (2) the term "ordinary course of business" means only debt collection
activities, order fulfillment, request processing, and the transfer of
ownership;


  (3) the term "personally identifiable information" includes information
which identifies a person as having requested or obtained specific video
materials or services from a video tape service provider; and


  (4) the term "video tape service provider" means any person, engaged in
the business, in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, of rental,
sale, or delivery of prerecorded video cassette tapes or similar audio
visual materials, or any person or other entity to whom a disclosure is
made under subparagraph (D) or (E) of subsection (b)(2), but only with
respect to the information contained in the disclosure.


  (b) Video tape rental and sale records.


  (1) A video tape service provider who knowingly discloses, to any
person, personally identifiable information concerning any consumer of
such provider shall be liable to the aggrieved person for the relief
provided in subsection (d).


  (2) A video tape service provider may disclose personally identifiable
information concerning any consumer--


  (A) to the consumer;


  (B) to any person with the informed, written consent of the consumer
given at the time the disclosure is sought;


  (C) to a law enforcement agency pursuant to a warrant issued under the
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, an equivalent State warrant, a grand
jury subpoena, or a court order;


  (D) to any person if the disclosure is solely of the names and
addresses of consumers and if--


  (i) the video tape service provider has provided the consumer with the
opportunity, in a clear and conspicuous manner, to prohibit such
disclosure; and


  (ii) the disclosure does not identify the title, description, or
subject matter of any video tapes or other audio visual material; however,
the subject matter of such materials may be disclosed if the disclosure is
for the exclusive use of marketing goods and services directly to the
consumer;


  (E) to any person if the disclosure is incident to the ordinary course
of business of the video tape service provider; or


  (F) pursuant to a court order, in a civil proceeding upon a showing of
compelling need for the information that cannot be accommodated by any
other means, if--


  (i) the consumer is given reasonable notice, by the person seeking the
disclosure, of the court proceeding relevant to the issuance of the court
order; and


  (ii) the consumer is afforded the opportunity to appear and contest the
claim of the person seeking the disclosure.


  If an order is granted pursuant to subparagraph (C) or (F), the court
shall impose appropriate safeguards against unauthorized disclosure.


  (3) Court orders authorizing disclosure under subparagraph (C) shall
issue only with prior notice to the consumer and only if the law
enforcement agency shows that there is probable cause to believe that the
records or other information sought are relevant to a legitimate law
enforcement inquiry. In the case of a State government authority, such a
court order shall not issue if prohibited by the law of such State. A
court issuing an order pursuant to this section, on a motion made promptly
by the video tape service provider, may quash or modify such order if the
information or records requested are unreasonably voluminous in nature or
if compliance with such order otherwise would cause an unreasonable burden
on such provider.


  (c) Civil action.


  (1) Any person aggrieved by any act of a person in violation of this
section may bring a civil action in a United States district court.


  (2) The court may award--


  (A) actual damages but not less than liquidated damages in an amount of
$ 2,500;


  (B) punitive damages;


  (C) reasonable attorneys' fees and other litigation costs reasonably
incurred; and


  (D) such other preliminary and equitable relief as the court determines
to be appropriate.


  (3) No action may be brought under this subsection unless such action
is begun within 2 years from the date of the act complained of or the date
of discovery.


  (4) No liability shall result from lawful disclosure permitted by this
section.


  (d) Personally identifiable information. Personally identifiable
information obtained in any manner other than as provided in this section
shall not be received in evidence in any trial, hearing, arbitration, or
other proceeding in or before any court, grand jury, department, officer,
agency, regulatory body, legislative committee, or other authority of the
United States, a State, or a political subdivision of a State.


  (e) Destruction of old records. A person subject to this section shall
destroy personally identifiable information as soon as practicable, but no
later than one year from the date the information is no longer necessary
for the purpose for which it was collected and there are no pending
requests or orders for access to such information under subsection (b)(2)
or (c)(2) or pursuant to a court order.


  (f) Preemption. The provisions of this section preempt only the
provisions of State or local law that require disclosure prohibited by
this section.


Sec. 2711.  Definitions for chapter


  As used in this chapter--


  (1) the terms defined in section 2510 of this title have, respectively,
the definitions given such terms in that section; and


  (2) the term "remote computing service" means the provision to the
public of computer storage or processing services by means of an
electronic communications system.





TITLE 18.  CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE


PART II.  CRIMINAL PROCEDURE


CHAPTER 206.  PEN REGISTERS AND TRAP AND TRACE DEVICES


Sec. 3121.  General prohibition on pen register and trap and trace device
use; exception


  (a) In general. Except as provided in this section, no person may
install or use a pen register or a trap and trace device without first
obtaining a court order under section 3123 of this title or under the
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (50 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.).


  (b) Exception. The prohibition of subsection (a) does not apply with
respect to the use of a pen register or a trap and trace device by a
provider of electronic or wire communication service--


  (1) relating to the operation, maintenance, and testing of a wire or
electronic communication service or to the protection of the rights or
property of such provider, or to the protection of users of that service
from abuse of service or unlawful use of service; or


  (2) to record the fact that a wire or electronic communication was
initiated or completed in order to protect such provider, another provider
furnishing service toward the completion of the wire communication, or a
user of that service, from fraudulent, unlawful or abusive use of service;
or


  (3) where the consent of the user of that service has been obtained.


  (c) Penalty. Whoever knowingly violates subsection (a) shall be fined
under this title or imprisoned not more than one year, or both.


Sec. 3122.  Application for an order for a pen register or a trap and
trace device


  (a) Application.


  (1) An attorney for the Government may make application for an order or
an extension of an order under section 3123 of this title authorizing or
approving the installation and use of a pen register or a trap and trace
device under this chapter, in writing under oath or equivalent
affirmation, to a court of competent jurisdiction.


  (2) Unless prohibited by State law, a State investigative or law
enforcement officer may make application for an order or an extension of
an order under section 3123 of this title authorizing or approving the
installation and use of a pen register or a trap and trace device under
this chapter, in writing under oath or equivalent affirmation, to a court
of competent jurisdiction of such State.


  (b) Contents of application. An application under subsection (a) of
this section shall include--


  (1) the identity of the attorney for the Government or the State law
enforcement or investigative officer making the application and the
identity of the law enforcement agency conducting the investigation; and


  (2) a certification by the applicant that the information likely to be
obtained is relevant to an ongoing criminal investigation being conducted
by that agency.


Sec. 3123.  Issuance of an order for a pen register or a trap and trace
device


  (a) In general. Upon an application made under section 3122 of this
title, the court shall enter an ex parte order authorizing the
installation and use of a pen register or a trap and trace device within
the jurisdiction of the court if the court finds that the attorney for the
Government or the State law enforcement or investigative officer has
certified to the court that the information likely to be obtained by such
installation and use is relevant to an ongoing criminal investigation.


  (b) Contents of order. An order issued under this section--


  (1) shall specify--


  (A) the identity, if known, of the person to whom is leased or in whose
name is listed the telephone line to which the pen register or trap and
trace device is to be attached;


  (B) the identity, if known, of the person who is the subject of the
criminal investigation;


  (C) the number and, if known, physical location of the telephone line
to which the pen register or trap and trace device is to be attached and,
in the case of a trap and trace device, the geographic limits of the trap
and trace order; and


  (D) a statement of the offense to which the information likely to be
obtained by the pen register or trap and trace device relates; and


  (2) shall direct, upon the request of the applicant, the furnishing of
information, facilities, and technical assistance necessary to accomplish
the installation of the pen register or trap and trace device under
section 3124 of this title.


  (c) Time period and extensions.


  (1) An order issued under this section shall authorize the installation
and use of a pen register or a trap and trace device for a period not to
exceed sixty days.


  (2) Extensions of such an order may be granted, but only upon an
application for an order under section 3122 of this title and upon the
judicial finding required by subsection (a) of this section. The period of
extension shall be for a period not to exceed sixty days.


  (d) Nondisclosure of existence of pen register or a trap and trace
device. An order authorizing or approving the installation and use of a
pen register or a trap and trace device shall direct that--


  (1) the order be sealed until otherwise ordered by the court; and


  (2) the person owning or leasing the line to which the pen register or
a trap and trace device is attached, or who has been ordered by the court
to provide assistance to the applicant, not disclose the existence of the
pen register or trap and trace device or the existence of the
investigation to the listed subscriber, or to any other person, unless or
until otherwise ordered by the court.


Sec. 3124.  Assistance in installation and use of a pen register or a
trap and trace device


  (a) Pen registers. Upon the request of an attorney for the government
or an officer of a law enforcement agency authorized to install and use a
pen register under this chapter, a provider of wire or electronic
communication service, landlord, custodian, or other person shall furnish
such investigative or law enforcement officer forthwith all information,
facilities, and technical assistance necessary to accomplish the
installation of the pen register unobtrusively and with a minimum of
interference with the services that the person so ordered by the court
accords the party with respect to whom the installation and use is to take
place, if such assistance is directed by a court order as provided in
section 3123(b)(2) of this title.


  (b) Trap and trace device. Upon the request of an attorney for the
Government or an officer of a law enforcement agency authorized to receive
the results of a trap and trace device under this chapter, a provider of a
wire or electronic communication service, landlord, custodian, or other
person shall install such device forthwith on the appropriate line and
shall furnish such investigative or law enforcement officer all additional
information, facilities and technical assistance including installation
and operation of the device unobtrusively and with a minimum of
interference with the services that the person so ordered by the court
accords the party with respect to whom the installation and use is to take
place, if such installation and assistance is directed by a court order as
provided in section 3123(b)(2) of this title. Unless otherwise ordered by
the court, the results of the trap and trace device shall be furnished,
pursuant to section 3123(b) or section 3125 of this title, to the officer
of a law enforcement agency, designated in the court order, at reasonable
intervals during regular business hours for the duration of the order.


  (c) Compensation. A provider of a wire or electronic communication
service, landlord, custodian, or other person who furnishes facilities or
technical assistance pursuant to this section shall be reasonably
compensated for such reasonable expenses incurred in providing such
facilities and assistance.


  (d) No cause of action against a provider disclosing information under
this chapter. No cause of action shall lie in any court against any
provider of a wire or electronic communication service, its officers,
employees, agents, or other specified persons for providing information,
facilities, or assistance in accordance with the terms of a court order
under this chapter or request pursuant to section 3125 of this title.


  (e) Defense. A good faith reliance on a court order under this chapter,
a request pursuant to section 3125 of this title, a legislative
authorization, or a statutory authorization is a complete defense against
any civil or criminal action brought under this chapter or any other law.


Sec. 3125.  Emergency pen register and trap and trace device installation


  (a) Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter, any
investigative or law enforcement officer, specially designated by the
Attorney General, the Deputy Attorney General, the Associate Attorney
General, any Assistant Attorney General, any acting Assistant Attorney
General, or any Deputy Assistant Attorney General, or by the principal
prosecuting attorney of any State or subdivision thereof acting pursuant
to a statute of that State, who reasonably determines that--


  (1) an emergency situation exists that involves--


  (A) immediate danger of death or serious bodily injury to any person;
or


  (B) conspiratorial activities characteristic of organized crime,


  that requires the installation and use of a pen register or a trap and
trace device before an order authorizing such installation and use can,
with due diligence, be obtained, and


  (2) there are grounds upon which an order could be entered under this
chapter to authorize such installation and use "may have installed and use
a pen register or trap and trace device if, within forty-eight hours after
the installation has occurred, or begins to occur, an order approving the
installation or use is issued in accordance with section 3123 of this
title."


  (b) In the absence of an authorizing order, such use shall immediately
terminate when the information sought is obtained, when the application
for the order is denied or when forty-eight hours have lapsed since the
installation of the pen register or trap and trace device, whichever is
earlier.


  (c) The knowing installation or use by any investigative or law
enforcement officer of a pen register or trap and trace device pursuant to
subsection (a) without application for the authorizing order within
forty-eight hours of the installation shall constitute a violation of this
chapter.


  (d) A provider for a wire or electronic service, landlord, custodian,
or other person who furnished facilities or technical assistance pursuant
to this section shall be reasonably compensated for such reasonable
expenses incurred in providing such facilities and assistance.


Sec. 3126.  Reports concerning pen registers and trap and trace devices


  The Attorney General shall annually report to Congress on the number of
pen register orders and orders for trap and trace devices applied for by
law enforcement agencies of the Department of Justice.


Sec. 3127.  Definitions for chapter


  As used in this chapter--


  (1) the terms "wire communication", "electronic communication", and
"electronic communication service" have the meanings set forth for such
terms in section 2510 of this title;


  (2) the term "court of competent jurisdiction" means--


  (A) a district court of the United States (including a magistrate of
such a court) or a United States Court of Appeals; or


  (B) a court of general criminal jurisdiction of a State authorized by
the law of that State to enter orders authorizing the use of a pen
register or a trap and trace device;


  (3) the term "pen register" means a device which records or decodes
electronic or other impulses which identify the numbers dialed or
otherwise transmitted on the telephone line to which such device is
attached, but such term does not include any device used by a provider or
customer of a wire or electronic communication service for billing, or
recording as an incident to billing, for communications services provided
by such provider or any device used by a provider or customer of a wire
communication service for cost accounting or other like purposes in the
ordinary course of its business;


  (4) the term "trap and trace device" means a device which captures the
incoming electronic or other impulses which identify the originating
number of an instrument or device from which a wire or electronic
communication was transmitted;


  (5) the term "attorney for the Government" has the meaning given such
term for the purposes of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure; and


  (6) the term "State" means a State, the District of Columbia, Puerto
Rico, and any other possession or territory of the United States.








Subject: TAP-CJ   SEC'S EDGAR ON NET, WHAT HAPPENED AND WHY
Date: 30 Nov 1993 10:36:34 -0500

from TAP-INFO Internet Distribution List

Taxpayer Assets Project
Crown Jewels Campaign
October 22, 1993


-    NSF Announces Grant to Put EDGAR Online

-    Decision is important victory for two year grass roots
    campaign to broaden public access to EDGAR

-    Department of Justice meets with data users on monday to
    discuss future of JURIS program

    FMI James Love (215/658-0880; [email protected])
        Mike Ward (202/387-8030; [email protected])

    Today the New York Times and Congressman Edward Markey (D-
MA) announced that the National Science Foundation would fund a
pilot project to place the Securities and Exchange Commission's
(SEC) Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis and Retrieval (EDGAR)
system online for users of the Internet.  The service will be
provided by New York University's Stern School of Business and
the Internet Multicasting Service (IMS), which is run by Carl
Malamud.

    The SEC's EDGAR database is the world's most important and
valuable source of information on corporate activities, and
includes the full text of a large number of company disclosure
reports on company fiances and operations.  Access to the full
text of these filings will now be free for data users with access
to the Internet, including limited email access through such
services as MCIMAIL and American Online.

    THE 1989 SEC CONTRACT WITH MEAD DATA CENTRAL

    In 1989 the SEC entered into a contract with Mead Data
Central to manage the EDGAR database and to disseminate the
information to the public.  Mead, however, has a major conflict
of interest, since it sells the EDGAR SEC filings on its high
priced LEXIS/NEXIS services, for an estimated cost of $240 to
$360 per hour (at normal searching patterns).  Originally, Mead
was going to be allowed to provide a only very limited wholesale
access to the records, at costs ranging from $30,000 to $175,000
per year, for bulk dissemination of the current day's fillings.
Under the terms of the original agreement, the Government only
received a microfiche copy of the filings, while Mead kept the
electronic records in Ohio on computers owned by Mead (but paid
for under the SEC's $14 million contract with Mead).  The
Information Industry Association (IIA) heralded the EDGAR
contract as a model for all federal agencies.

    LIBRARY GROUPS SOUGHT ONLINE ACCESS TO EDGAR FILING IN 1989

    In 1989, several library organizations expressed interest in
receiving online access to the EDGAR system through the 1,400
member federal Depository Library Program (DLP).  This effort was
defeated when the SEC contractor claimed it would costs as much
as $18 million per year to provide online searching of EDGAR from
the 1,400 libraries.

    TAP BEGINS CAMPAIGN FOR PUBLIC ACCESS TO EDGAR IN 1991

    In April 1991 TAP provided testimony to the Joint Committee
on Printing (JCP), criticizing the Mead/SEC contract, and asked
for broader public access to the EDGAR filings.  Discussions with
the SEC and Congressional staff regarding access issues were
expanded.  In late 1991 and early 1992 TAP began posting messages
on the Internet about the EDGAR contract.  A letter asking for
broader access to EDGAR was circulated on the Net.  The
presidents of the American Economic Association, the American
Library Association and more than 200 others (economists,
journalists, businesses, librarians, public interest groups and
other data users) joined in asking for broader access to EDGAR,
in a June 17, 1992 letter to the SEC, Representative Edward
Markey and Senator Herbert Kohl.  A large number of individuals,
businesses and other organizations also wrote their own letters
to Members of Congress.

    Congressman Markey and Dingell responded to the June 17,
1992 letter and other inquires by asking GAO to conduct several
reviews of the EDGAR contract.  GAO generally defended the Mead
contract, often with misleading or incorrect assumptions about
the limited nature of public access under the contract.

    TAP wrote several articles in computer magazines,
newspapers, and academic journals about the EDGAR contract, and
continued to meet with SEC and Congressional staff.  In the fall
of 1992 the American Library Association and the Taxpayer Assets
Project began a new dialog with John Lane, the SEC's new Chief
Information Officer, about public access to EDGAR.

    On January 29, 1993 a meeting was held with Markey's staff
which was attended by 27 persons representing a wide range of
news media, academic, citizen group, and library researchers who
want access to the EDGAR data, including representatives form
such organizations as the Washington Post, the LA Times, USA
Today, Barons, Associated Press, the Taxpayer Assets Project, the
National Library of Money and Politics, the Information Trust,
and the American Library Association, among others.

    In early 1993 TAP decided to emphasize the importance of the
EDGAR database to private information providers, who would
benefit if low cost access to EDGAR led to expanded use of their
services.  A letter drafted by TAP was signed by 10 private
information companies, including America Online, and sent to
Markey on May 15, 1993.  This letter asked that EDGAR data be
made available through the Internet, including low-end internet
email connections.  The May 15 letter appeared to mobile Markey
into pressing the SEC for online access to the EDGAR database.


    SEC CONTINUED TO OPPOSE PUBLIC ACCESS, BUT MADE SEVERAL
    CONCESSIONS


    SEC staff continued to oppose virtually every effort to
expand public access to EDGAR, but the public pressure from
mobilized data users was extremely effective.  The following is a
list of expanded public access proposals made by TAP that were
first opposed by the SEC, but finally adopted:

-    Require Mead to sell all historical filings received under
    the EDGAR system

-    Require Mead to sell cumulative sets of data, rather that
    only "current day" filings

-    Require Mead to install floppy diskettes in reading room
    terminals

-    Require the SEC to disseminate EDGAR filings on CD-ROM, now
    expected by early next year

-    Require the SEC to provide public online access to the EDGAR
    database to individuals


    NSF SUPPORT AND THE PRO-ACTIVE UNSOLICITED PROPOSAL BY CARL
    MALAMUD'S INTERNET MULTICASTING SERVICE (IMS) WAS KEY


    While the SEC refused to proceed on an online service
earlier this year, the public access movement was kept alive by
the efforts of Carl Malamud and the NSF.  Mead threatened the SEC
with lawsuits and other actions if it provided retail type online
access to EDGAR.  The NSF was willing to buy the data from Mead
at the commercial rates, and fund NYU and IMS to disseminate the
records on the Internet.  While a number of persons were aware of
the NSF/NYU/IMS proposal, things were kept very quiet, out of a
fear that Mead would find a way to kill the project before it was
born.  Mead was completely surprised by the NSF action, since
they believed they had killed off efforts for online access to
EDGAR.  By early this week Mead was still in a state of denial.


    WHO MADE THIS HAPPEN?

    The individuals and groups that made this happen include
Congressman Markey, who fulfilled his promise to expand access to
EDGAR, Steve Wolfe and the NSF, who funded the project despite
immense opposition from Mead Data Central, Carl Malamud, who was
tenacious in his efforts to get the database online, several
White House staff members who supported the project behind the
scenes, the 10 information providers who signed the May 15 letter
to Markey, and hundreds of individuals, business and
organizations who joined the grass roots lobbying effort to
broaden public access to EDGAR.  Of course, we would like to pat
ourselves on the back as well.


    ACTION IS HUGE VICTORY FOR PUBLIC ACCESS

    The NSF/NYU/IMS project is a huge victory for public access
proponents, not only because of the importance of EDGAR, but also
because of the precedent that it sets.  If EDGAR can be put on
the Internet, any federal database can.


    DECISION SETS THE STAGE FOR IMPORTANT MONDAY MEETING WITH
    DOJ REGARDING JURIS

    On Monday TAP and more than one dozen other groups will meet
with DOJ regarding the future of the DOJ's vast JURIS database of
federal legal information.  DOJ officials have recently stated
they will kill the JURIS project by January 1, 1994, because West
Publishing is asking DOJ to erase more than a decade of federal
caselaw provided by DOJ under competitive procurement contracts.
TAP and others are asking DOJ to replace West with another
contractor, such as Tax Analysts, who are prepared to supply the
data to the Government on a non-proprietary basis, with full
public access through CD-ROMs and Online services.

  jamie love

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--
Juan Antonio Osuna, Computing Research Association      E-mail:[email protected]
1875 Connecticut Ave. NW, Suite 718                     Ph: (202) 234-2111
Washington, D.C. 20009                                  Fax: (202) 667-1066





<This is the ASCII version of a printed booklet distributed at the
American Library Association conference in July 1991. The program was
sponsored by the Library and Information Technology Association. Details
follow on ordering the full print monograph.  This document has been
reformatted to fit on a standard display screen. It is available in a
single 210 kb text file (elec.rights1-4 and in four 50-60 kb chunks
(elec.rights 1,2,3, & 4)Page numbers in the table of contents have been
deleted. Steve Cisler, [email protected]>

[In this archive, only the 1-4 version is present, as elec_rights_ala.papers.
[email protected]]



                        CITIZEN RIGHTS
                         and ACCESS to
                    ELECTRONIC INFORMATION


               A Collection of Background Essays
        Prepared for the 1991 LITA President's Program







                  Dennis J. Reynolds, Editor








         Production costs for this information packet
       were underwritten by Innovative Interfaces, Inc.



        Library and Information Technology Association
                    Chicago, Illinois  1991

      This "information packet" is being distributed only
         at the 1991 ALA Annual Conference in Atlanta.



--------------------------------------------------------------



LITA plans to publish these papers plus those from the President's
Program itself in Fall 1991.  This monograph will also be titled
"Citizen Rights and Access to Electronic Information" edited by Dennis
J. Reynolds.


If you wish to receive an announcement and ordering information for the
monograph, please send your name and address to:


                 Citizen Rights Monograph
                        LITA Office
                    50 E. Huron Street
                    Chicago, IL  60611

                    fax:  312/280-3257



--------------------------------------------------------------














Copyright by the Library and Information Technology Association,
   a division of the American Library Association, 1991.
                       Table of Contents


Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  ii

OVERVIEW PAPER

The Bill of Rights and Beyond:  Citizen Entitlement and
Information Access in an Electronic Age, by Dennis J. Reynolds

THE ISSUES

Techno-Fallacies of the Information Age, by Gary T. Marx

Freedom and Privacy in Electronic Libraries, by Steve Cisler

Electronic Intellectual Freedom, by Gordon M. Conable .

The Public's Right to Know and Electronic Government
Information, by Nancy Kranich

THE IMPACT

"Powershift" and Scholarly Communication, by Sharon J. Rogers

A Bill of Rights for an Electronic Society:  A Public Library
Perspective, by Susan Harrison

Information for All People: The Role of Local and State Libraries in
Overcoming Geographical Barriers to Information, by Howard F. McGinn

Information Access and an Electronic Bill of Rights:  A School
Perspective, by Stephen L. Matthews

Electronic Records and Intellectual Freedom in Schools of Library and
Information Science:  A Historical Essay, by Frederick J. Stielow

LEGISLATIVE UPDATE

Electronic Privacy and Data Protection Legislation in the 102nd
Congress, by Frederick D. King

POSITION PAPERS

Principles of Public Information, National Commission on Libraries
and Information Science

Information Technology & Libraries:  Federal Roles, Library and
Information Technology Association

A Short List of Really Good Readings



                        ACKNOWLEDGMENTS



       This Packet has been made possible through the dedicated
efforts of many people.  Mary Alice Ball has done a superb job in
planning the 1991 LITA President's Program by recruiting a group of
speakers with considerable stature in the world of information
technology policy and implementation.  Production of this Packet was
graciously funded by Innovative Interfaces, Inc., and our thanks to
Jerry Kline and the folks at III for their support and assistance.

       In preparing the Packet, there were a number of people
who I relied on for advice, feedback, and help of all different kinds.
I must first and foremost thank Jo-Ann Michalak, this year's LITA
President, for offering me the opportunity to take on this exciting
project and for supplying me with a steady stream of ideas and articles
and other documents relevant to the topic of this year's Program.  LITA
Executive Director Linda Knutson was indispensible not only in working
with me through all the logistics but also in sharing ideas for the
Packet.  And on more than one occasion, Carolyn Gray, Chair of the LITA
Technology and Access Committee, served as a sounding board and
invariably came up with suggestions that made the project go much more
smoothly.  Also, there were several other people whose advice I sought
on one aspect or another, particularly Lois Kershner, Janet Bruman, and
Carol Henderson. Thanks also to the CAPCON staff for their patience
during the home stretch, and to Terrie and Lori for their help.  A very
special thanks to Tahi and Dennell.

       Most of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude
to the authors who have contributed to this Packet.  Each responded
promptly and enthusiastically, and gave generously of their time.  It
was an "all volunteer effort"; a labor of love, or perhaps a love of
labor, for all who contributed.  There are some people in our field and
certainly many outside it who say that we should not be so generous with
our time, that we should measure the success of each of our tasks by the
amount of the check we receive as compensation.  They are probably
right.  But for many of us, we simply cannot resist the reward of an
interesting challenge and the opportunity to contribute something we
hope will make a difference in the way things are done and how they are
thought about.  My thanks to these authors who have made a contribution
and a difference.



               D.J.R.
                         Introduction

       Last year, Carol Parkhurst put together a packet of background readings
and other material into what became known as the LITA President's
Program Packet.  LITA distributed approximately 2,000 copies of the
Packet at the ALA Annual Conference.  The venture was extremely
successful, and after the Conference, the contents of the Packet along
with the papers presented at the LITA President's Program were published
more formally as Library Perspectives on the NREN.

       The current collection of essays, Citizen Rights and
Access to Electronic Information is the 1991 LITA President's Program
Packet.  The title of this year's President's Program is A Bill of
Rights for an Electronic Society.  This is a multi-faceted topic.  The
speakers who are on the Program will focus on the citizen rights and
technology primarily in terms of existing and emerging
telecommunications networks.  As the speakers will no doubt illustrate,
it is crucial that we no longer think of telecommunications networks as
purely technical phenomena, but also recognize their important
political, economic, and social implications.

       The essays in this Packet are presented in part as
background papers in support of the focus of the presentations that will
be made at the President's Program, but they also explore additional
dimensions of the theme of interaction between citizen rights and
information technology, and the role of libraries in that relationship.
The Packet opens with a paper in which I present an overview of some of
the general issues in the interaction between citizen rights and
electronic information.  Many of the issues brought out there are
treated in the specific context of libraries in subsequent essays in the
Packet.  The next several papers are divided into two sections: The
Issues and The Impact.  This division of focus is not, of course,
absolute, and you will find impact being discussed in some of the papers
in The Issues section and vice-versa.

       The Issues section opens with a brief essay by
sociologist Gary T. Marx, who enumerates some of the common -- and, he
asserts, fallacious -- assumptions we make about technology.  Steve
Cisler then addresses several privacy, data protection, and electronic
monitoring issues as they pertain both to society in general and to
libraries.  Gordon M. Conable, Chair of the ALA Intellectual Freedom
Committee, then examines several of the challenges that modern
information technology presents to the library in its role as protector
and purveyor of intellectual freedom.  Nancy Kranich`s paper focuses on
a dimension of access to electronic information that is vital to our
democracy: the right to be informed about our government and by our
government.

       In The Impact section of the Packet, Sharon J. Rogers
examines the current tranformation of scholarly communication in terms
of trends identified by Alvin Toffler in his recent book, Powershift.
Susan Harrison then looks at several aspects of the role of the public
library in the electronic age in ensuring citizen rights of access to
information and in ensuring the right to privacy in pursuing information
needs.  Howard F. McGinn examines the role of local and state libraries
in providing information particularly in light of the evolving reliance
on telecommunications networks and the types of information that can be
carried over those networks.  Stephen L. Matthews looks at some of the
issues regarding opportunities for access to electronic information in
the context of preparing today's students for the challenges that will
lie ahead of them. If librarianship as a profession is going to view
technology in terms of the ethical implications of its use, it is
important that this become a part of our professional education
curriculum, and Frederick J. Stielow examines this relationship in the
last paper in The Impact section of the Packet.

       The remaining four items in the Packet include a
legislative update, two position statements, and a list of suggested
further readings.  In the first of these, Frederick D. King traces the
bills that have been introduced during the current session of Congress
having a bearing on privacy and related issues in a technological
environment.  The two position papers are the statement on Principles of
Public Information issued last year by the National Commission on
Library and Information Science, and LITA's recent position paper on
Information Technology & Libraries: Federal Roles.  The last item in the
Packet is a selected list of readings on some of the themes explored in
the papers in the Packet.  As editor, I hope that the materials included
here will help introduce readers to some of the current issues related
to a very important dimension of the interaction between technology,
society, and libraries.

                                              Dennis J. Reynolds
                                                Washington, D.C.


"A quiet but crucial debate now under way in Congress, in corporate
boardrooms, and in universities has the potential to shape American life
in the 21st Century and beyond.  The outcome may determine where you
live, how well your children are educated, who will blossom and who will
wither in a society in which national competitiveness and personal
prosperity will likely depend on access to information."

      Roger Karraker, "Highways of the Mind"
           Whole Earth Review, Spring, 1991.




"[in Britain]...a family living on what we euphemistically call 'the
national average' would see half their weekly income flicker away in
less than 30 minutes of current connect-time charges to a remote
database, assuming that there was ever to be one that gave them
something relevant to their needs."

Trevor Haywood, "Electronic Information: The Withering of Public Access"
 New Horizons for the Information Profession





"Emerging technologies promise to provide individuals with opportunities
to increase their personal autonomy, enhance their sense of connection
to others and, in general, enable greater accomplishments and
self-fulfillment.  These same technologies, however, could produce the
opposite outcomes, contributing to personal isolation, increased
dependency, and loss of privacy.  How new technologies will affect
individuals will depend in part on the rules that Congress adopts to
govern access to information and the new communication technologies."

       U.S. Office of Technology Assessment. Critical Connections:
Communications for the Future.
THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND BEYOND:  CITIZEN ENTITLEMENT AND INFORMATION
ACCESS IN AN ELECTRONIC AGE

                      Dennis J. Reynolds

                    CAPCON Library Network
                       Washington, D.C.



       This year marks the 200th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill o
f
Rights. Though having roots in British law, these provisions as a
collective were unique and really quite extraordinary.  They delineated
not the obligations of the citizenry to the state, or the rights of the
state in the exercise of control over the individual, but the other way
around: these first ten amendments to the Constitution stipulated the
obligation of the state to the citizenry and delineated the rights of
its citizens in protection against interference from the state.

       Implied and sometimes stated in our legislative
documents and judicial decisions are rights regarding the way we as
individuals and as a society create, use, and disseminate information.
For the first few decades of the new nation, the technology of moving
things from one place to another -- whether material goods or ideas and
information -- remained fairly stable.  But since about the 1830s, our
history has been a stage upon which new transportation and communication
technologies have been tested, refined, and eventually incorporated into
everyday life.  The railroads, the telegraph, the telephone, the
airplane, radio, television, satellites, computers -- depending on the
definitions of revolution and evolution one might care to adopt, this
list could probably go on for quite some length just detailing the truly
significant innovations over the past 150 years that have changed the
way we gather and use information and the way we communicate it with one
another.

       This latest stage of this long progression has been our
entry into "the information age."  Information is being created today in
a quantity that is not only unprecedented, but remarkably so.  Trevor
Haywood in Britain was right, though, when he observed that the term we
like to use, "information explosion", is actually a misnomer in
describing the phenomenon we are experiencing with regard to the amount
of information entering our lives today.   An explosion is a sudden,
violent eruption that then rather quickly subsides.  What we call the
information explosion was not really all that sudden -- we have been
talking about it in the present tense for many years now -- and it
certainly does not look like it is going to subside quickly or
otherwise.  Information proliferation has become a permanent part of our
landscape. Our challenge is not to figure out how we can keep apace
until things become stable again, but rather how we can incorporate
flexibility and adaptability as constants into our approach to handling
an ever-increasing amount of information and the speed with which it can
be disseminated.

       In an essay on the electronic frontier and the
bill of rights, attorney Harvey Silvergate has pointed out that the
First Amendment in particular has been challenged by every major
technological development that has occurred in our history as a nation.
Computers and telecommunications are no exception.  Some activities like
the storage of increasingly vast quantities of personal data in
government and corporate computers have been occurring now over a period
of decades, but have only recently begun to receive the amount of
attention they have probably deserved all along.  Our belated
consciousness about these problems that have been longer in the making
is, at least, helping us ask to some of the right questions about
important developments of more recent vintage and even some that are
still unfolding, like the evolution of a formal National Research and
Education Network (NREN).

       Many of the questions we are asking now about our
information technologies are probably not so different than those our
forebearers were asking about other things 200 years ago as they were
grappling with what would become the Bill of Rights.  They are questions
having to do with defining the obligations the state has to its
citizenry  with regard to protection of individual freedoms.  Many of
the questions that are being asked have to do with "traditional" rights
such as freedom of expression, protection against unreasonable search
and seizure, and implied rights to privacy as they apply in an
electronic age.  But in looking at these, there are further dimensions
of the questions that may be fundamentally different than the framers of
the Bill of Rights were concerned with.  While these issues are of
enough concern with respect to the government's use of technology, some
of the greatest threats to our individual freedoms today reside in
companies using information technology in ways that, if used by the
government, would probably be considered gross violations of our
constitutional rights.  The first ten amendments to the Constitution say
much about the protection of the citizenry against the state, but very
little about protection from incursions by social and economic
institutions outside of government -- what we now call the "private
sector".  In examining not just an existing specific set of ten
amendments, but more generally a bill of rights regarding the use of
information technology, we must address protection against potential
excesses not only from our public institutions, but from our private
ones as well.

       The examination of individual rights in a context of
technology is very much tied to the uses and abuses of information.
Discussions centering around our conventional freedoms of expression,
protection from search and seizure, and privacy as they apply in a
technological context are concerned not with the technology in itself,
but rather with how it is employed in the gathering, processing,
storage, distribution, and use of information.  Given the heightened
degree of interest in the issues involved, we perhaps now have a unique
window of opportunity to broaden the discussion of the connection
between citizen rights and information beyond the conventional Bill of
Rights to include the right for individuals to have adequate opportunity
of access to information regardless of socioeconomic status and other
traditionally limiting factors.  In writing about the need for an
"Information Bill of Rights," Richard Rowe was right in asserting that
we must examine not only issues like privacy, but also rights of access.
We live in a place and at a time where the limits within which each of
our citizens can exercise options regarding "life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness" will be determined in part by the limits of his or
her ability and opportunity to maneuver through the electronic mazes of
information that lie before them.  And in a global economy where our
competitiveness as a nation will depend on how well large numbers of our
citizens can access and use information and the technology with which it
is now interwoven, opportunity of access must no longer be just
philosophical wishfulness, but a concrete right for our citizens.

       The remainder of this paper will examine several issues
having to do with the interaction between technology, individual
freedoms, and access to electronic information.  Some of these are
discussed in the context of communications networking, some relate more
to electronically stored databases of information, and still others
touch upon the convergence of the two.  The common thread is that each
topic is relevant to a Bill of Rights for a society in which information
technology is becoming a large part of people's work, study, and
recreation.  The topics discussed are grouped into three broad
categories:  First and Fourth Amendment rights; data collection,
dissemination, and protection; and the right of access.


FIRST AND FOURTH AMENDMENT RIGHTS


       The First Amendment to the Constitution is quite
explicit about protection of an individual's right to freedom of
expression, including speech, assembly, religion, and the press.  The
Fourth Amendment is likewise clear about protection from unreasonable
search and seizure.  The Constitution does not mention a "right of
privacy" per se, but legislation especially at state levels, and in the
courts at all levels, have established strong precedence that the First,
Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments all have
a bearing on the issue and collectively imply a right of privacy.

       There are four points about these rights that are
particularly salient to our discussion here.  First, there are some
ambiguities and very interesting twists to protection of these rights
when viewed in the context specifically of electronic information.
Secondly, the guarantees are not absolute. Thirdly, various rights may
at some times be in conflict with one another.  Finally, and extremely
importantly, these constitutional guarantees apply principally to
protection from government activities; they are less applicable to
private sector activities.

Electronic Communication and the First Amendment

       One of the most prominent examples of ambiguity about
protection of rights with respect to information technology is the
ongoing debate about whether textual and other information transmitted
over data communications networks should be treated more like print
media or broadcast media.  The answer to this question is crucial for
purposes of defining the extent to which First Amendment rights will be
protected over such networks.  There traditionally have been
qualitatively different principles applied to the two, with   broadcast
media like radio and television always having been held to stricter
controls than print media.  And the picture may very well get cloudier
before it becomes clearer; as David Lyon has described,

As voice, text, numerical data, images, and other forms of communication
are increasingly merged, using electronic means, so previous
distinctions between print, common carrier (such as the telephone), and
broadcast models become blurred.

       Given this obscuring of distinctions, it is possible
that the standard against which freedom of expression is measured in
evolving communications networks like the NREN will be something unto
its own, neither exactly those applied to print nor precisely those
applied to broadcast media or conventional communications media.  In
general, however, citizen rights advocates are urging adherence to the
print model with minimal restraint on full freedom of expression.

       Even with latitude, the rights and protections
guaranteed under the first ten amendments have never been absolute.
There have always been limits.  With regard to First Amendment rights,
for example, the restrictions revolve primarily around national security
interests, compliance with statutory law, and preventions of unwarranted
invasion of privacy.   With respect to unreasonable search and seizure,
there have been many rulings extending protection to the electronic
environment, but law enforcement has not always acted entirely prudently
in adhering to the spirit of these.  Just in the past couple of years,
there have been several major incidents in which law enforcement
agencies have appeared to be overzealous.  In 1989, for example, the
U.S. Secret Service confiscated microcomputer equipment of the publisher
of the online journal PHRACK for reportedly publishing a BellSouth
document outlining some of the technical details of how their 911
service worked.  The next year, the Secret Service confiscated the
equipment of a developer of role-playing games in Austin, Texas,
claiming that the person had compiled and was publishing what amounted
to a "how-to" book of computer crime.  Later in 1990, several online
bulletin boards were shut down by the Secret Service and more than 40
computers and 23,000 floppy disks were seized in Operation Sundevil, a
nationwide effort supposedly aimed at cracking down on credit card and
telephone access fraud.  In the first of these cases, the PHRACK
editor's computers were returned; in the case in Austin, the "computer
crime handbook" turned out to be a rule book for one of the developer's
role-playing game, and after four months, his equipment was returned.
As of the Spring of 1991, indictments were reportedly in the works in
relation to Operation Sundevil, though the investigation seemed shrouded
in secrecy.  In all three of these cases, an issue of great concern for
electronic rights advocates was whether due process was observed in the
confiscations, and most advocates feel it was not.

First Amendment Restrictions: The Example of Aggregate Sensitivity

       Another growing concern, one with major implications, is
the perceived expansion of the umbrella of "national security" as a
justification by government authorities to restrict freedom of speech.
A particularly ominous development has been the emergence of the concept
of aggregate sensitivity, sometimes also referred to as the mosaic
theory of information.  This concept is built on the premise that, when
taken in aggregate, a collection of individually unclassified and
non-sensitive documents can result in a product that is sensitive and
does constitute classified information.  If the origin of the concept of
aggregate sensitivity can be traced to a single incident, it is the
famous article that appeared in the magazine The Progressive in 1979
providing instructions on how to create an atomic bomb. While an
explanation of how to build an atomic bomb is classified information and
is obviously a vital national security concern, the instructions
appearing in The Progressive had been compiled using information
appearing  entirely in unclassified documents.  Thus, while the
individual documents themselves did not contain classified information,
it was felt that as an aggregate they did.

       In the early and mid-1980s, restriction of First
Amendment rights on grounds of aggregate sensitivity received further
attention when the Pentagon used it to justify barring several U.S.
scientists from presenting papers at international conferences in 1982
and again in 1985.  Aggregate sensitivity with respect to electronic
information has received the close attention of some government security
agencies.  NTIS and other scientific and technical databases have been
the primary targets of this concern.  It is held that while citations
and abstracts included in a CD-ROM or online bibliographic database
might not individually be security-sensitive, the totality could reveal
trends and areas of emphases in sensitive American scientific and
technical research, especially when computers are used to assist in
carrying out techniques like trend analysis, cross-correlation of
authors and subjects, and statistical plottings of publication data.

       While most would allow that matters of vital national
security are legitimate as grounds for restricting freedoms under
certain circumstances, on a specific case-by-case basis, what many First
Amendment advocates are finding alarming in the current environment is
the breadth of the government's interpretation of what might constitute
a "threat" to national security and the inclination to apply that
interpretation to such a wide variety of events, activities, and
products.

Privacy and the Freedom of Information Act

       National security is one example of the intersection
where constitutional freedoms and interests of confidentiality can come
into conflict. Another interesting area where those two concepts are
sometimes at cross purposes is in the application of the federal Freedom
of Information Act (FOIA).  Citizen rights advocates generally are
extremely supportive of a strong FOIA.  This Act, originally passed in
1966 and strengthened in 1974, helps ensure that citizens have a right
to inspect the information that government is gathering both about its
own activities and about the activities of its citizens and the groups
they belong to.  The difficulty sometimes is in drawing the line between
the right to be informed and the privacy rights of those about whom
information is subject to inspection.  An excellent example of this
dilemma was a case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1989 regarding
the release of FBI records.  A decade before, a CBS news reporter and an
advocacy group called the Reporters Committee filed requests with the
FBI for release of criminal history records of four members of the
Medico family, suspected of having ties to organized crime but who owned
and operated a legitimate business enterprise that had been awarded
defense contracts.  The FBI dawdled, eventually releasing records on
three of the Medicos -- after each had died.  The disposition of the
FOIA request on the fourth Medico made its way through the courts all
the way up to the Supreme Court, which ruled that the public has no
right to see FBI criminal records.

       This example and the issues it entails is a thorny one.
The Reporters Committee has voiced an unequivocal opinion that such
records should be available to the public under FOIA, especially when
those records consist as mostly a compilation of publicly available
state and local records. Privacy groups of a moderate bent might
question this; advocates of more extreme persuasion would maintain that
the wrong question was being asked in the first place: the debate should
not be focusing on whether such records maintained by the FBI should be
available, but rather whether they should exist as a compilation in a
central file in the first place.

       Computer technology has presented some interesting
questions in the applicability of the FOIA to government records held in
electronic form.  A strict reading of the Act would imply that
requesters are not guaranteed access to records maintained in any format
other than paper.  However, case law and the published fee guidelines
applying to FOIA have established that information in other media are
accessible under FOIA.  A grayer area, however, has to do with the
definition of what is considered an "existing" record versus a "new"
record in the storage of electronic data.  Under FOIA guidelines, a
government agency is not required to create a new record in order to
respond to a FOIA request.  Performance of any special programming to
extract computer-stored information, some agencies have argued, would by
definition constitute "creation" of a new record and therefore would not
be required under FOIA.  The courts have sometimes ruled in favor of
this interpretation, but at the same time urging Congress to examine
FOIA and amend the Act to address specifically issues related to
electronic information.


Constitutional Rights and the Private Sector

       The FOIA and nearly all other federal legislation
relating in any way to information access, privacy, and search and
seizure issues are concerned with the practices of governmental
agencies.  By and large, they do not apply to the private sector, apart
from government contractors in some cases.  There are, of course,
federal regulations prohibiting discrimination in certain areas on the
basis of race, religion, gender, or nationality.  But in regard to
freedom of expression and invasion of privacy in particular, federal
legislation protecting citizens in contexts other than their
relationship to government has been slow in coming.  The result is that
a very uncertain terrain exists in the relationship between individuals
and non-government organizations.  Some of the consequences of this lack
of regulation will be discussed in greater detail in the following
section of this paper, as many have to do with the collection and
dissemination of personal data. There are two examples that are
appropriate here, however, since they are concerned with very basic
freedom of expression and search and seizure/privacy issues.

       The first deals with freedom of speech in communications
networks, and an illustration is taken from a recent incident involving
a privately owned and operated electronic service.  For several years,
Sears and IBM have been collaboratively offering Prodigy, an online
network offering home shopping, news and weather, recreational games,
conferencing capabilities, electronic mail, and a variety of other
services aimed at the home personal computer market.  When initially
introduced, Prodigy was priced at a fixed monthly fee for which a
subscriber had unlimited access for any purpose.  A change in this
policy was then announced, targeted specifically at the electronic mail
component of the service, which had by that time become quite heavily
used by subscribers.  Under the new pricing structure, a certain number
of e-mail messages would be included in the basic monthly rate, but any
beyond that number would incur an additional per-message charge.  Some
Prodigy subscribers, upset over the new policy, used the electronic
bulletin board capability of the system itself to launch a protest.
Prodigy responded by removing the messages, and even canceled the
subscriptions of some of the more vehement protestors.

       The Prodigy incident is an example of how one privately
owned electronic service reacted to objections to its policies, but the
incident illustrates some of the broad implications of privately
controlled networks.  In discussions of the NREN, for example, one of
the structural solutions that has been proposed is to put development
and management of the network into the hands of the private sector.  As
the Prodigy case exemplifies, though, an important concern is the extent
to which the technical manager or owner of the network also acts as
policy-maker about the content of what is being sent over the network.
Electronic rights proponents generally are unfavorably disposed toward
the idea of a for-profit private company owning and operating NREN, and
in a more general sense, are adamant that even in privately owned
communications networks to which the general public is allowed to
subscribe, the content of what flows through the network must be
protected by broader principles like the First Amendment rather than
left up to the discretion of the owner.

       Another concern related to lack of constitutional
applicability in the private sector focuses on personal privacy issues
and protection against unreasonable "search and seizure" in the
workplace.  Methods of surveillance are being carried out in workplaces
in the private sector that our government would never legally be allowed
to get away with.  Modern information technologies have made undetected
monitoring of people's actions in the workplace far easier and more
sophisticated than ever before.  Positions involving use of technology
-- like data entry clerks and airline ticket reservation agents -- are
particularly vulnerable to electronic monitoring of performance.  We
have all seen the warm and fuzzy TV commercial where a single airline
reservations agent books flights home in a single call for what one
assumes must be practically the entire enlisted personnel of a military
base.  The agent's supervisor strolls by later in the day and asks if
the agent had answered any calls today, to which the agent
good-naturedly points out that she had only one.  In reality, the
scenario in such an office could probably have just as easily shown the
supervisor going into a back room, entering a special authorization code
on a terminal, and finding out exactly how many calls the agent had
handled, the number of reservations made and the total volume of sales,
and the number of minutes and seconds that elapsed between each booking.
Much more efficient and precise, but it probably would not have made
quite as nice a TV commercial.

       Electronic surveillance techniques are a seductive
possibility to employers and managers feeling pressures to increase
productivity, quality, and profits.  What the relatively little evidence
that exists shows in many cases, though, is that electronic surveillance
often achieves exactly the opposite of the desired results.  As Marx and
Sherizen have pointed out, employees can be ingenious in finding ways to
beat the system, and electronic monitoring can further lead to
sacrificing quantity for quality.  Reservations agents, for example,
might be tempted to disconnect calls if a request is appearing to become
too time-consuming, or to withhold information in an effort to shorten
the length of a call.  Electronic surveillance can also lead to a
general atmosphere of mistrust and poor morale, resulting in lower
productivity, higher turnover, and other problems that may be precisely
what the employer had hoped to avoid.

       While these are crucial issues in terms of human
resources management, the aspect that concerns us most here are that
intrusive measures like these pose serious questions about certain
fundamental freedoms that individuals should have a right to expect of
their employers just as they do of their government. Some forms of
electronic monitoring in the workplace verge on what can be called
nothing short of employer espionage, unreasonable "search", and
presumption of guilt before a "crime" is even committed.  Government has
historically been reluctant to interfere in employer/employee relations
until forced to do so by conflict of near-crisis proportion.  To date,
the workforce most subject to surveillance tends to also be the least
politically empowered, and there simply is not much evidence that
government is ready to address this aspect of citizen rights in truly
meaningfully proportion.


DATA COLLECTION, DISSEMINATION, AND PROTECTION


       Aided by computer and telecommunication technologies, an
enormous amount of data is gathered, stored, and disseminated about
Americans each year.  Even by the early 1980s, it was estimated that the
federal government had 4 billion separate records about U.S. citizens --
an average of about 17 for every man, woman, and child in the country.
This was several years ago, and the number is no doubt much higher by
now.  While the government is a fervent collector of data about us, its
efforts are rivaled by the private sector.  Several years ago David
Burnham gave the example of a single database in California to which
more than 10,000 merchants across the U.S. had access to information
about 86 million American households. This figure corresponds closely
with the number of American households for which demographic and some
personal data was included in a more recently announced (and then
canceled) product called Lotus Marketplace: Households.  Who is
collecting all this data about us and where are they getting it?  What
is it being used for, and what rights do citizens have regarding its
collection,  dissemination, and use?

The Who and What of Personal Data Collection

       Nearly every agency of the U.S. government collects data
about individuals.  It is not a grand covert operation; to the contrary,
we willingly, or at least knowingly, supply most of this data ourselves.
The Internal Revenue Service and the Bureau of the Census are two of the
larger collectors of data that Americans supply about themselves.  The
Social Security Administration has very complete earnings records about
every legally employed individual in America, and even about some who
have never worked a day in their life.  (We supposedly do not have a
"national identification card" in this country, yet my 22-month old
daughter already has her social security card; she received it a few
weeks after her birth for some reason that no one has explained to me.)
Those who have ever been in the military, registered with the Selective
Service, received welfare payments, or applied for an FHA loan also have
records on file with the appropriate federal agencies.  Law enforcement
agencies have voluminous files containing information about those who
have committed crimes, and probably about some who haven't.  No doubt
the list of government agencies -federal, state, and local -- could go
on for some length.

       We as citizens also give out a great deal of information
about ourselves to a wide range of organizations and companies outside
government.  From the time a child begins pre-school, our educational
system collects records not only about the student but usually about his
or her family as well; and then when the student eventually graduates
into "the real world", employers take over where the educational system
left off.  When we start to earn a living,  we find ourselves filling
out applications for credit cards from department stores and for
mortgage loans from banks,  and as we begin to acquire appliances and
other material gadgets, we protect our investments by filling out
product warranty cards and sending them to the manufacturer.  We tell
insurance companies about our medical history or our driving records or
the contents of our homes.  We join organizations, we subscribe to
magazines, we contribute money to worthy causes.  This is all pretty
routine stuff, activities that few people stop to ponder as to the
consequences beyond the immediate purpose for which they are supplying
the information.  But in this age of the computer and advanced
communications technology, nearly every piece of data we supply to an
organization or bank or company is probably being added to a database
and transmitted from one place to another at some point in time.

       One aspect of personal information gathering activities
in our society today is the transactional nature of much of the data --
the recording of a specific event at a specific place at a specific
time.  With instant credit card verification services, for example, an
electronic record is established that shows exactly where a person was
at an exact moment in time.  On some highways in Britain, cameras
mounted on bridges scan license plates of cars passing under and record
them along with the exact time of day.  Probably the most prolific
collectors of transactional data are telephone companies.  Their records
can show who we talk to, when, from where, and for how long.  This has
been brought home in  court proceedings and other investigations, one of
the more widely known involving President Carter's brother Billy in his
dealings with the Libyan government during the late 1970s. Among other
details, a Senate committee's report documented the time and place of
sixteen telephone calls made by Billy Carter to the Libyan embassy from
at least ten different telephones in three different states during a two
week period in 1979. The Billy Carter incident illustrates another
aspect of much of the transactional data being gathered:  while the
event documented is very temporally discrete, the record itself often
becomes permanent -- it is not erased once the transaction has been
completed, but rather, becomes part of someone's growing record of
specific examples of our behavior.

       Most of the types of data gathering activities described
above have what many would agree are legitimate purposes.  We have
inherited from our forebearers what seems an almost instinctual mistrust
of government, so we are leery when it gathers personal data about us,
even if begrudgingly admitting that the rationale sometimes might
actually be reasonable.   Much more insidious, perhaps, are data
gathering activities in the private sector.  Of course it makes sense
that a bank would want a pretty detailed picture of our financial record
before lending us tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars to purchase a
home or start a business; a manufacturer asking that we establish the
date upon which we bought a particular appliance seems pretty reasonable
unless the gadget is guaranteed to work forever or not guaranteed at
all; and instant credit card verification probably has cut down on the
incidence of fraud and forfeiture resulting in losses which the credit
card companies have to recover by increasing annual fees or interest
rates to the rest of us who are conscientious, paying consumers.

Watchwords for Data Protection

       While much of the data being collected, whether by
government agencies or corporations, seems to fill a reasonable need,
there are four characteristics about data gathering activities of which
we must be particularly watchful.  The first is permanence.  Granted, my
long distance carrier may want to keep records of my telephone calls for
a while after I have paid for them in the event of a belated complaint
on my part, and as a business it needs to keep the records for a certain
time as required by standard accounting principles and maybe even to
satisfy the requirements of certain federal agencies.  But how long is
long enough?

       The second watchword is relevance.  It may be reasonable
for a credit card company to ask how much money I earn and how long I
have been employed in my present and maybe even in my immediate prior
position, but why do they need to know the highest educational degree I
have?  For purposes of qualifying for a credit card, if I make a quarter
million dollars a year, does it really matter  whether I have a PhD or
never even completed the sixth grade?

       A third concern and a logical extension of the relevance
issue is the purpose for which the data collected is used.  The reason
that my educational level might be useful to the credit card company is
that they might be able to sell that information to someone who is
interested in my educational level, like a magazine subscription house
or anyone else whose clientele tends to fit a certain profile. There are
almost no legal restrictions in the United States on the sale of
personal information within the private sector.  In fact, the sale of
personal data for purposes other than that for which it was collected in
the first place has grown into a major industry in itself.  Credit
reporting agencies are leading the way in this lucrative market.  To
illustrate the magnitude with which it occurs, an author writing on this
phenomenon several years ago requested a copy of his file maintained by
one of the leading credit reporting bureaus and a list of those to whom
it had been released.  The results were revealing: in the previous seven
months, information in his file had been released to him once, in
response to his current request; once to his credit union in connection
with a small loan he had applied for; and nineteen times to other
organizations and companies with which he had no relationship nor
necessarily wanted to establish one. A more recent event that brought
the sale of personal data into the limelight was the Lotus Development
Corporation's announcement of Lotus Marketplace: Households, a database
that contained a variety of information on virtually tens of millions of
American households, and which was targeted for sale on CD-ROM to mail
order and other direct marketing organizations.  The Lotus product
caused quite a stir and was canceled, but it was a poignant
demonstration of how information about our income, shopping habits, and
other personal behaviors has become a very salable -- and very available
-- market commodity.

       In light of the critical decisions about peoples' lives
that are made on the basis of personal information on record either with
the government or elsewhere, a fourth major area of concern is
accountability and quality control. This is particularly important with
regard to private sector uses given the current paucity of regulations
governing commercial use and distribution of personal records.

       On rare occasion, the lack of quality control in a
computer environment -- or perhaps more accurately the lack of applying
common sense -- can have humorous results.  In the mid-1980s, for
example, a Louisiana bank sent pre-approved credit cards to several of
the banks customers who happened at the time to be inmates at a state
prison.  According to programmed selection criteria, they were
considered employed and did not show bad credit ratings, and hence were
considered good risks.  Unfortunately, most reported run-arounds with
computer-stored personal information are not so harmless.  One
celebrated case -- it went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court --
involved a construction contractor who, through a clerical error by a
Dun & Bradstreet employee, had erroneously been identified as having
filed for bankruptcy.  The report was distributed to several banks with
whom the contractor was negotiating for loans, and his business suffered
severe setbacks as a result.  The contractor sued Dun & Bradstreet and
was awarded $350,000 in compensatory and punitive damages, but Dun &
Bradstreet appealed all the way to the Supreme Court on the basis that
credit reports are a form of free speech protected under the First
Amendment.  The Information Industry Association filed testimony on
behalf of the company that credit reporting agencies should be immune
from liability for false reports unless actual malice could be proved.
The Supreme Court upheld the lower court decision in favor of the
contractor.

       In the example above, the contractor at least had
discovered that an error had been made, and had the perseverance and
resources to pursue restitution. One can only wonder how many citizens
have been refused credit or worse on the basis of erroneous information
but have not had the knowledge, resources, or patience to uncover the
error and get it corrected.  And the private sector is certainly not the
only place where accountability and accuracy are concerns; as the
example below will show, the government has certainly been known to be
on the initiating side of some inaccuracies as well.

       As the numbers cited at the beginning of this section
demonstrate -- billions of federal records containing personal data, and
electronic records with personal information about tens of millions of
American households being maintained by the private sector -- there are
probably not very many Americans who can claim electronic anonymity.
Practices in the private sector have gone basically unchecked, resulting
in personal records being commercially exchanged so many times among so
many parties, and probably over such a patchwork of communication
networks, that once we do find out where some pieces of information
about us resides, there is little likelihood that we would be able to
determine its original source or who else has that same information.
Imagine the absolute horror, then, upon finding out that someone,
somewhere, sometime made a data entry error or read a report the wrong
way or received only partial information about a business transaction.
By the time the error is discovered, the fallacious information likely
will have already been redistributed many times over. The prospect of
such a nightmare is not the sole province of the private sector by any
means.  There are virtually thousands of federal databases that contain
information about individual citizens.  And in 1982, the Privacy Act of
1974 was amended to allow federal agencies to exchange personal data
with one another -- perhaps simply a legislative acknowledgment of what
was already going on anyway -- thereby opening the floodgate for the
possible widespread dissemination of erroneous information about an
individual.  There is little quantitative data about the error rate of
information held by private credit bureaus, other commercial sector data
gatherers, or public sector institutions and agencies. A decade ago,
though, Kenneth Laudon, working on a study for the U.S. Office of
Technology Assessment(OTA), was asked by OTA to check a small sample of
FBI arrest warrants for accuracy.  What Laudon found was that for about
11% of the sample, the warrants had already been cleared or vacated at
the local level, and in another 4% of the cases, there was no record at
all of an arrest warrant at the local agency.  If the 400 records were
representative of the entire FBI warrant file, this meant that on the
day the records were pulled for the study, there were about 17,000 U.S
citizens open to false arrest by the FBI on the basis of inaccurate or
outdated information in the Bureau's database.

Regulating the Use of Personal Data

       Most European countries have formal Data Protection
Commissions who are charged with the responsibility of seeing to it that
individual rights relating to the collection, dissemination, and use of
personal data are not trampled at the whim of the state or in the
interests of the marketplace.  Indeed, the purview of the Commissions as
well as data protection laws throughout Europe generally apply both to
government and to private sector activities.  While what seems to be a
fairly effective model for European nations would not automatically be
assured of success here, there is no question that data protection laws
in the U.S. leave much to be desired where they exist at all.  Michael
Rogers Rubin provided an excellent overview of existing federal and
state legislation in an article two years ago in Library Hi Tech, and
Rein Turn provided a comprehensive and still timely overview in ARIST a
few years before.

       In 1974, the U.S. Congress passed what is known as The
Privacy Act of 1974.  The Act addresses certain practices and
limitations regarding use of federal databases, including those related
to income tax, social security, census, federal employment, and a
variety of other types of records.  The Act has always been seen as
pretty weak.  It has no provisions regarding what types of data may be
collected, or any restrictions on how it can be collected.   There are
only nominal restrictions limiting use of records for purposes other
than that for which they were originally collected.  There is enough
ambiguity in the provisions to make them fairly open to interpretation
by agencies, there are relatively broad exemptions, and there is not a
strong direct enforcement mechanism.  What it comes down to is that the
Act does fairly unambiguously grant individuals the right to see records
that the government is keeping on them, and to correct the records if
warranted.  Of course, it is up to the individual to initiate an inquiry
to find out whether or not any records are being kept, and a separate
inquiry must be filed for each database maintained by the government,
which number by now somewhere over 7,000.  If a requestor does find what
he or she detects to be an error, it is up to that individual to provide
proof of the error, including shouldering any legal fees should the
person feel it necessary to get the assistance of counsel.  As Rubin and
Turn both point out, there are other federal laws and internal agency
directives -- such as one adopted  in 1973 by what was then Health,
Education and Welfare -- that grant more protection and privacy than
does the Privacy Act itself.

       The Privacy Act of 1974 and many other federal statutes
apply only to federal databases.  Its provisions regarding employee
protections are a bit broader, in that they must be adhered to by
private government contractors as well.  But applicable to the private
sector as a whole, there is really a dearth of legislation addressing
data collection, use, and privacy protection. Even the Equal Credit
Opportunity Act, which prohibits creditors from inquiring as to race,
religion, gender, or national origin, does not apply to credit reporting
bureaus themselves, and these are probably the most comprehensive data
collectors and disseminators in the private sector.

       Both as it applies to government and commercial
enterprise, federal legislation in the United States is just plain
inadequate when it comes to providing citizens with protection against
misuse of electronically stored or communicated information.  The states
do somewhat better, but still fall short of what most citizen rights
advocates feel is needed to ensure even minimal protections.  To
overcome some of the problems that have been described above, there are
three fundamental approaches that could be taken on a national level.
The first would be to take the tact that virtually any and all
gathering, distribution, and storage of personal data in electronic form
(or in any form for that matter) is a violation of basic rights of
privacy to which we are entitled.  This solution may be equivalent to
simply trying to wish the problem away.  Too many purposes of data
collection and use are probably too legitimate, and the practices too
entrenched, to make this a realistic option.  Barring a reaction of
unforeseen magnitude, the collection and use of personal data is going
to continue to grow and to become even more tied to computerization and
communication over data networks than it is now.

       Some of the greatest concerns about use of personal data
have to do with accountability, identification of the exact sources of
various pieces of information that are circulating about us, the
diffusiveness of its whereabouts both in the private sector and among
government agencies, and the lack of regulation over its dissemination.
An approach that would serve to bring under control all of these
problems would be treat personal data as a national resource and
establish one single authoritative database into which, and out of
which, all personal information gathered by anyone would be mandated to
flow.  Tabs could better be kept on where data originated and then to
whom it was redistributed; correction of erroneous data could be easier
and a centralized mechanism for distributing corrected data could be put
into place; and a central authority could be empowered to benevolently
administer the database, ensure reasonable confidentiality of the
information contained therein, and protect the citizenry against misuse
of data.  This solution could bring under tow much of the mayhem that
exists today, is probably  technologically quite feasible and
administratively possible -- and it stands absolutely no chance of
happening, at least not in any overt manifestation.  The thought of a
single, centralized, state owned and operated database of personal
information offends just about everything Americans hold sacred.  It
simply runs counter to our national psyche. However much the current
environment seems to foster conditions that make personal data
vulnerable to misuse, at least it is largely disorganized and
uncoordinated misuse, the result of clerical errors and financial greed,
not political espionage.

       This does not mean that the problems should be ignored,
nor left for self-regulation.  The third approach we can take is to
strengthen our data protection laws.  We as a nation must decide where
to draw the line between what constitutes reasonable data collection and
use by the public sector and the private sector, and where that crosses
the line into unnecessary and potentially threatening intrusion into our
lives.  Congress has not yet made data protection a high priority.  It
is unlikely to do so until the citizenry expresses a concern with
sufficient voice to make these issues grist for the campaign mill rather
than simply pet projects of a few concerned legislators.  It is when we
see the awareness among our citizens rise that we will see the awareness
among our lawmakers rise, and when that happens, we will begin to
protect personal information as an individual freedom and a right rather
than as a state resource and a marketplace commodity.


<Continuation of The Bill of Rights and Beyond, by Dennis Reynolds>

THE RIGHT OF ACCESS


       Citizen rights like freedom of expression and protection
against search and seizure are constitutionally guaranteed.  The right
to know how to read those rights for oneself, however, is not.  Nor does
the Constitution guarantee that the government or anyone else has to
exert effort, quantitative or qualitative, in teaching citizens about
what those rights mean or how to apply them.  While public law has
something to say about access to governmentally produced information, it
is less clear about the obligation of the government to produce that
information in the first place, and while freedoms of speech and the
press by implication guarantee the right of individuals to have access
to certain information created outside government, there is nothing said
about the conditions under which that access is assured.  In a year in
which the themes of literacy, democracy, and productivity will highlight
the Second White House Conference on Libraries and Information Services,
it is important that we begin to look at access to information more as a
right than a privilege.  If we are to tackle the full complexities of
literacy, and to hold forth the tenet that democracy requires an
informed citizenry, and to compete more effectively in a global economy
by capitalizing on productivity, then we must be prepared to view not
just information, but access to information, as a national resource upon
which no price tag can be placed.  In terms of the implications for a
society heavily dependent on technology as the conduit through which
information flows, it is important that we examine three aspects of
access to electronic information: electronic literacy, government
information, and universality of opportunity of access.

Electronic Literacy

       When A Nation at Risk was published in 1983, the report
of the U.S. Commission on Excellence in Education confirmed what had
long been suspected: the educational system was in serious trouble, and
among the problems was deficiency in the basic ability to read.  The
exact proportion of the American population that is illiterate depends
on definitions and on whose figures one chooses to cite, but the
dimensions are serious by anyone's count.  The issue of literacy in
America is further complicated when examined in light of our increasing
reliance on electronic media from which we retrieve information and
through which we communicate it.  In the process of acquiring print
literacy, the learner is relatively free to focus on the substance, i.e.
the printed page or card or whatever; the means of getting to the object
of learning is fairly straightforward with the chief requirement being
manual dexterity.  With information in electronic form, however, two
different kinds of skill are required, and we thus encounter two
different types of illiteracy.  The first is exemplified by the person
who can neither read nor operate the means, i.e. the technology, that is
required to retrieve or communicate the content.  A second form of
electronic illiteracy -- and the emphasis here is indeed on "electronic"
-- exists among persons who know how to read the printed word, but are
untrained in the technical skills required to access and use information
in electronic form.  These people may have only remedial reading skills
and minimal education, or they may be an accomplished scholar with
advanced degrees.  A person with the latter qualifications is more
likely to be able to readily master the technological aspect of
electronic literacy than is an individual with the former, but at least
at the outset, they are at the same level with regard to information in
electronic form -- they are illiterate.

       A third level could, arguably, be added to this typology
of electronic literacy/illiteracy, a level that might best be described
as technologically "marginally literate."  To persons in this category
might apply the axiom that sometimes a little knowledge is almost worse
than none.  These are the people who can read and who can use the
technology well enough to retrieve or use or communicate information,
though not necessarily very effectively.  The most potentially
counter-productive aspect of this level of literacy is that sometimes
the individuals think they have a mastery of the technology, when in
fact they have only very rudimentary skills in employing it.  And the
difficulty with this category, of course, is the subjectivity with which
it is defined.  Complete reading illiteracy can be pretty unambiguously
identified, as can the second type of electronic literacy where an
individual knows how to read but does not know how to use the
technology.  But the definition of this "minimal effectiveness" category
is far more subjective.  Each of us could probably be more skillful in
the information technologies we employ; but where is the line between
effectiveness and ineffectiveness, and whose value judgment is it?  We
have certain standards by which we measure print literacy and reading
levels, but to my knowledge we have no real equivalent by which to
measure levels of electronic information literacy. The irony is that,
while this minimal effectiveness category is the most difficult to
define, it may be the one most in need of recognition and attention if
we are going to truly increase the citizenry's collective productivity
and enhance individual opportunity.  We can identify those among the
adult population who cannot read and those who cannot use even the most
basic information retrieval system, and we can teach them how to gain
some basic skills in each of these areas.  Our schools, our libraries,
our communities increasingly have programs for accomplishing this.  But
what happens once an individual attains the basic level of skill for
which the program was designed, and what happens to those whose skills
are already slightly higher than the focus of the programs?  A premise
of most of our programs, whether teaching print literacy or computer
literacy, seems to be that at some point the individual is turned out to
fend for herself or himself in further enhancing their skills.  It is
exactly at this juncture, though, that an individual may most need
continuing support mechanisms through formal programs and "advanced"
instruction.  This is not at all to say we should abandon our emphasis
on basic literacy, both of a print and electronic variety.  It is,
rather, to say that we must not stop with the provision of rudimentary
skills, but that we must continue on in organized fashion, for it is in
this transitional phase that the individual may for the first time be
able to see the light of real opportunity, and we must develop
mechanisms by which to facilitate progress toward that opportunity.

Government Information

       The ongoing saga of the fate of publication and
dissemination of information by and about the federal government is
covered well by professional associations and in journals, and it will
not receive lengthy treatment here.  Concerns over government
information publishing practices fall primarily into philosophical and
economic issues.  On the philosophical side, information produced by the
government is seen as a precursor to an informed citizenry and therefore
a vital ingredient of democracy.  From the economic perspective,
proponents of strong federal publishing requirements feel that not only
should government publish information pertaining to its activities, but
that such documents should be available at or near the actual cost of
production, based on the premise that the citizenry has already paid for
this information through taxes.  Another side of the economic aspect of
government publishing is that strict marketplace principles of
salability should not drive the decision as to whether or not the
government publishes an item.  There is considered to be a societal good
served in publishing information that might appeal only to limited
audiences engaged in work that is intrinsically important to society or
even small segments thereof.

       The 1980s were not kind to government publishing, and
the 1990s are not starting off much better.  The last decade has seen
severe cutbacks in publication budgets at a time when the amount of
information as a whole being gathered is increasing, and when changes in
technology are presenting new challenges and new opportunities for the
government information infrastructure.

       Funds for federal agency publishing activities have been
dwindling in the past ten-plus years.  Already by 1982, the Department
of Education was announcing that it was considering rejecting 40% of the
requests to publish findings of education laboratories that were
federally sponsored, simply because it did not have the money in its
publications budget to do so.  Two years later, as part of the Deficit
Reduction Act of 1984, the publication budgets of most federal agencies
was cut by 30% for FY1986. Combined


with these cutbacks were constant pressures from the Office of
Management and Budget (OMB) throughout the 1980s to turn more and more
of the publishing of government information over to the private sector.
The debate got so heated with respect to the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) that in 1988 Congress felt incumbent to pass
legislation stipulating that no NTIS activity could be contracted out
unless approved by statute.  Nevertheless, many federal agency documents
are no longer published by the government, but rather are now published
by the private sector at substantially high prices.  The Federal
Election Commission, for example, has curtailed publication of
information pertaining to campaign finances, and this information must
now be purchased from the private sector at a cost of several thousand
dollars.

       Budget cuts and debate over privatization have been
further complicated by changes in the technology of government printing
and distribution.  The amount of government information now being
published in print form reportedly has actually been on the decline in
recent years, while electronic publication has been on the increase. The
need for economizing, the sheer amount of data in some of the documents
prepared by agencies, and other factors have led to decisions to publish
some documents only in electronic form, with no print equivalent.

       The publication of government information in electronic
form has presented some sticky territorial disputes over who should be
in charge of distributing what.  The Government Printing Office (GPO)
and NTIS have been historically bound to paper and microform publishing.
The OMB has been quick to interpret any statutes bearing on the question
of publication and distribution of alternate formats in a restrictive
sense, thereby taking the responsibility out of the hands of GPO in
particular and placing it elsewhere -- including in the hands of the
private sector.

       The upheaval in government publication policy and
practice, especially with respect to electronic databases, has carried
over into other programs such as The Depository Library Program.  This
program was established to ensure widespread dissemination of, and
access by the citizenry to, federal publications.  The program has
worked well.  But as more and more government information is being
published in electronic formats, and sometimes only in an electronic
format, new challenges appear.  The OMB has asserted that electronic
publications are not covered under the Federal Depository Library
program, and agencies are therefore under no obligation to see that
these are distributed to appropriate depository collections.
Fortunately, the Joint Committee on Publishing and other Congressional
committees have just as strongly felt otherwise.  Even when publications
in electronic formats are made available to Depository Libraries,
however, the government is not clearly under obligation to furnish the
hardware software, and other expenses that might be necessary to access
the information electronically.  The Depository Library Program has
become such a crucial vehicle for making government information to the
public that the Office of Technology Assessment's Informing the Nation
report noted the possible need for additional government funding to
address this issue.

       The production and dissemination of information by the
government about its own activities is in a state of uncertainty.  There
continues to be a widely-held opinion that information created,
published, and distributed by the government is a cornerstone of
democracy, and that open and free access to it is a right of the
citizenry.  There are some who don't see it this way, instead viewing
government information primarily as an easily repackagable economic
commodity whose distribution should be the responsibility of the private
sector.  While the objections to this line of reasoning by public
information advocates are quite often based in philosophical principles
about the relationship between the state and its citizens, there are
also some very practical concerns, as Carol Moody noted when she
suggested that "...relying on the private sector where companies are
bought, sold, and dismantled overnight, is not the way to provide the
public with critical information."

Universal Opportunity of Access

       There are several aspects pertaining to the question of
equal opportunity of access to information, not just by and about the
government, but also to information that is publicly accessible through
commercial electronic services.  The aspect that will be discussed here
is the socioeconomics of access to that information by the citizenry.

       The issue of the socioeconomics of access to information
has most often been stated in terms of a fairly simply dichotomy of the
information rich versus the information poor.  This is convenient, but
as with literacy, it is important to recognize more gradations when
viewing the problem in the context of electronic information.  At one
end of the spectrum there are those for whom the cost of access to
electronic information is a factor of no particular consequence; these
are the information rich, or perhaps more appropriately labelled, the
access rich.  At the other end of the spectrum are the information poor,
or access poor, who cannot afford to pay even nominal fees for access to
electronic information.  We tend to associate this latter group with an
overall socioeconomic class lacking not only in financial resources but
also fitting other criteria having to do with level of formal education,
employment characteristics, etc.  And this is where, in the electronic
environment, the simplicity of the dichotomy breaks down.  In terms of
ability to pay, the access poor includes not just the less educated and
the ranks of unskilled labor; it can also include graduate students and
professors in academia not lucky enough to be working under a research
grant, and it can include highly educated owners of small and even
medium-sized businesses.   The life options available to people fitting
these latter descriptions are a magnitude of order more open than those
available to the truly economically disadvantaged, but this middle group
should not be overlooked.  Trevor Haywood pointed out that, in Britain,
access to about thirty minutes of a commercial database would cost the
equivalent of about half a week's salary of a family earning the
national average income. The proportion might be a bit less dramatic in
this country, but the general implications are not: we have a large
number of citizens who simply cannot on their own afford to tap into the
electronic information structure in America as it exists today.

       The past two decades have seen ongoing debate in the
library profession about the appropriateness of charging fees to users
in order to recover part or all of the costs associated with
user-specific online searches of commercial database services.  The
arguments presented by both sides in this "fee versus free" controversy
have been delivered with equal eloquence and passion.  After all the
permutations on all the arguments pro and con are examined, the debate
is generally reduced to what is desired philosophically versus what is
practical economically.  The debates with respect to user fees are not
quite as prominent at our conferences and in our literature as they once
were.  A professional accord seems to have been reached, whereby most
librarians support the principle of not levying fees for service, but
the degree to which that principle can be implemented is recognized to
vary widely from one library to the next.

       While the controversy over fees for online access in
libraries has not been at the forefront of "hot issues" within the
profession during the past few years, it is merely dormant, not
resolved.  With developments like the emergence of the National
Education and Research Network, interest in the question of who gets
access, and how to fund it, is on the rise again.  In the specific case
of NREN, the consensus in the library profession seems to be that the
Network and access to it should be a national resource in much the same
way that our interstate highway system is.  The NREN will be as crucial
a means of "transportation" of information and ideas as the national
highway infrastructure was for the transportation of material goods.
The library profession is furthermore becoming fairly committed to the
concept of the NREN as a resource not just for scholars and research and
development firms, but for all citizens.  There is also strong sentiment
in favor of federal subsidy for access and use of the NREN, in much the
same way our interstate highway systems are constructed and maintained
through public monies.

       But even if the model that has the NREN serving as a
national resource with open and even subsidized access becomes the
reality, this in no way solves the question of "fee versus free" access
to electronic information -- it may, in fact, merely exacerbate it.
Communication across the telecommunications superhighway might turn out
to be free, but there remain the questions of who pays for the local
roads leading to it and for what lies at the end of the highway.  The
NREN is likely to, and in fact is being designed primarily to,
facilitate communication of research and high-end computing services,
but it will no doubt also be used as a vehicle to access many of the
commercially available electronic database services that now exist,
along with a host of new services whose founding will be spawned by the
growth of the Network.  Access, in the sense merely of
telecommunications, to some of the conventional online services and to
the new ones that grow up may become easier and less expensive than it
is now, but this does not mean that the information itself that resides
at the end of the road somewhere will in any sense be "free."  And once
we envision this scenario, we are back to where we started in terms of
the question of who pays.  Whether an individual travels across the NREN
from a home, an office, or a computer terminal in the library, this is a
vital question.  And it is not one simply for libraries to grapple with
in their provision of access to information; it is one that society as a
whole must confront.

       In the "fee versus free" debates of yesteryear, emotions
reached such a pitch sometimes where an author or a committee would
issue a statement to the effect that all people should have a right to
access all information, and on occasion the statements were left this
open-ended.  Obviously, it is impractical and not really a good idea to
imply that people should be able to access internal memos of every
corporation in America, each others bank accounts, etc.  But what was
important then, and what is still important now, is the issue of
opportunity of access to commercial databases and other electronic
information to which availability is public as long as the user follows
the rules set forth by the provider -- the most standard of which is the
ability to pay the established price.  And this is where not just
library policy, but broad social policy, must come into play.

       Libraries have too long tried to shoulder by themselves
the burden of subsidizing costs for access to electronic information by
those unable to afford to pay.  If our literacy, our democracy, our
productivity, and our general health as a nation depends in such large
part on our ability to access and use information in the most effective
and efficient ways possible, then is it not a responsibility of society
as a whole to ensure that the citizenry has the opportunity of access to
the full range of information that is available for public consumption?
And this concept in no way denies the right of the private sector to
sell access or to make a profit.  Public schools cost money to operate
and public roads cost money to build, and in the process, manufacturers
of school desks and construction contractors charge for their services
and make a profit.  The antagonism between libraries and commercial
vendors that sometimes was an undercurrent in discussions about the cost
of information services has perhaps always been misplaced.  Our real
focus should perhaps be on public policy surrounding the support of
access to information, rather than on whether or not someone has a right
to benefit financially from providing that information.  While libraries
will have to deal with the hard decisions of providing access to often
expensive electronic information in the foreseeable future, we might
also be wise to urge our elected officials to begin making some hard
decisions about how to ensure the citizenry's right to be informed, not
just by and about the government, but with access to all publicly
available information that would help them to perform their jobs better,
be more knowledgeable and more productive, and in the process ensure a
stronger democracy and a more vital economy.

       In a recent report on options for national
communications policy, the Office of Technology Assessment described
three primary models for development:  communication as a market
commodity, communication as a springboard to economic growth, and
communication as social infrastructure.  The latter of these, it was
noted, carries with it an emphasis on equity of access.  The report also
noted that, as of 1990, the "communication as social infrastructure"
viewpoint was not very powerful within the current communication policy
community.  But the report then went on to observe that proponents of
communications as a vehicle through which to accomplish societal goals
have historically grown in strength as technologies have developed, this
being the case with telegraphy, telephony, radio, and television.  As we
blend the goals of the social model with efforts to enhance the position
of U.S. competitiveness in a global economy, and infuse our strong
traditional values regarding individual freedoms and rights, we have
reason to be optimistic that more sound policies regarding the use of
information technology will evolve, and that those policies will assert
our freedoms and our protections, and will perhaps even view access to
information as a right of the citzenry rather than as a privilege.


             *    *    *    *    *    *    *    *

Dennis Reynolds may be reached at 202/745-7722 (voice) or 202/797-7719
(fax) or on Bitnet at dreynol@auvm.--
TECHNO-FALLACIES OF THE INFORMATION AGE

                         Gary T. Marx

                    Department of Sociology
             Massachusetts Institute of Technology
                   Cambridge, Massachusetts



       New information technologies are breaking the boundaries
of time and space, and are bringing with them far-reaching changes in
the way information is gathered, accessed, and disseminated.  While
holding much promise, it is also important to be aware of the background
assumptions that often accompany the advocacy and introduction of new
technologies.  In particular, it is critical to examine the broader
cultural climate, the rationales for action, and the empirical and value
assumptions surrounding the introduction and widespread adoption of a
technology.

       Academic analysts try to offer theories, concepts,
methods, and data, and also, hopefully, wisdom.  A part of the wisdom
arises in being able to identify and question the web of tacit
assumptions that undergirds action.  As an ethnographer, I watch and
listen.  When it comes to technology, I sometimes hear things that seem
empirically, logically, or normatively wrong, much as a musician knows
that certain notes are off key: "Turn the technology loose and let the
benefits flow"..."Do away with the human interface"..."When you choose
to make a phone call, you are consenting to have your telephone number
released"..."Only the computer sees it"..."Those of us who are involved
in consumer marketing are the best agents for protecting the consumer's
privacy"..."That's never happened"..."The public interest is whatever
the public is interested in watching"..."There is no law against
this"..."The technology is neutral."

       There are a number of assumptions underlying assertions
like these. If we are to use emergent technology to best serve human
needs in a democratic society, it is important we be on guard against
what can be called "tarnished silver-bullet techno-fallacies".
Following are a number of these information-age leaps in logic of which
we must be aware, and against which we must guard.

       1. The fallacy of assuming that only the guilty have to
fear the development of intrusive technology (or, if you've done nothing
wrong, you have nothing to hide).

       2. The fallacy of the free lunch or "painless dentistry"
in which it is assumed that information technology offers cost-free
solutions.

       3. The legalistic fallacy of assuming that the only
criterion that ought to guide the use of technology is whether or not
the law permits it.

       4. The fallacy of assuming that pragmatism and/or
efficiency should automatically overrule other values such as fairness,
equity, external costs imposed on third parties, and symbolic meaning.

       5. The fallacy of lowest common denominator morality, in
assuming that if the competition or others push moral limits, you are
justified in doing the same.

       6. The fallacy of assuming that personal information on
customers, clients, and cases possessed by an organization is a kind of
property, to be bought and sold just like office furniture or raw
materials.

       7. The fallacy of assuming that because our privacy
expectations are historically determined and relative, they must
necessarily become weaker as technology becomes more powerful.

       8. The fallacy of technical neutrality.  (George
Orwell's response to the assertion that technology was neutral--"so is
the jungle"--is applicable here).

       9. The fallacy of implied consent and free choice (For
example, some phone company officials claim that if you choose to make a
call you have consented to have your phone number released.  You thus
are encouraged to protect your privacy by not using the phone.  But
that's like saying if you breathe polluted air or drink contaminated
water, you consent to these).

       10. The fallacy of believing that because it is possible
to successfully skate on thin ice it is acceptable to do so.  We should
not have to wait for a disaster to occur before concluding that some
uses of information technology are simply too risky to be adopted.

       11. The fallacy of assuming that the means will never
determine the end.  There is a danger of starting with the technology
and asking what can it be used for, rather than starting with goals and
asking how can they best be achieved.

       12. The fallacy of perfect containment (or, technology
will always remain the solution rather than become the problem).

       13. The fallacy of assuming that if a critic questions
the means, he or she must also be against the ends.

       With respect to information gathering technology, we are
now in the twilight that Justice William O. Douglas wrote about when he
argued that the protection of our basic values is not self-executing,
and that "As nightfall does not come at once, neither does oppression.
In both instances, there is a twilight when everything remains seemingly
unchanged.  And it is in such twilight that we all must be most aware of
change in the air--however slight--lest we become unwitting victims of
the darkness."  One could as well argue that we are in a sunrise zone
and that we must be aware of change in the air in order to insure that
we all profit from the sunshine.  But for this to happen, the technology
must be bounded by increased public awareness, responsible corporate and
government behavior, and new laws and policies framed to ensure
individual freedoms and protect individual rights.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *


       This essay is based in part on the author's article
"Technology and Privacy" that appeared in The World and I, September,
1990 issue, pp. 523-541.  Other recent publications by the author
touching these and related themes include "The Case of the Omniscient
Organization", Harvard Business Review, 90(March/April, 1990): 12-30;
Undercover: Police Surveillance in America, Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1988; and "Monitoring on the Job" (with S. Sherizen),
Technology Review, 89(November/December, 1986): 62-72.

FREEDOM AND PRIVACY IN ELECTRONIC LIBRARIES

                         Steve Cisler

                    Apple Computer Library
                    Cuppertino, California


       When you ask people what they like about the libraries
they use, the range of answers will include praise for the staff, the
various resources, and the attractiveness of the physical facilities.
Almost everyone has a sense of place about a particular library or
libraries in general.  For some, the library is a place to retreat and
relax; for others it is an important institution that binds their
community together; and for some it is an efficient center for the
dissemination of information and knowledge that meets the deadlines of
busy users.

       Whether you ask a librarian or library user, most of
these concepts are tied to a physical place. However, many people are
spending an increasing amount of time working, studying, and relaxing in
the realm of electronic communications.  When you begin exploring this
area (and many librarians are doing just that), it is hard to see the
edges of this virtual terrain.  It includes our telephones, televisions,
radios, the networks that connect our computers, pagers, and facsimile
machines, and ATM and credit card machines.  This realm has been called
Cyberspace, The Electronic Frontier, and The Homeland of the Information
Age.

       The library is a part of this emerging landscape.  What
are the qualities of our present libraries that will be valued in the
time when many more people will connect electronically to our services
rather than walk in to talk with a reference librarian and browse
through the books and magazines and CD's?  What will set the library
apart from other institutions that successfully take root in the
electronic arena?  One of the most important distinguishing
characteristics may prove to be a perception by electronic library users
that the staff is really trying to help guide them through the
intricacies of the information age.  If we can project the sense of
service we now have, support for the electronic librarian will grow.
While delivery of the requested information might continue to be our
primary indication that we have succeeded, we might do well to remember
that many people do not associate human beings with satisfactory
electronic transactions.  How many of us think warmly of the staff that
fills the ATM machines with money every day, or of the systems person
that tweaks the program that keeps your account straight?  Librarians
will remain intermediaries, but how prominent will we be to the average
user?  Another quality of what I'll call the library experience is the
trust that people place in the staff and the institution.  The
importance of privacy issues and society's increasing awareness of them
will make this a very important factor to consider in operating the
electronic library.

       In March 1991, I attended the First Conference on
Computers, Freedom, and Privacy in Burlingame, California.  Drawn
together was a strange assembly of computer hackers, libertarians,
librarians, law enforcement officials, network administrators, computer
consultants, writers, lawyers, public policy analysts, and employees of
the National Security Agency, the Central Intelligence Agency, the FBI,
and the Secret Service.  It was a time to meet, to discuss crucial
issues, and to begin face-to-face discussion in confronting a variety of
problems.  Some of the discussion at the CFP Conference and in other
fora have explored social implications of technology that are likely to
reach new levels of relevance for libraries, too, as they become tied
into increasingly complex multi-purpose communications networks.  Some
of the more important of these include:

       1. First amendment rights;
       2. The practice of gathering, using, and selling personal
information;
       3. Monitoring of employees in the electronic workplace;
       4. Monitoring of citizens in Cyberspace;
       5. Security of personal information on networks.

FIRST AMENDMENT RIGHTS


       In Freedom, Technology, and the First Amendment,
Jonathan Emord traces the history of the government's stricter
curtailment of First Amendment protection for radio, television, and
cable broadcasters when compared with the more sacrosanct print media.
>From early in the 20th Century, when the U.S. Navy sought to put the
entire wireless telegraphy industry under complete government
supervision, to Supreme Court decisions in 1940 that justified federal
controls over the broadcast media on the basis of spectrum scarcity,
these industries have not been afforded the same degree of freedom as
have print publishers.

       The early regulations of the Federal Radio Commission
and the more powerful Federal Communications Commission came about
partly from broadcasters asking the government to limit the number of
licenses, and partly from legislators and government officials trying to
legislate what constituted "public interest".  As Emord describes it:

The restrictions tempered the willingness of licensees to engage in
controversy, coerced them into offering certain kinds of
bureaucratically 'preferred' programming, and caused them to become
tools for the use of incumbent politicians and special interest groups
who desired to influence the nature of public debate.

       Even though libraries continually face one kind of
censorship battle or another, the restrictions placed on traditional
print media--and hence on traditional library services--have not been as
tight as they have been with respect to the radio, television, and cable
industries.  For libraries, what are the implications of these
disparities in the treatment of different media?  Libraries will be
hooked into a national network of electronic information sources which
eventually may even include entertainment on demand provided by radio
and television broadcasting companies.

       As various kinds of media are publicly accessible
through a single end-user source, it may become more difficult for
libraries to continue to enjoy as much freedom as they historically have
as handlers of print media.  The libraries without walls will open up
their collections, and what we provide access to generally, to scrutiny
by even more interest groups than we have known in the past.  We must be
prepared to confront the challenges of being part of a media-rich
information delivery network on which there may be more content
restrictions than we have been accustomed to.  What librarians do, and
what advocacy roles we assume, may help to define the extent to which
our users continue to view us as upholders of first amendment rights.


GATHERING, USING AND SELLING PERSONAL INFORMATION


       Recently, I served on a panel at a conference at
Stanford University hosted by the First Amendment Congress.  Most of the
people in attendance were from Stanford or from the radio, television,
and newspaper industries.  I was discussing the privacy of library
circulation records, and many in the audience had not even considered
the potential threats involved in not protecting that information.
However, in light of the case involving the disclosure of Judge Bork's
videotape rental records, most everyone there realized that personal
reading  and viewing habits are tenuously protected in the age of the
computer.  It was gratifying to be able to claim that librarians were
already on top of this issue and had been for some time.

       At the CFP conference John Baker of Equifax, the company
that supplied Lotus with data for its direct mail product, Lotus
Marketplace, discussed attitudes toward privacy by the American people
of whom 25% can be called Privacy Fundamentalists, 58% Privacy
Pragmatists,  and 17% of whom don't care about the issues.  The Privacy
Fundamentalists are the ones with unlisted numbers; they use personal
name variations to track the re-use of magazine subscription
information; they don't give out their Social Security number to anyone
but the IRS and their banks.  It is this group that will probably help
shape the way businesses, government agencies, and even non-profits
treat personal information gathered on individuals.

       The Bureau of the Census encounters a great deal of
resistance from libertarians, minority groups, and other segments of
America who distrust parts (or all) of the federal government.  Various
three-letter government agencies (IRS, FBI, CIA, NSA, DOD) have mission
statements that allow them to spend huge sums on automated systems to
store, link, and search for patterns in vast files of personal
information about Americans and people living in America.  But
government agencies are not the only ones collecting large amounts of
personal information.  In fact, we should probably be even more
concerned about the private sector, and especially credit firms such as
TRW and Equifax.  It is commerce that will always want more information
about its customers or potential customers.  And it is also in the free
market where the existence of such information becomes a prized economic
commodity in itself.  A lot of the unexpected, often unwanted, mail and
telemarketing calls you receive originate in a computerized mailing list
bought from someone you sometime did business with.

       Most niche market direct mail promoters will tell you
that the recipients want to get that catalog of biodegradable hiking
boots, or the announcements about the latest concerts, or that credit
card where part of the fee goes to some worthy cause.  Using the
profiles of estimated income and lifestyles, merged with the
subscription lists of hi-tone periodicals, a direct mailer can target a
group with the assurance that the return rate on responses will be much
better than the average mailing list.  Book and grocery chains are
offering membership cards to regular customers.  In return for a few
benefits, the stores learn about buying patterns of the customers and
for the geographical area in which the store is located.

       Some people, I'm sure, advocate the use of marketing
techniques for libraries like those described above, and I'm sure there
have been a number of mailing list experts who have worked with friends,
groups or movements to support the passage of some library bond measure.
In the quest for more funds and more support, there may be a strong
temptation to use some of these tools and perhaps even to change the
rules on how circulation records are used, in order to seek supporters
in the library community.  Before taking advantage of such marketing
techniques, however, librarians will no doubt need to reflect on the
practical implications and on some very basic philosophical issues about
using these types of personal data for purposes other than that for
which they were originally recorded.

       Librarians should also be aware of information gathered
in the library that could even potentially be collocated with other
databases through standard personal identification numbers.  Many
universities, for example, use the Social Security number (SSN) as a
common number for all student activities.  Unless it is a conscious
decision by the library management, the SSN should not be used for
access to the online library system or for checking out books.  As a
nation we have resisted the call for a national ID card, unlike many
countries in Europe.  But the use and abuse of the SSN makes it a piece
of information that can be used to link disparate databases in commerce
and in government.  In a CFP conference panel, Evan Hendricks of Privacy
Times recounted some abuses by government and industry involving
secretive matching of personal information across multiple databases
through matching on SSNs by TRW and the Social Security Administration.
Investigators found that in two databases of names (150,000 names in one
list and one million in the other) about 20% of the SSNs were
inaccurate!  Depending on one's perspective, this is either extremely
frightening or in some perverse way a ray of hope that, despite the
apparent simplicity of national scale surveillance, it has not yet
reached very efficient proportions.  Certainly we can do better than
having to settle for either of these.

       In many automated library systems, there are ways to
generate unique ID numbers.  Even though it may seem that none of the
data collected by libraries about their users will ever become a source
for cross-database matching, the use of non-SSN identifiers does provide
an extra safeguard.

       There is a growing controversy over the secondary use of
gathered information.  Some progressive organizations have a box on
registration and membership forms allowing the individual to opt in and
allow the personal information to be re-used by the organization or to
be re-sold to worthy causes, or to anyone at all.  Alan Westin, a
privacy expert and consultant for Equifax, predicts that by the year
2000  marketing databases will be consensual and that the participants
will be compensated for the use of their information. One positive step
that the library world could make is to ask the American Library
Association to add an "opt in" box on conference registration forms;
this would make it easy to prevent them from re-selling your name to
dozens of vendors and exhibitors, whose communications you may not want
in your mailbox.  At the time of this writing I had to scribble a
proviso on my application not to re-sell the information they collected
from me. Whether it works, I will know by the time you have this essay.

<note from author: The American Library Association did not
take my name from the conference mailing list as I requested.
Consequently, I received over 50 pieces of unsolicited mail.
-Steve Cisler>

MONITORING OF EMPLOYEES IN THE ELECTRONIC WORKPLACE


       If you have called 411, booked an airline ticket,
ordered a computer program via mail order, had a catalog keyed in by an
off-shore data conversion firm, or read a newspaper, you have come into
contact with someone who has been or is being electronically monitored
by their supervisors.  The devices available to eavesdrop, to monitor,
and to blatantly mold electronic workers' performance is well developed.
Operators are timed to see how fast they get you a requested phone
number or book a flight.  Data entry people have their keystrokes
counted, and some reporters have told horror stories of seeing a warning
screen pop up with the words "Your colleague in the next cube is working
faster than you."

       Librarians can envision how, in their places of work,
electronic surveillance could be used to monitor the productivity and
accuracy of staff performance.  At present, there seems to be fairly
little discussion of potential abuses of electronic monitoring of
employees in the library world, unless perhaps it is at a clerical
workers union gathering.


MONITORING OF CITIZENS IN CYBERSPACE


       There exists a large, anarchic computer
conferencing/bulletin board system that is known as Usenet. On an
average day more than 110,000 articles, totaling over 200 Mbytes, are
submitted from 11000 different Usenet sites. Within 24 hours all the
computers on the network have received these messages.  Usenet is
accessed mostly by Unix-based computers and workstations that reside in
an enormous variety of environments, including hobbyists' basements,
computer science departments, corporate MIS rooms, and government
agencies.

       Many of the administrators who keep this network running
voluntarily have a deep distrust of the intentions of the government,
especially of the agencies charged with surveillance of Americans and
foreign nationals here and abroad.  Some of the more paranoid believe
that powerful text processing engines are combing these messages 24
hours a day, flagging those where certain terms are used.  Consequently,
a number of users like to throw electronic monkey wrenches in this
alleged monitoring by including at the bottom of each message sensitive
terms like nuclear, terrorist, Bush, Communist, Tri-Lateral Commission,
CIA, etc., in an effort to slow down the surveillance mechanism they
suspect exists.  My own hunch is that it could exist but does not.

       At present there is an ongoing debate about the extent
to which the FBI monitors electronic bulletin board systems.  There is
evidence that the boards run by or for "phone phreaks" and "computer
crackers" receive very close attention from the law enforcement crowd.
But incidence of surveillance of more middle of the road boards is more
difficult to document.  The Computer Professionals for Social
Responsibility (CPSR) have filed Freedom of Information Act requests
that the FBI has ignored.  The CPSR may have to go to court to get
relevant records released, much as the library community did with the
Library Awareness Program.

       The integrated online systems in libraries have the
potential to monitor the circulation records of users. Through
transaction analysis, if combined with user-specific authorization
numbers to log on, libraries could even gather personal data about
searches in online catalogs.  Libraries have a good record in terms of
rejecting monitoring of library users.  Just as with some of the other
concepts discussed here, the future may require more vigilance than ever
before as libraries begin to plug into multi-purpose information
networks.

SECURITY OF PERSONAL INFORMATION ON THE NETWORKS


       One of the more interesting but arcane debates that is
spreading around Cyberspace is the need for encrypted information.  The
general consensus among those who talk about it (and the government
generally does not) is that while encryption schemes are necessary, the
government has set limits on how powerful an encryption scheme networks
can employ.  Some in government want to maintain their edge by
controlling the use of encryption programs by the public.

       Librarians should be aware of these developments because
with the greater connectivity among future networks will come a greater
need for security.  Libraries are generally relatively open places, in
an intellectual sense.  It will take some creative tactics in the
virtual library of the future to both maintain that atmosphere, and at
the same time to protect personal information from other users, from law
enforcement investigators, and from virus outbreaks or the introduction
of hostile worm programs.  Even the use of computer agents -- software
surrogates that travel around the network performing various functions
such as searching for material on a subject or sorting electronic mail
-- will demand a whole new code of ethics by librarians and network
administrators.  How much will one agent be able to communicate to
another agent, if both are looking for information about a patent or a
sensitive research issue?  How will the confidentiality of the
questioner be preserved?  And will this processing overhead slow the
network down to unacceptable speeds?


Conclusion


       This has been a rapid survey of several issues that I
have been following at conferences and through online sources.  Some of
this discussion will be found in technical journals, the popular press,
and even television.  The library community will have to figure where it
fits into these complex puzzles. Probably libraries will fit many
places, sometimes in opposition to some government agencies, to some
businesses, and even to some scholars.  I am sure this LITA President's
Program will provide a good forum for discussing some of the issues.

       An organization that is at the forefront of advocacy of
privacy rights in the electronic networking environment is the
Electronic Frontier Foundation, 155 Second Street, Cambridge, MA 02141,
(617)864-0665.  The EFF has given support to another active group, the
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, Box 717, Palo Alto,
California 94302.  Members of these groups participate in Usenet
newsgroups such as comp.risks (risks of computers, automation, and
reliance on the technology); alt.privacy (an open forum to discuss
privacy issues); eff.org.talk (discussion group for the Electronic
Frontier Foundation); comp.admin.policy (new group to discuss e-mail
privacy, user access to networks, security).

       You may also contact the author electronically on The
WELL: <[email protected]> or on the Internet <[email protected]>.  The WELL
offers access to a number of electronic discussion groups on censorship,
information policy, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and library
issues.  Phone 415-332-4335 for more information.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *
ELECTRONIC INTELLECTUAL FREEDOM

                       Gordon M. Conable

                 Monroe County Library
System
                       Monroe, Michigan


       The principles of intellectual freedom have been
codified over the last fifty years for libraries and librarians in "The
Library Bill of Rights" and its various interpretations by the American
Library Association.  These principles are based upon precepts of
American constitutional law, particularly the First Amendment.  The same
principles can be found in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
the United Nations equivalent of the U.S. Bill of Rights.

       These documents spell out the right of free expression,
including freedom of religion, assembly, association, speech, the press,
and the right to petition the government.  Both documents speak to the
rights of individuals and serve to limit the actions of government which
could curtail individual rights.

       New technologies have profound impact on many aspects of
human endeavor, and the electronic age is altering the way humans think,
write, gather, store, and disseminate information.  In the process,
opportunities and problems that were previously unanticipated rear their
heads and a temptation exists to assert that because of the
technological changes, the underlying legal principles and rights of
individuals have somehow been dramatically altered by the technologies.

       Libraries have often approached new technology with the
assumption that old paradigms may no longer apply.  To cite two common
examples: libraries that would never think of charging users to search
print indexes often charge users to access the same information if it
resides in an electronic database; and about a third of all public
libraries that have videotape in their circulating collections charge a
rental fee for those tapes, adopting a model common in the retail
sector.  Neither of these choices is inevitable.  While both appear to
be an outgrowth of the new technology, it might be more accurate to
describe them as a result of the marketing of the new technology.  The
database vendors operate on the basis of different economic assumptions
than the print publishers.  In the case of the print index, marketing
has always meant the sale of a physical object -- the set of printed
volumes -- which reflected a publication/production cost rather than a
per-use charge.  In the electronic version, no physical object is sold.
What is marketed is access and use rather than a physical object, and
access and use can be monitored, metered, and charged accordingly.
Hence, an economic model favors user charges.  Libraries, quite
naturally, have often found it both logical and easy to pass those
charges onto users.  In the case of video, it first entered the
marketplace primarily as a rental item, and many libraries found it
convenient to look to the retail model when attempting to determine how
to handle tapes.

       In many ways, libraries are institutions that have been
defined by the characteristics of the book.  It is clear, however, that
the justification for libraries, particularly publicly supported
libraries, is based on constitutional principles rather than on the
characteristics of any medium.  First Amendment principles, together
with the right to privacy, are the centerpieces from which librarians
must think about and deal with the issues surrounding electronic
information.  And those principles are broad enough and flexible enough
that they should not be determined by the technology involved.

       The issues that are being confronted anew in the context
of electronic media include, among others: copyright and the ownership
of intellectual property; the licensing of information or access to it;
the relationship between the original creator, the compiler, the
distributor, and the user; the question of what is public and what is
private.   But these issues are fundamentally political rather than
constitutional in their nature.  They are factors of private market
mechanisms as much as they are factors of constitutionally dictated
public policy.  As such, they are likely to be decided legislatively and
economically before they will be treated judicially.

       Herein lies much of the risk for libraries, librarians,
and advocates of the public right to know.  The lobbying and economic
resources available to the "information industry" in general and its
more visible advocates are substantially greater than those which
librarians and public interest organizations are able to bring to the
table.

       There is a right to free expression; there is statutory
access to at least some, and theoretically most, governmentally
generated information.  There is a long-established tradition for
publicly supported libraries to serve as a means of access to that
information.  There is a less clear mandate that information should be
available without charge or without cost recovery.  The issue is not
whether libraries should continue to make the information available
without charge -- ALA's policy positions, at least, make clear the
profession's commitment to do so.  Some library funding agencies are
less committed to fee-free service than librarians, however.  In an era
in which "privatization" of governmental services has growing support
both from politicians looking for easy means of cutting governmental
expenditures and from entrepreneurs who are looking for governmental
license to profit from publicly produced information goods, the
advocates of free access -- or fee-free library access -- may well be
facing an uphill battle.

       Against this background, it remains to be seen whether
information formerly made available to libraries from governmental
sources without charge will now be prohibitively priced; whether the
economic assumptions under which libraries operate will allow them to
acquire government and other information in electronic media at all or
at a cost that does not force them to abandon a non-metered approach to
service; and whether the "public good" of free library service will
survive the economics of electronics.

       The issue of privacy -- protection of information about
oneself from uncontrolled dissemination -- is another concern of major
proportion.  Much attention has been focussed -- and not with entirely
satisfactory resolution -- on the use of governmentally generated data
about individuals for purposes other than that for which it was
gathered.  Libraries have grappled with this issue directly in dealing
with patron confidentiality and library records.  Despite a general
commitment on the part of librarians to confidentiality, it is worth
noting that circulation systems are being sold by vendors at least
partly on the basis of their capabilities for record keeping which would
facilitate practices by librarians that would grossly violate patron
privacy.

       Private sector efforts to combine and market electronic
data about individual consumers are receiving increased attention.
Current technology accommodates extensive, sophisticated, and
potentially intrusive collection and dissemination of such personal
data.  During the first half of 1991, public attention has focussed on
such efforts as: the Lotus Development Corporation's attempt to market a
massive database of consumer information; a proposed scheme by
Blockbuster Video to market information about video rental preferences
of its customers by genre; and a company selling supermarket scanners
which compile item purchase data on all shoppers to aid advertising and
promotion schemes.  Publicity about these efforts has generated
significant public backlash, forced the cancellation or at least
slowdown of the development of some of these products and services, and
may even lead to legislative attempts to limit them.  The latter raises
interesting and conflicting questions about the constitutional rights of
the compilers of such data versus those about whom it is compiled.
Governmental restraint on publication of such data may, in fact,
implicate First Amendment rights to publish.

       One issue for librarians implied by this has to do with
questions of making databases of this nature available to their users.
Many public libraries, for example, have agonized about the ethical
issues of making criss-cross directory information available.  If the
information is available, a choice by the library to withhold it may be
a form of censorship and may compromise intellectual freedom principles.
How many libraries, however, have attempted to add credit rating
databases to their business libraries?  Retailers may have on-line
access to such data; why not libraries?  And supposing this and much
greater amounts of similar data were available on compact disc -- should
it be purchased and made available?  If there is a right to privacy in
the Constitution, could the dissemination of certain information by a
publicly supported library involve a constitutionally implicated
invasion of privacy when private sector dissemination of the same
information might not?  The questions ahead of us will be knotty and
essential.

       Finally, it is worth noting that among the significant
forces confronting these issues are users who are pushing the
capabilities of electronic technology to explore just what is really
possible in this new information environment.  Economic, legal, and
technological controls are only enforceable to the level that they are
practical.  This is a period of rapid technological development and no
little ferment.  It will take awhile to understand the issues, let alone
solve them.

       Laurence H. Tribe recently addressed these issues in
detail in a paper entitled "The Constitution in Cyberspace: Law and
Liberty Beyond the Electronic Frontier," delivered as the keynote
address to the First Conference on Computers, Freedom & Privacy on March
26, 1991.  Tribe concluded his remarks by proposing a Twenty-seventh
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to read as follows:

"This Constitution's protections for the freedoms of speech,
press, petition, and assembly, and its protections against unreasonable
searches and seizures and the deprivation of life, liberty, or property
without due process of law, shall be construed as fully applicable
without regard to the technological method or medium through which
information content is generated, stored, altered, transmitted, or
controlled."

       Professor Tribe's underlying construct should equally be
applied to the manner in which libraries and librarians approach the
myriad of intellectual freedom issues facing them as they develop means
of integrating these new technologies into their mission and operations.

                  THE PUBLIC'S RIGHT TO KNOW
                              AND
               ELECTRONIC GOVERNMENT INFORMATION

                         Nancy Kranich

                 New York University Libraries
                      New York, New York


       James Madison once wrote that "Knowledge will forever
govern ignorance and that people who mean to be their own governors must
arm themselves with the power that knowledge gives.  A popular
government without popular information or means of acquiring it is but a
prologue to a farce or tragedy or perhaps both."

       As information professionals, librarians hail the words
of James Madison and recognize the importance of his message every day.
Whether or not the nation's forefathers explicitly recognized the
importance of information to a democratic society and the public's right
to know through the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, librarians
believe in that right and make every attempt to reinforce it.  But they
have also come to realize that, more and more, those rights,
particularly First Amendment rights, must be carefully protected,
defended and strengthened.

       Over the past decade the public's right to information
by and about the United States government has eroded.  The government
has whittled away at information access under the guise of the Paperwork
Reduction Act, national security, export controls, budget cuts,
automation and even privacy.  Eliminated were one quarter of the
documents previously published, including many of the items formerly
distributed through the depository library system.

       A longstanding partnership between libraries and the
federal  government has assured the nation's citizens ready and equal
access to government information.  Through the Depository Library
Program which was launched in the 19th century, nearly 1400 libraries
located in every Congressional district have served as host institutions
for distributing government information.  In return for receiving nearly
20 million free copies of some 40,000 government publications annually,
depository libraries house, organize and assist with no-fee use of the
government's information resources.  At least 167,000 citizens make use
of these depositories each week.

       More than 7,500 electronic databases are disseminated
each year by civilian agencies of the federal government.  As agencies
make increasing use of electronic formats, the public can benefit if
government databases are disseminated through libraries, particularly
depository libraries.  A project to test the feasibility of depository
library distribution of five electronic databases on such topics as the
environment, energy, census, trade, and economics was launched in late
1988.  While depositories are the likely loci for this essential
information, a forthcoming evaluation of the project should shed more
light on the actual benefits of this mode of dissemination.

       Access to electronic government information should
promise all that came with print products and more, and  will present
new opportunities along with new challenges.  No one recognizes these
challenges better than librarians.  Public access is fragile, diminished
by any one of many factors that prevent the utilization of important
information.  At the very least in this age of electronic databases and
networks, government information must be:

       � developed in consultation with the general public to
determine the most appropriate informationand format for dissemination;

       � published regularly, on a continuous basis;

       � standardized so that coordination efforts can be
facilitated government-wide, encouragingcompatibility, lowering overall
costs, and reducing user confusion;

       � protected from censorship, with integrity,
reliability, accuracy, and validity ensured;

       � cumulated, archived and preserved by agencies charged
with the long-term retention of records.


Beyond these basic production and maintenance requirements are
additional principles that should underlie the distribution of
government information.  Chief among these are that government
information must be:

       � disseminated in whatever format is most appropriate, most cost
effective, most timely, and mostuseful for government agencies,
libraries, and the general public;

       � distributed widely through broad-based government
sales programs and no-fee access throughdepository libraries located in
every Congressional district;

       � priced for sale at no more than the marginal cost of
dissemination;

       � redistributed without limitation, as long as equal,
ready and equitable access is guaranteed;

       � accessible even if market potential is very limited.
While users may be few, importance is oftenconsiderable.

               And finally, if the public is to utilize this
valuable data effectively, government information must be:

       � enhanced by the availability of menus, indexes, and
documentation so that users can retrieve,process and comprehend
essential government information products and services;

       � controlled bibliographically through centralized
national databases and networks.  If citizens areto use information in
electronic format, they must be able to identify it through
widelydisseminated, standardized, comprehensive, up-to-date
bibliographic tools;

       � safeguarded so that privacy rights of individuals
requesting, using, or listed ingovernment records are guaranteed;

       � interpreted and/or explained for users on request by
expert agency personnel and/or otherwell-informed specialists;

       � protected by no copyright restrictions so that
materials can remain in the public domainand available for repackaging
by a diversity of sources.


       Government information is of inestimable value to the American
public.  Assuring the public's right to this information requires a
democratic caretaker no smaller than the government itself.  No other
entity can assume the primary responsibility for collecting, organizing,
and disseminating the public's information assets, nor guarantee the
public's equal rights to use and repackage it.  The marketplace is
simply too erratic and whimsical to fulfill this obligation.  Without
the government playing a primary role, the gap between information haves
and have nots will only widen.  To preserve a just and democratic
society in an information age, the government must affirm its obligation
to ensure the flow of information, regardless of format, to the public.
Neither national security, budget constraints, automation, political
expediency, or reduction of paperwork burden are an excuse for the
government to abrogate its responsibility to inform the citizens of its
activities.  An open government is essential and vital to a democracy.

       Librarians and libraries have a unique role to play in
assuring equal and ready public access to government information.  They
are in almost every community.  Most are non-profit. They have a wide
array of supporting materials in all kinds of formats.  As
professionals, librarians are trained to utilize this information and
are equipped to provide access to a variety of formats.  All of these
factors position libraries and librarians favorably.  But unless
librarians make the right to know happen by actively advocating the
rights of users, it simply will never be a reality.

       No other group has such a broad understanding of and
commitment to public access as librarians.  Without the vigilance and
leadership of librarians working together with other organizations
interested in promoting the public's right to know, access to government
information will deteriorate even further.  At risk is far more than a
record of the government's activities and an enlightened electorate.  At
risk is the very survival of the democratic system that safeguards our
cherished freedoms and rights, so carefully protected by James Madison
and others who drafted the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *

           "POWERSHIFT" AND SCHOLARLY COMMUNICATION

                       Sharon J. Rogers

                 George Washington University
                       Washington, D.C.


       Since computers and electronic databases were first
introduced into libraries more than a quarter century ago, questions
about who should have access and how that access should be financed have
been debated extensively.  As we enter an era in which more and more
individuals will work and communicate electronically, we must continue
to revisit these questions and to focus on additional issues pertaining
to intellectual property, privacy, and freedom of expression in the
electronic environment.  In order to examine issues like these as they
apply specifically to the conduct of scholarly research in the 1990s, it
will be important to appreciate the rapidly changing context in which
that work is being carried out and disseminated.  This paper examines
some of the characteristics of that changing context.

       In Powershift, Alvin Toffler gallops through the barrage
of daily information to emerge with a model of power that, he argues, is
transforming the very nature of power. For librarians and academics,
scholarly communication is the arena for our experience of "powershift."

       Scholarly communication patterns are beginning to
display a rich array of print and electronic experimentation.  We are
beginning to decipher the forces and patterns that are shaping a
transformational breakup of the world of scholarly communication as we
have known it.  Best of all, we can imagine the shape of new sets of
relationships that will characterize the scholarly communication world
of the 21st century.  One version of "How Scholarly Communication Should
Work in the 21st Century," posits a centralized, non-profit network on
which scholars would "publish" articles:

               Scholars in all disciplines could "publish"
their articles on the Scholarly Communication System, an electronic
network on which they could also read other publications.  As a scholar
completed an article or paper, it would be sent electronically to the
system, where it would be assigned a category and cross-referenced to
other relevant categories.  Given the increasingly interdisciplinary
nature of much scholarly work, the capacity to alert readers in one
subject area to articles published in other areas could help build
important links among disciplines.

       The National Research and Education Network (NREN) can
be expected to create a technological infrastructure that will allow the
realization of this vision by harnessing high-performance computers and
high speed, high capacity networks.  The technology of advanced
networking is visible and available.  Even in areas such as graphics
storage and transmission, where only candidate solutions are available,
few observers predict that these difficulties will remain as barriers to
eventual implementation and success.  NREN is the event around which the
forces and patterns of scholarly communication are coalescing as
powershifts become apparent.  The remainder of this essay will explore
some of these powershifts.

       A marketplace powershift for the primary consumers of
scholarly communication is shaped by the scholars themselves.  Scholars'
behaviors, seeking articles--not the journals they are packaged
in--demonstrate that the journal as the vehicle for scholarly
communication is becoming obsolete.  Scholars' behaviors again--from the
cold fusion debacle to recent efforts to convey breakthrough medical
information to the active exchange, even archiving of preprints--confirm
that the speed of scholarly communication requirements surpasses the
current capabilities of the print system.  The marketplace powershift is
also evident as the "just in time" document delivery becomes an expected
service in academia, encouraged by research libraries defeated by
repeated annual dramatic serial price increases.


       A second powershift relating to scholarly communication
is philosophical:  In Harlan Cleveland's terms, "How Can `Intellectual
Property` be `Protected`?. . . it's the wrong verb about the wrong
noun." The struggle to apply current copyright law to new electronic
technologies--and the failures that result--illustrate the validity of
Cleveland's concerns.  How can the concept of "fair use" be applied to
new technologies?  How does one incorporate information in electronic
formats into the system of interlibrary loan that has sustained
generations of scholars?

       The U.S. Congress' Office of Technology Assessment has
boldly answered these questions by recommending that Congress start from
scratch in redefining intellectual property issues.  Many visions of the
future electronic publishing world suggest that "pay for use" is the
only viable alternative in the new environment of digital technologies
where there are active incentives for copying.  Even the concept of
"authorship", a mainstay of copyright law, disappears in a "dynamic
digital medium."

       An institutional powershift for publishers is a third
consideration.  The publishers' traditional gate-keeping function is
bypassed as electronic bulletin boards and other unedited forms of
electronic communication burgeon.  Rising prices which put books and
journals beyond the capacity of research institutions to own are
creating challenges to the conventional practice of asking authors of
scholarly articles to give up ownership of copyright.  The copyright
assignment process effectively conveys work created, often at public
expense, into private hands.  Many publishers use electronic techniques
to create printed products but have proved extremely cautious in making
the electronic version an end-product.

       The Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) has
working groups actively engaged in creating opportunities for scholarly
publishing on NREN.  Anne Okerson, Association of Research Libraries,
suggests five strategies for moving toward a different publishing
environment:

       *     Formulate a statement of principles, including a
commitment to availability, affordability, directories, and friendly
access.

       *       Take an active role in deliberations about
privatization and commercialization of the network.

       *       Formulate guidelines on intellectual property
and economic issues.

       *       Develop ownership and copyright policies.

       *       Review academic incentives to give needed
recognition to electronic publication.

       An organizational powershift is taking place for
librarians as the applications of technology to scholarly communication
change the roles that they play.  For example, Richard E. Lucier adds a
role to the librarian repertoire, calling it "knowledge management."
"Knowledge management is a mutual responsibility for scientific and
scholarly communication, a responsibility shared by scholars,
scientists, and research librarians." Librarians as knowledge managers
begin their work with scientists and scholars in the initial point of
creation and follow this through with them to the application stage,
thereby entering the scholarly communication process much earlier than
the more conventional "dissemination and use" stage.  From work at Johns
Hopkins also comes the concept of a "collaboratory . . . a combination
of technology, tools and infrastructure that allows scientists to work
with remote facilities and with each other as if they were co-located
and effectively interfaced."  The prototype work at Johns Hopkins in
human genetics and internal medicine has produced new information
products, dynamic in the literal sense of growing daily through the
collaborative work of all participants in the scholarly communication
process.

       In summary, there is right now a great deal of shifting
and reorganizing occurring in the world of scholarly communication.
There will be challenges ahead in the form of intellectual property
issues, in identifying how we enhance interaction between librarians and
scholars, in grappling with questions about equity of access to the
processes and systems that define scholarly research and exchange, and
in ensuring protection of basic individual freedoms and rights in a
networked environment.  The transformation has begun, and it is likely
that in dealing with such issues over the next several years, we will
have to accept the challenge of aiming at a moving target.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *
          A BILL OF RIGHTS FOR AN ELECTRONIC SOCIETY:
                 A PUBLIC LIBRARY PERSPECTIVE

                        Susan Harrison

                 The New York Public Library
                      New York, New York


       When John Jacob Astor bequeathed $400,000 to the City of
New York in 1839, his intention was to create a "Public Library for
general use, free of expense to persons resorting  thereto."1  Only
$75,000 of the bequest was to be used for a building and the remaining
$325,000 was to be spent on books.  This was a remarkable development in
the history of libraries and strengthened the concept of the public
library as a place where individuals could obtain free access to books
and, by extension, to information.   University libraries were well
established in New York, as were private subscription libraries operated
by professional and mercantile groups. Ordinary people who were not
associated with a learned or professional organization, however, had
limited access to information that would help them with their trades,
with basic education, and with opportunities for self improvement.
Public libraries such as the Astor Library and other similarly endowed
and publicly funded libraries became a major source of information for
new immigrants who learned English, for mercantile and industrial
workers who used library resources to learn trades, for writers and
independent scholars, and for millions of Americans who gained basic
literacy skills and who acquired new knowledge after hours by studying
in public reading rooms.  Public libraries were and continue to be an
important source of information on political and social issues and a
means to assure an informed voting public.

       The Astor Library, with its 80,000 volumes, provided
information that no individual could afford to collect.  Today, the role
of public libraries has been extended to include assistance with
computer literacy and to provide information regardless of the medium in
which it is presented.  Libraries provide information in a variety of
optical, micrographic, and video formats, in addition to data acquired
from online data bases and electronic networks.  Many public libraries
have also developed their own data bases of community services,
government officials, local history, and local indexes, to supplement
information from commercial sources.  The explosion of information and
the profusion of expensive formats, expensive reading devices, and
costly telecommunications services are as difficult today for
individuals to provide for themselves as books were to library users of
the 19th century.  The cost and number of modern information services
also tax the ability of libraries to fulfill their mandate to provide a
broad spectrum of information to their public.  Information to be
collected includes not only published works, but unpublished papers,
data files, research in progress, and online indexes, all in vast
quantities and from myriad sources.  An increasing quantity of
information will be derived exclusively from online data bases and
networked sources, and public libraries must be aggressive in their
efforts to offer these resources to their users.

       In an environment where there will be increasing
dependence on electronic data and increasing diversification of the
sources of data, public libraries are wrestling with issues that will
determine their role in a society where information assumes still
greater importance and where a growing number of private sector
organizations threaten to usurp the public library's place as an
information provider.  Some key issues facing public libraries in the
1990s and into the 21st century are discussed below.


FREEDOM OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION BY ALL POPULATIONS


       In Powershift,2 Alvin Toffler predicts an age where
there is universal access by the population to computers, information
technology, and advanced media.  The new environment will have a
sophisticated telecommunications infrastructure which will become as
familiar to people as our present highway and railroad systems.  Toffler
foresees a new generation where access to information will play an
increasing part in people's acquisition of power, income, and success.
Elements of the network he describes are in place today and they are now
used by limited numbers of people who have access to appropriate
equipment and networks through academic institutions, government
agencies, and other employers.

       In a study conducted in 1990 by Louis Harris and
Associates, Using the Public Library in the Computer Age,3  the
surveyors found that public use of library reference materials had
increased 26% over a previous study in 1978  and that people of diverse
ages, income levels, education, and ethnic backgrounds have an awareness
of current technology and its critical role in meeting their information
needs.  Two thirds of the people surveyed indicated they would be
interested in using  home computers to access their public libraries in
order to locate information.  The study concludes that the public
library is in a critical position to empower users in the information
age and that libraries are best able to assure access to information
expressing all viewpoints by the broadest spectrum of users.

       Access to information has also traditionally been
defined for users of public libraries in terms of the distribution of
facilities geographically along with hours of operation.  Until now,
readers were required to visit the library site or, at best, telephone
the facility when information was needed.  As systems and networks are
introduced, many have been offered as dial-in services for users who
have PCs and modems, thus extending hours of service and overall access
beyond the traditional patterns.  Some forecasters see the evolution of
automated library outlets, like automatic teller machines, which will be
capable of dispensing on-demand books, media, printouts, and data on
terminal screens.

       Public libraries must play an important role in this
environment by providing free access to data for all populations and by
working aggressively to assure that this access is protected.  Libraries
will be under increasing financial pressure to provide a daunting array
of information service from a diminished economic base.  Since only a
few traditional services and print sources will be replaced immediately
by the new technology, it will be the challenge of public libraries to
develop cost-effective means to access and deliver information and to
develop new sources of funding to carry on this critical work.


VALUE-ADDED SERVICES AND INTERFACES


       In providing access to electronic data and networked
systems, public libraries must work to make these resources reasonably
easy to use.  Dewey Decimal and Library of Congress classifications and
the descriptive arrangement of catalog cards and printed indexes
represent the best efforts of generations of librarians to make
quantities of information accessible in a logical and consistent manner.
It is the role of libraries and librarians, in cooperation with systems
vendors, to see that their electronic systems and services offer
consistent, natural, and straightforward search strategies and, through
the development of telecommunications standards and adoption of standard
user interfaces, to assure that instructions and terminal displays are
clear and easy to use.  This is particularly important in the current
network environment where users of the INTERNET can search hundreds of
data bases in far flung research installations and academic institutions
through hundreds of telecommunications services.  Searching conventions,
workstation commands, and data arrangement characteristics of these
databases vary widely from one to another, making general access
difficult for all but the most experienced searcher.  This wealth of
information will be lost to the general users served by public libraries
without professional mediation or improved standard user interfaces.


COMPUTER LITERACY TRAINING


       Among the diverse populations served, public libraries
are currently assisting the poorest of the "information poor" who lack
basic literacy skills, with tutoring, classes, and specially designed
reading materials.  It is estimated that there are 23 million people in
the U.S. who read below the 5th grade level and 24 million families are
classified as living below the poverty level who can also be helped by
public libraries.

       Although some electronic systems and networks are
designed so as not to require extensive technical training for general
use, people will need to acquire some computer literacy and a
familiarity with computer workstations.  Education and support for use
of online information systems and networks is appropriately offered in
public libraries for those who have not acquired these skills elsewhere.
In the short term, librarians will need to assist users with equipment,
formulation of searches, and overall strategy to a variety of disparate
sources.  Libraries must also develop programs to assist users who
receive too much information, who are overwhelmed with a wealth of data.
Part of library training involves tailoring searches and distilling
large amounts of data into usable relevant portions.


PRIVACY OF PATRON RECORDS


       In the course of developing automated systems to improve
internal operations and online catalog workstation features, libraries
have amassed data bases which include detailed personal information
about the borrowing habits of large segments of their populations.
Circulation files include patron addresses, statistical information,
some of which may be personal; usage statistics; and data on current
reading.  Some public access catalogs also permit users to build and
store, for a time, personal bibliographies or reading histories.  Most
states now have legislation protecting the privacy of library users
while retaining the right of libraries to maintain necessary circulation
files for the recovery of borrowed materials.

       It is essential that libraries appreciate their mandate
to protect the privacy of their patrons.  This can be achieved by
collecting minimal patron data and more importantly, by purging all
borrowing history when materials have been returned.  Staff must be
warned that they are not to give out borrower information without a
subpoena and libraries should exercise discretion in their production of
overdue reminders and other patron notifications so that personal and
delinquency information is not visible on data mailers or postcards.
Recent experience with the FBI "Library Awareness" program should remind
libraries that government and police agencies continue to be interested
in people's reading habits and that is the role of public libraries to
protect users from unwarranted snooping.

       These are some of the issues relating to the challenges
that lie ahead for public libraries in an electronic age, where
information is a valuable resource for personal and public advancement.
In a highly automated information-dependent society where universal
access to computers and telecommunications networks is envisioned,
public libraries, in the tradition of their 19th-century roots, must
continue to play an important role in supplying information needs of
citizens.  Public libraries are the appropriate agency to preserve
access to information by all users regardless of their financial
resources.  Public libraries will need to incorporate increasingly
sophisticated electronic means to deliver the broadest array of
information, they must participate in efforts to improve user
interfaces, and they must also protect the privacy of users whose
reading and borrower patterns are so easily monitored and analyzed
electronically.  Public libraries need to be part of planning for
systems and telecommunications initiatives like National Research and
Education Network (NREN), and to position themselves as a critical
element in a more highly automated information age.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *


1. Dain, Phyllis. The New York Public Library: A History of Its Founding
and Early Years. New York: The NewYork Public Library, Astor, Lenox and
Tilden Foundations, 1972, (ISBN 0-87104-136-6), p. 4.

2. Toffler, Alvin. Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at the
Edge of the 21st Century. NewYork: Bantam, 1990, (ISBN: 0-553-05776-6).

3. Westin, Alan F. and Anne L. Finger. Using the Public Library in the
Computer Age: Present Patterns,Future Possibilities, A National Public
Opinion Survey Report by the Reference Point Foundation,in Cooperation
with the American Library Association.  Chicago: American Library
Association, 1991.
INFORMATION FOR ALL PEOPLE: THE ROLE OF LOCAL AND STATELIBRARIES IN
OVERCOMING GEOGRAPHICAL BARRIERS TO INFORMATION

                       Howard F. McGinn

                 North Carolina State Library
                    Raleigh, North Carolina



       Remote, unknown, unexplored lands protected by natural
barriers have intrigued humankind since the initial emergence of homo
sapiens from the primeval ooze.  From the wanderings of prehistoric
tribes in search of food, arable land, safety, and rich pastures, to the
wanderings of the Spanish conquistadors in search of gold, the fountain
of youth and converts for their earthly kingdom of God, to Lewis and
Clark, human beings have endured extreme hardship, suffering, and death
in their quests for survival, material riches, fame, and spiritual
enlightenment.  They have traversed high mountain ranges, enormous
rivers, and thousands of miles of ocean to reach "promised lands."

       The wandering continues unabated in the modern age.
While some people have climbed the mountains, bridged the major rivers,
and completed the tunnel beneath the English Channel, others continue to
explore the near space of outer space around the earth.  Hollywood has
contrived to cast a romantic glow on remoteness.  Gene Kelly danced his
way through the Scottish mists to happiness in Brigadoon.  Ronald
Coleman found eternal youth in Shangri-La.  Richard Dreyfuss is
somewhere in the universe after his Close Encounter of the Third Kind.

       But while escapism and adventure have been lures to an
existence in remote areas, the most dominating reason for the conquest
of geographic barriers has been economic.  The ultimate prize sought by
the early explorers of the Americas was gold and furs, not souls.  The
primary goals sought by Lewis and Clarke were the expansion of the
United States and an audit of the lands of the newly acquired Louisiana
Purchase.  The hoped for result of the tunnel beneath the English
Channel is increased trade between Great Britain and the other nations
of the European Economic Community.  But perhaps the most radical yet
far reaching manifestation of this search for the unknown combined the
concepts of economic wealth with the creation of a new world order.
This philosophy rested in the writings of the 18th Century French
philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy, the Compte de Saint Simon. "It was
he who wrote 'From each according to his ability, to each according to
his work.'" And as David McCullough writes in The Path Between The Seas:
The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870 - 1914: "Mainly the good society
was to be attained through ennobling, regenerative, work.  The world was
to be saved -- from poverty, from war -- through the immense public
improvements, networks of highways, railroads, and two great ship canals
through the Isthmus of Suez and the Isthmus of Panama." The highways
were built, the railroads crossed the continents, the canals mated the
seas.  In their wake came immense power and wealth for a few and extreme
poverty for many.  In their construction came mass exploitation of
native-born and immigrant peoples and the creation of fortunes that
would become the cornerstone of American philanthropy.  In their
completion came the last years of the dominance of the British Empire
and its eventual replacement by  America.  And in the end of this era
came the small towns in the prairies that built the railroads and helped
create middle class America, and the coal mining towns of Appalachia
that fueled the machines of these colossal projects and helped create a
permanent "third world" America.

       Here is where the irony begins, in these prairie towns
that are now nearing extinction, in these coal towns that are locked in
permanent poverty.  The railroads, canals, and highways their citizens
built in order to overcome geographic barriers so that products might be
delivered from remote areas to urban market



places have declined, victims of obsolescence, neglect, and the advance
of technology.  Yet the towns and their people have the potential for a
future not overwhelmed by poverty because of the emergence of a global
economy based on the rapid transfer of electronic information over data
telecommunications systems that transcend all physical barriers so
effortlessly that geographical barriers have become meaningless.  And
the key outlet in both remote and urban areas for the distribution of
these electronic raw materials and products is another ancient
institution that is flirting with irrelevancy, the library.  What role
can the public library, or for that matter, any library play in this new
economy?  What is the role of state government, especially the state
library agency, in assuring that equal access to information is made
available to all private and corporate citizens in all geographic areas
of a state, especially states with significant geographical barriers?
Let me suggest answers to these questions.  I'll begin with the role of
the local library.


LOCAL LIBRARIES: THE INFORMATION PUBLIC UTILITY


       Many libraries and their directors feel that they are
immune to change, that they can defy the Darwinian evolutionary process
by closing their eyes tightly, increasing the warm fuzzy feeling that
they believe their communities expect of the library, and hoping the
world will just go away and leave them alone.  Funding, of course,
should stay, increase and multiply.  This resistance to change by these
librarians is usually based on a personal reluctance or inability to
compete aggressively in the global, information-based economy and in the
belief in the mystique of the book, a mystique that postulates that all
knowledge that is important is recorded on paper.  They are missing a
future that offers unlimited power and influence to the librarian and
the institution of the library because they refuse or are unable to
grasp the fact that the library, by controlling access to information,
can become the community's "information public utility", the source of
the raw electronic information that the community will need in order for
its businesses and citizens to operate and prosper in the new economy.

       The role of the local library as the community's
information public utility is possible because any size library, in any
geographical area of a state can become the information power source for
a town.  The experience of the State Library of North Carolina's North
Carolina Information Network is that rural libraries, in particular, can
significantly enhance their image and the investment their communities
make in the information assets of the library by becoming the purveyors
of the vital electronic information the town requires to function and
compete.  These libraries continue to circulate books, develop programs
for children and young adults, and do all of the things that have come
to be regarded as traditional.  What they have also done is evolve into
an essential component of the community's economic development program
by helping people and companies make money and create jobs through the
delivery of electronic information.  They have become relevant once
again.


STATE LIBRARY AGENCIES: THE CATALYST FOR CHANGE


       In order for this metamorphosis to take place in the
local library, the aggressive cooperation of the state library is
essential.  In most states only the state library has the positional or
political placement in government to develop services that will serve
all areas of the state.  A borrowed phrase from John Le Carre defines
the role of the state library very poetically: the state library must
become "the cool-headed broker between the necessity and the far
vision." In order to develop the information networks needed by
communities in all parts of the state, three roles are most important
for the state library to play: coordinator, product developer, enforcer.




Coordinator


       The role of coordinator is crucial because contractual
arrangements with commercial information vendors and federal, state and
local government agencies are needed to serve vast geographic areas.
The key element in creating universal service is access to an
up-to-date, high speed data telecommunications network that reaches all
areas of the state.  As the National Research and Education Network
(NREN) develops, this access will become even more crucial since the
state level network will probably function as the local network
component of the NREN.  The data telecommunications networks in the
states are most often operated by a state telecommunications agency or
by the state's public university system.  Some states may even have more
than one system.  The state library, in its role as coordinator, must
make contractual agreements with the operators of these networks if the
entire state is to be served.  In North Carolina, for example, the State
Library signed an interagency agreement with the University of North
Carolina Educational Computing Service to provide access to the
University's X.25 packet network to public and private academic
libraries across a state that includes barrier islands in the Gulf
Stream and the highest mountains east of the Mississippi River.  The
University had already constructed a packet network that had established
nodes in each of its sixteen campuses, each of the state's fifty-eight
community colleges, the State Library, regional health science
libraries, and several private academic institutions such as Duke
University and Davidson College.  The State Library has provided the
funding to install the equipment at thirty of these nodes that permits a
local library to dial a local telephone number to access the
University's packet network.  Because of the  geographic distribution of
the institutions and their packet nodes, even the most remote mountain
community has inexpensive local access to the statewide network and
eventually to NREN.


Product Developer


       The role of product developer combines the role of
coordinator with the functions of a publisher.  Electronically stored
information proliferates in state capitals.  State libraries must gain
access to these public data files and make them available over the
state's network in a form that is usable by local librarians and
citizens.  The North Carolina Information Network distributes, for
example, in database format, listings of all contracts for goods and
services and all highway and non-highway construction projects being put
out for bid by state government.  For the first time businesses in towns
across the state can bid on 99% of the state contracts.  Business and
tax revenue now flow into remote, poor counties.  This program was
developed by the State Library and the state's Office of Purchase and
Contract.  A similar cooperative program with the Department of
Administration and the state's Personnel Office lists, electronically,
all job openings in state government once a week.  The effects of
geography disappear.


Enforcer


       The role of enforcer is more difficult to define and
more laden with political problems, yet it is essential if the
electronic information infrastructure is to succeed.  State library
policies must be designed to force local libraries to participate in
these networks and offer electronic information programs to their
communities.  Using North Carolina once again as an example, all
libraries in the state will be required to use OCLC for interlibrary
loan by December 31, 1991.  The State Library had offered a toll free
telephone ILL and reference service for over twenty years, but the
success of the Information Network's OCLC group access program made the
ILL function of the traditional service obsolete.  The toll free service
has been converted into a comprehensive statewide reference service.


       Geographical barriers are no longer an excuse for the
existence of material poverty or poverty of the mind.  Libraries, if
they are willing, can help lift their communities out of the third
world.  If they are not willing, they run the risk of extinction because
they will become irrelevant and die from lack of funding.  Cost cannot
be used as a reason for non-participation by a library.  The notion that
access to and use of electronic information systems is expensive is a
myth.  The technical and equipment investment in the development of
these networks, though, is expensive.  But if the state library can
develop cooperative programs with state agencies that have already
invested in electronic delivery systems, then the public's investment in
these systems can be leveraged to serve all the people of the state.
Shangri-La and Brigadoon are possible to reach if the librarian, like
the explorer and dreamer, is willing to take risks, explore, and dream.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *

    INFORMATION ACCESS AND AN ELECTRONIC BILL OF RIGHTS:
                    A  SCHOOL  PERSPECTIVE

                      Stephen L. Matthews

                 Audrey Bruce Currier Library
                        Foxcroft School
                     Middleburg, Virginia



       Electronic media is not new to the school environment,
with visual and audio formats having played an important role in basic
education since the late 1950's.  School librarians became school
library media specialists, not to irritate the rest of the profession,
but to better describe the expanded role of non-print in the
library/information program of schools.  Electronic formats have not
only been incorporated into the collections of school libraries, but
have facilitated the production and design of instructional programming
and the storing of this in-house information for the school and local
community as a whole.  With the publication of Information Power in
1988, the library media profession produced a proactive blueprint for a
three-prong professional role encompassing traditional storage and
retrieval tasks, teaching, and instructional design/production
responsibilities.

       Our schools are public tools.  They socialize and
prepare students for life in American society, while they grapple with
values and teach skills.  Few students are finished and ready for the
workplace when they graduate from high school.  As Americans, we
continue to delude ourselves that graduation from high school provides
closure to basic learning and readiness for an increasingly technical
and global society.  One could argue that even the recipients of
graduate professional degrees are merely prepared to apply their theory
and lab work in the "school of actual endeavor."  The primary
responsibility of schools is to  dispose students toward an openness to
inquiry and provide them with the wherewithal to take responsibility for
their own learning.  Within this context, the ability to know what
information is needed and how and where to find it should be one of the
most basic goals of elementary and secondary education.

       Yet, what determines the character of information that
students receive in the process of their formal education?  Do students
as minors need to be protected from the world and from themselves?  If
so, when should they be protected and by whom?  What unifies and helps
to link schools with a lifelong learning process?  Information and the
ability to access it is what will provide the connection needed by high
school graduates to move successfully into higher education or society
at large.

       One of the major changes for schools brought forth by
electronic information has been the ability to generate and share
information quickly and widely.  Schools can create entire curricula
available through online networks.  It is in this area where choice and
oversight is crucial.  What should students have access to?  What is
necessary in its own right as information, and what is used as an
instructional tool to provide a learning prototype of information
systems to foster the critical thinking/searching skills necessary to
use electronic media effectively?

       Why would schools need an "Electronic Bill of Rights?"
Would the purpose be to address the specific nature of electronic
information or, if protection of access and encouragement of use of
information are the goals, to recommit ourselves to the constitutional
guarantees and statements of professional values and ethics that we
already strive to live by?   Change is an ever-present force in the way
we structure and present information. Our dedication to protecting
access and free flow must transcend the container it comes in and the
paths through which it is disseminated.


       The "Library Bill of Rights" and the "Freedom to Read
Statement" both reflect constitutional concerns for individual freedoms
and provide language and a focus to defend and advance access to
information.  However, in the school environment where censorship is
quite common, these values are constantly under siege.  With the
staggering possibilities of computer-generated multi-media, it is
inevitable that challenges will take place.  It is important to
emphasize the continuum of commitment to access and the negative impact
of denying a new generation the right to know.  It would be
counterproductive to set electronic media apart.  Instead, we need to
accelerate our mastery of the technology which drives it while we
increase public awareness of the importance of protecting this evolving,
sometimes dizzying, set of formats.

       The daunting task for schools, and more specifically for
media centers, is to develop a set of common professional rationales for
protection of information integrity and user access in the electronic
environment.  Whether this is done through a new initiative such as an
"Electronic Bill of Rights" or as a logical outgrowth of already
existing documents, several points must be considered.

       1. We need to reiterate the values and applications of
the 1st Amendment concerning information dissemination.  It is
imperative that we repeatedly remind our communities and our schools
that free access and free inquiry are traditional values as well as the
foundation of innovation and progress.  The irony of electronic advances
in information transfer is that they vastly increase the potential for
broadened access, yet offer new more efficient ways to violate 1st
Amendment rights.

       2. Basic access means convenient and free access to
certain types of information.  Fees are routinely charged for many
electronic services and these for-fee services are often severely
limited in hours of access.  Basic service will increasingly entail
electronic access and manipulation of information.  We need to define
what "access to basic information sources" entails and offer it without
charge and conveniently.  Once an institution or government becomes
accustomed to a "revenue source," it is a painful if not impossible task
to discontinue it.

       3. The nature of electronic information requires an
intermediary support structure.  Those who are able to afford computers,
modems, etc. have a decided advantage in today's information
environment.  If librarians serving the needs of a free society don't
provide a portal to the electronic world, there will be virtually no
opportunity for some citizens to overcome an already decided
disadvantage.

       4. As we participate in the shaping of the technology
and its application, we need to educate our students and our
communities.  Schools have a primary responsibility to incorporate
technology into the curriculum and to provide basic knowledge about the
production, distribution, and availability of information.

       5. Availability of access and commercial profit are
often in conflict.  What is good for vendors is not necessarily good for
the information needs of students who need to learn how to cope in an
electronic world.  While vendors are important, even crucial players and
often allies, our actions are motivated by different and sometimes
conflicting purposes.

       6. Librarians and library media specialists will be even
more necessary to provide the human connection and the philosophical
framework necessary to shepherd a free society and basic education
through the labyrinth of electronic twists and turns.


        ELECTRONIC RECORDS AND INTELLECTUAL FREEDOM IN
          SCHOOLS OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE:
                      A HISTORICAL ESSAY

                     Frederick J. Stielow

           School of Library and Information Science
                Catholic University of America
                       Washington, D.C.



       An Electronic Bill of Rights is an apt topic for
inclusion in instruction in schools of library and information science.
In addition to the normal focus on applied theory and tool skills,
students ideally engage philosophical principles with demonstrable
consequences for their profession and the world at large, and learn
about proactive practitioners and associations lobbying on the national
and international scene.  Students are exposed to the true power and
complexity of information policies, including such electronically
heightened factors as government surveillance/controls and the
conflicting rights between intellectual freedom and privacy.

       Yet, the historian in me also urges caution.  Myths
often outweigh the truths on intellectual freedom and librarianship.
One way to add to the reader's understanding of these current issues and
perhaps learn from the lessons of the past is through a historical
analysis of the teaching on intellectual freedom and automation in our
professional schools.

       Professional education began at the bachelor's level in
the mid-1880s without anything approaching our present consciousness on
intellectual freedom.  In keeping with the best of their times, the
founding fathers and their Progressive disciples were filled with an
almost missionary zeal to elevate society through the scientific
provision of properly edifying materials.  American librarianship in
essence began from a model of social control and implied censorship.  It
is doubtful, however, that this was formally taught for philosophical
debate in the library schools.  Indeed, as the famed Williamson report
supports, library education quickly eschewed moral dilemmas altogether,
preferring to preoccupy itself with narrower technical matters.

       The oxymoron of censorship within an agency espousing
democratic values was not systematically confronted by the profession
until the 1920s and 1930s.  ALA's first decisive statement favoring open
access to materials on all sides of an issue did not appear until 1939
with "The Library Bill of Rights."  This is particularly significant
since librarianship, perhaps more than any other field, takes its
educational lead from its national professional association.  But while
exceptions existed, overall there seems to have been little room in
highly technical curricula for student edification in matters of
intellectual rights and the like even in the years immediately following
ALA's adoption of "The Library Bill of Rights".

       The change awaited the rise of graduate education and
the MLS following World War II--a war that strengthened belief in the
library as an "arsenal for democracy."  A new trend could be seen in the
emergence of basic "foundations courses," which appeared following ALA's
first graduate school guidelines in 1951 -- developments which
transpired during one of librarianship's finest hours in the fight
against McCarthyism.

       Mary Lee Bundy, however, has argued that even at that
time educators continued to concentrate on technique and did little to
explore the power of information in its societal context.  Professional
principles and ethics were imparted more as formulas than as calls to
action.  The real breakthrough in incorporating

an issues orientation to intellectual freedom in library education
awaited the tumultuous 1960s, when library school students took to the
fore and such new players as the Office of Intellectual Freedom and
Freedom to Read Foundation appeared.  Students and liberal allies
brought intellectual freedom doctrines to bear on the new issue of
patron privacy rights, as well as such seemingly non-library problems as
civil rights, poverty, and war.  The updating of ALA's accreditation
guidelines in 1971 helped affirm a new accommodation.  Even with a later
retreat in terms of social activism and privacy rights, intellectual
freedom had achieved semi-sacred status for both conservatives and
liberals--an assumed instructional element for mention in every library
school in the United States.

       Library schools were quick to embrace automation.  The
efforts of pioneering educators date at least to the 1950s and contagion
from a strange European import called information science.  By the
1960s, library education as a whole was infected and, by the 1970s, one
school after another was adding information science to its title.  By
the 1990s, the need to deal with the infusion of MARC records, online
searching, and newly published works on floppy disks and CD-ROM left
automation as an endemic element in library education of far more
practical import than ethics.

       A linkage between ethics and automation was not
immediately forthcoming.  Following from the communication schema of
Claude Shannon, and with the factors of government and military support
behind most of its advances, information science generally began by
treating data as only a raw commodity without addressing the social
import of the message.  Given those ingredients, the personalities
involved, and the complexities of the technology, it is easy to
understand how one could follow a narrow instrumentalist path and fail
to find time for information issues.  There have been similar practical
restraints in extending the examination of issues surrounding technology
into ethics, foundations, and collections development courses.  Some
instructors may feel automation is beyond their competency or find it
hard to fit automation within the rubric of book-based instruction.

       On the other hand, these once usually parallel paths are
now intersecting more frequently in schools of library and information
science.  Catholic University of America, for example, makes certain to
integrate the two concepts throughout its core sequence of four classes,
as well as advanced topics seminars on "Information Resources
Management" and "Online Searching".  Its basic "Information and Society"
course visits the new threats to information along the historical
continuum of librarianship (moreover, students can actually witness and
lend support to the policies being made by taking trips to Capitol
Hill).  The required "Introduction to Automated Systems in Libraries and
Information Centers" course reaffirms those experiences within an
electronic context for such library dicta as open access and the
government's responsibility to provide information to the citizenry.
The examination of automated systems also brings up concepts of privacy
and security.  Fortunately, the FBI's botched Library Awareness Program
in the late 1980s has provided much grist for the mill, helping to
create a new myth to round out librarians' views for a true Electronic
Bill of Rights.

       Discussions reveal that CUA is not alone.  Other schools
show a similar understanding and path toward blending ethical principles
with automation in the curriculum.  Anyone who attempts to keep up with
the news cannot ignore the extension of now traditional library issues
to automation in the Paperwork Reduction Act, the privatization or
questionable security classification of governmental data bases, and a
host of legal maneuverings on intellectual freedom and privacy.  Dealing
with such issues is also demonstrably necessary in order to help
distinguish graduate level library computer studies courses from
undergraduate course work in automation or computer literacy from other
departments--e.g., Introduction to Microcomputers 101.

       In sum, library education can perhaps be best
characterized as in the process of synthesis between automation and
ethics.   Some continue to be blinded by technological Valhallas and
treat the computer as a neutral medium.  Others remind librarianship and
its education arm to learn from the past and balance between techniques
and true mission.  In these last regards, classroom discussions on the
elements of an Electronic Bill of Rights emerge as definitionally
germane to library and information science education.  They

are part and parcel of current awareness, the development of
professionalism, and, perhaps, even an extension of the Jeffersonian
vigilance required to maintain a democratic system and recreate our myth
structures.


                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *

                                               ELECTRONIC PRIVACY AND DATA PR
OTECTION LEGISLATION IN THE 102nd CONGRESS

Frederick D. King

American Library Association Washington, D.C., Office


       Congress is pondering a variety of topics connected with
electronic privacy and data protection.  The following is a survey of
legislation currently before Congress.  It begins with comments
regarding  NREN legislation, is followed by sections on a variety of
privacy and telecommunications issues, and then by sections on telephone
and audiotext legislation.  The information in this paper was current
through May, 1991.


NATIONAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION NETWORK


       The pending legislation to establish a National Research and Education
Network (NREN) currently in Congress is not very specific about data
security or privacy. The current version of HR 656, which was ordered
reported on May 8, requires the National High-Performance Computing
Program to address the security requirements, policies, and standards
necessary to protect computer networks and information resources
accessible through them. The National Institute of Standards and
Technology will conduct the research needed to adopt security standards.

       Senator Gore's NREN bill, S. 272, has a similar
requirement, but the responsibility for defining and implementing a
security plan is spread among a wide range of federal agencies. The
National Institute of Standards and Technology, the National Science
Foundation, and the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency are
required to adopt a common set of standards and guidelines to provide
enhanced security for the network.

       The Senate version also requires the Director of the
Office of Science and Technology Policy to report to Congress on
appropriate policies and standards to protect the privacy of users of
networks, a requirement that was dropped in the House version.

       Another NREN bill, S. 343, which was reported on May 23,
states that the NREN shall "be designed and operated so as to ensure
continued application of laws that provide network and information
resources security measures, including those that protect copyright and
intellectual property rights, and those that control access to data
bases and protect national security."


DATA PRIVACY


HR 280 "Individual Privacy Protection Act of 1991." Introduced by Rep.
Collins (D-IL).

       Establishes an Individual Privacy Protection Board. The
Board shall recommend to the President and the Congress what
legislation, administrative action, or voluntary adoption of
requirements are necessary to protect the privacy of individuals while
meeting the legitimate needs of government and society for information.
The Board shall also review federal law, Executive orders, etc., and
report on the extent to which they are consistent with the rights of
privacy, due process of law, and other guarantees of the Constitution.
The Board shall comment on the implications for data protection of
proposed federal, state, or local statutes, regulations, or procedures.
The Board may examine interstate transfer of information about
individuals; data banks and information programs and systems which
significantly affect the privacy and other personal and property rights
of individuals; the use of social security numbers, license plate
numbers, and other symbols to identify individuals in data banks; and
the analysis of statistical data with other personal data in a way which
results in a violation of the implied or explicitly recognized
confidentiality of such information. The Board may determine what
specific categories of information should be prohibited by statute from
collection by federal agencies.

       Referred to the Government Operations Subcommittee on
Government Information, Justice, and Agriculture on February 19.


HR 685 "Data Protection Act of 1991." Introduced by Rep. Wise (D-WV).

       Establishes a Data Protection Board as an independent
agency of the executive branch. The Board shall develop guidelines for
use by federal agencies in implementing the Privacy Act of 1974. The
Board may investigate compliance with and comment on proposals to amend
the Privacy Act; review federal, state, and local laws, Executive
orders, regulations, etc., and report whether they are consistent with
data protection rights; and propose legislation on data protection.
According to Rep. Wise, "In the not too distant future, consumers face
the prospect that a computer somewhere will compile a record about
everything they purchase, every place they go, and everything they
do.... We need to help consumers, businesses, and government develop
policies and practices to distinguish between appropriate and
inappropriate uses of personal data. That would be one of the principal
functions of the Data Protection Board."

       Referred to the Government Operations Subcommittee on
Government Information, Justice, and Agriculture and to its Subcommittee
on Legislation and National Security on February 20.

       On April 10, the Subcommittee on Government Information,
Justice, and Agriculture held a hearing on data protection issues and
public and corporate reactions to privacy. The main focus of the hearing
was Equifax's decision to cancel the release of its Lotus MarketPlace:
Households CD-ROM database. John Baker, Senior Vice President of
Equifax, explained a survey that Equifax had commissioned with Louis
Harris & Associates on the subject of privacy. The survey showed that
Americans are concerned about the lack of control they have over
information about them, but that they also value the benefits they
receive from information and technology. Although Lotus MarketPlace had
safeguards against abuse, Equifax decided that it would be socially
responsible to cancel the product. Another concern raised at the hearing
dealt with data protection laws in the European Community. According to
Rep. Wise, "if the United States is perceived to have inadequate data
protection laws... U.S. companies could lose access to information from
Europe and could thereby lose international influence, business
opportunities, and jobs."


HR 2443 "Privacy Act Amendments of 1991." Introduced by Rep. Wise (D-WV)

       Makes several changes in the Privacy Act of 1974.  One
change amends the definition of "record" so that personal information is
subject to the act independent of the medium on which the information is
maintained.  This makes it clear that computerized information is
subject to the Privacy Act.

       Referred to the House Committee on Government Operations
on May 22.

S. 618 "Violent Crime Control of 1991." Introduced by Sen. Biden (D-DE);
1 cosponsor.

       A 194-page bill to control and reduce violent crime.
Sec. 545 of the bill states "It is the sense of Congress that providers
of electronic communications services and manufacturers of electronic
communications service equipment shall ensure that communications
systems permit the government to obtain the plain text contents of
voice, data, and other communications when appropriately authorized by
law."

       Referred to the House Judiciary Committee on March 12.
Hearings were held on April 18, April 23, May 7 and May 15.


WORKPLACE PRIVACY


S. 516 "Privacy for Consumers and Workers Act." Introduced by Sen. Simon
(D-IL); 1 cosponsor.

       Requires employers who engage in electronic monitoring
to provide affected employees and potential employees with prior written
notice describing the type of monitoring to be done. Requires employers
to permit employees to have access to all personal data collected by
such electronic monitoring. Prohibits employers from electronically
collecting data that is not relevant to the employee's work performance.
Data collected may not be used as the sole basis for evaluation or
production quotas. Employers are prohibited from collecting data
obtained by electronic monitoring which describes how an employee
exercises rights guaranteed by the First Amendment unless such use is
expressly authorized.

       Referred to the Labor and Human Resources Subcommittee
on Employment and Productivity on March 7.


HR 1218 "Privacy for Consumers and Workers Act." Introduced by Rep.
Williams (D-MT); 85 cosponsors.

       An identical companion bill to S. 516.

       Referred to the Education and Labor Subcommittee on
Labor-Management Relations and to its Subcommittee on Employment
Opportunities on March 21.


FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT


HR 1423 "Freedom of Information Public Access Improvement Act of 1991."
Introduced by Rep. Kleczka (D-WI); 10 Cosponsors.

       Amends the Freedom of Information Act in various ways,
including defining "record" to include electronic information in any
storage medium, and "search" to include a "reasonable amount of computer
programming necessary to identify records."

       Referred to the Government Operations Subcommittee on
Government Operations, Justice, and Agriculture on March 14.


GOVERNMENT COPYRIGHT


HR 191 "Technology Transfer Improvements Act of 1991." Introduced by
Rep. Morella (R-MD).

       Allows federal agencies to secure copyright on behalf of the United
States as author or proprietor in any computer software prepared by
employees of the United States Government in the course of work under a
cooperative research and development agreement.

       Referred to the Science, Space, and Technology
Subcommittee on Technology and Competitiveness on February 12, and to
the Judiciary Subcommittee on Intellectual Property and Judicial
Administration on April 16.


TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY


HR 277 "Telecommunications Policy Coordination Act of 1991." Introduced
by Rep. Collins (D-IL).

       Establishes an Office of Telecommunications Policy in
the Executive Office of the President. The office would prepare national
telecommunications policy options, serve as the principal advisor to the
President in matters relating to telecommunications issues and policies,
and monitor the development of new telecommunications technologies.

       Referred to the Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on
Telecommunications and Finance on February 11.


TELEPHONE CALLER ID


S. 652 "Telephone Privacy Act of 1991." Introduced by Sen. Kohl (D-WI).

       Enables telephone users to block Caller ID. Telephone
companies are not required to enable callers to block receipt of
identifying information on the emergency assistance line of a police or
fire department, or on a 911 emergency line. According to Sen. Kohl,
"forced Caller ID violates our fundamental right to privacy because
there are a variety of situations where callers need and deserve to keep
their phone numbers to themselves.... if a stranger came up to you on
the street and asked you for your home phone number, would you give it
to him? Of course not.... The answer is to allow consumers to retain
their freedom of choice." Sen. Kohl also expressed his concern that
Caller ID might be illegal. In 1990, a Pennsylvania court of appeals
ruled that Caller ID violated the state's constitution and its wiretap
statute, which is almost identical to the Federal version. The case is
currently before the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. Sen. Kohl also said
experts have argued that Caller ID may be an illegal "trap and trace
device" under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act.

       Discharged without action by the Senate Committee on
Commerce, Science, and Transportation on March 21, and referred to the
Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Technology and the Law on March
25.

HR 1449 "Telephone Privacy Act of 1991." Introduced by Rep. Synar
(D-OK); 1 cosponsor.

       Allows telephone callers to block caller ID. Allows
customers to sue providers that allow caller ID but do not allow
blocking. This bill is a companion to S. 652.

       Referred to the Committee on the Judiciary on March 14.


HR 1305 "Telephone Consumer Privacy Rights Act." Introduced by Rep.
Markey (D-MA); 11 cosponsors.

       Allows telephone callers to block caller ID. Does not
apply to private branch exchanges or emergency numbers. Customers would
not be charged for blocking calls. When he was introducing this bill,
Rep. Markey stated that "the awesome power and pervasiveness of advanced
telecommunications may mean that in the future, personal privacy will be
threatened in fundamental ways."

       The Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on
Telecommunications and Finance held a hearing on this bill on April 24.
See HR 1304 below for details.


TELEPHONE SOLICITATION


HR 1304 "Telephone Advertising Consumer Rights Act." Introduced by Rep.
Markey (D-MA); 42 cosponsors.

       Requires the FCC to create a database of people who
object to receiving telephone solicitations. Companies that solicit by
telephone would be required to purchase copies of the list, and
companies would be prohibited from making calls to people on the list.
Automatic dialers would not be permitted to call emergency lines, paging
or cellular telephone services. All fax advertising transmittals would
be required to be identified. When Rep. Markey was introducing this
bill, he referred to the telephone as "an insistent master�when it
rings, we answer it�and many consumers complain bitterly that, when it
rings to deliver unsolicited advertising, it is invading their
privacy... This bill...is a bipartisan effort to return a measure of
control to consumers over what they hear and read."

       The Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on
Telecommunications and Finance held a hearing on HR 1304 and 1305 on
April 24. The witnesses at the hearing held a broad range of opinions
both on Caller ID and on a nationwide database. Mark Rotenberg of
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility said that Caller ID was
"directly at odds with established legal and ethical standards of
privacy protection," and recommended that free per-line blocking be
offered to subscribers. He also said that a flat prohibition on
unsolicited advertising may have a chilling effect on free speech.
Janlori Goldman, Director of the Privacy and Technology Project for the
American Civil Liberties Union, said that ACLU supported the bills, but
that they were concerned with the First Amendment issues raised by HR
1305. Richard Brown, Executive Director of the Direct Marketing
Association, recommended that self-regulation would be preferable to a
federally-mandated nationwide database.

       HR 1304 was marked up by the Subcommittee and approved
for full Committee action on May 9.  The bill now limits the database to
residential telephone subscribers.  The bill also states "The Congress
finds that...[i]ndividuals' privacy rights, public safety interests, and
commercial freedoms of speech and trade must be balanced in a way that
protects the privacy of individuals and permits legitimate telemarketing
practices."

HR 1431 Introduced by Rep. Boehlert (R-NY).

       Allows people to file a statement with the FCC that they
do not wish to receive unsolicited telephone calls. The FCC is required
to maintain the list and make it available to any person on reasonable
terms and conditions. Non-profit organizations are exempt. When the FCC
believes that a person is violating this law, the FCC may ask the
Attorney General to take civil action; civil penalties for violating
this law may not exceed $10,000.

       Referred to the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and
Finance on March 25.


HR 1589 "Telephone Privacy Act." Introduced by Rep. Unsoeld (D-WA); 2
cosponsors.

       Outlaws commercial solicitation by computers. Rep.
Unsoeld called this bill "a piece of legislation of interest to every
American with a telephone and a desire for peace and quiet once they
reach the sanctity of their own home."

Referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce on March 21.


AUDIOTEXT


HR 328 "Telephone Consumer Assistance Act." Introduced by Rep. Gordon
(D-TN); 67 cosponsors.

       Requires the FCC to establish a system for oversight and
regulation of audiotext services. Requires the services to provide an
introductory message that describes the service, specifies the cost of
the call, and informs the caller of the option to hang up without being
charged. The bill also requires that any bypass of the cost disclosure
message be disabled when the cost of the service has changed, and
prohibits local exchange carriers from disconnecting telephone service
because of nonpayment of audiotext charges. Common carriers are required
to provide each caller with the option to avoid audiotext charges caused
by unauthorized use or misunderstanding of the charges and to offer
callers the option of blocking access to all audiotext services.
Advertisers are required to state the charges for audiotext services,
required to state that minors receive parental consent before placing
calls, and are prohibited from carrying advertisements that emit tones
that can automatically dial an audiotext number. Common carriers are
prohibited from providing service in which children under 18 would be
asked to provide their name, address, and other information. The bill
requires the Secretary of Commerce to conduct a study of audiotext
service providers' use of technology to identify callers' telephone
numbers and sell lists of numbers.

       The Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on
Telecommunications and Finance held a hearing on February 28 to explore
the problems of audiotext abuses and to gather information on the need
for regulation. All of the witnesses agreed that abuses of the industry
should be curbed, but their solutions to the problem differed. One
witness, whose children ran up an audiotext bill of over $1000, argued
that access to audiotext services should be restricted to persons who
have requested the service in writing and have received access codes.
Joselle Albracht, Assistant Attorney General of the Consumer Protection
Division in Dallas, Texas, supported HR 328, saying that the audiotext
industry "has a potential to become the greatest medium for consumer
fraud to date." James R. Herold of Pacific Bell explained the safeguards
that California has adopted, including price caps for individual calls
and notification when charges for a single billing period exceed $75.
Thomas Pace of the Information Industry Association said that IIA
supports the clear disclosure of audiotext costs, but that the "kill
message" (a message stating that the caller could hang up without being
charged) requirement would discourage callers who didn't want to wait
for the information to be presented. The requirement would also set a
troubling First Amendment precedent, sending the signal that the use of
new technology would justify more intrusive government control of
information content. Bruce J. Fogel, Chairman of Phone Programs Inc.,
said that he did not deny that abuses existed, but that his company did
not see the necessity for federal laws. Further hearings on this bill
are planned.

       On May 8, the Federal Trade Commission announced that it
was charging Phone Programs Inc. with deceptive and unfair advertising
practices in connection with its "T.J. Funnybunny" promotion. Children
were urged to call a 900 number to take part in fun adventures and
receive a gift, but when they did, they were given an address to which
the children had to send a copy of the bill for the call.

       A new version of this bill, now called the "Audiotext
Industry Obligations and Consumer Rights Act" and incorporating portions
of HR 328, will be introduced to Congress shortly.


S. 471 "900 Services Consumer Protection Act of 1991." Introduced by
Sen. McCain (R-AZ); 4 cosponsors.

       Requires providers of 900 services to announce, at the
beginning of each transaction, the price of the call and a description
of the service. Callers would be given the option of hanging up during
the beginning announcement without being charged. Consumers would be
allowed to block access to 900 numbers at no cost. Advertisements for
900 services directed at children would be required to include a notice
that parental permission was required before they called, and radio and
television advertisements directed at children would be prohibited from
including tones which automatically dial a 900 telephone number.

       Referred to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and
Transportation on February 21.


               *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *

              Principles of Public Information


                           Preamble

>From the birth of our nation, open and uninhibited access to public
information has ensured good government and a free society.  Public
information helps to educate our people, stimulate our progress and
solve our most complex economic, scientific and social problems.  With
the coming of the Information Age and its many new technologies,
however, public information has expanded so quickly that basic
principles regarding its creation, use and dissemination are in danger
of being neglected and even forgotten.

The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, therefore,
reaffirms that the information policies of the U.S. government are based
on the freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, and on the recognition
of public information as a national resource to be developed and
preserved in the public interest.  We define public information as
information created, compiled and/or maintained by the Federal
Government.  We assert that public information is information owned by
the people, held in trust by their government, and should be available
to the people except where restricted by law.  It is in this spirit of
public ownership and public trust that we offer the following Principles
of Public Information.


1.      The public has the right of access to public information.

       Government agencies should guarantee open, timely and
uninhibited access to public information except where restricted by law.
People should be able to access public information, regardless of its
format, without any special training or expertise.

2.      The Federal Government should guarantee the integrity and
preservation of public information, regardless of its format.

       By maintaining public information in the face of
changing times and technologies, government agencies assure the
government's accountability and the accessibility of the government's
business to the public.

3.      The Federal Government should guarantee the dissemination,
reproduction, and redistribution of public information.

       Any restriction of dissemination or any other function
dealing with public information must be strictly defined by law.

4.      The Federal Government should safeguard the privacy of persons
who use or request information, as well as persons about whom
information exists in government records.

5.      The Federal Government should ensure a wide diversity of sources
of access, private as well as governmental, to public information.

       Although sources of access may change over time and
because of advances in technology, government agencies have an
obligation to the public to encourage diversity.
6.      The Federal Government should not allow cost to obstruct the
people's access to public information.

       Costs incurred by creating, collecting and processing
information for the government's own purposes should not be passed on to
people who wish to utilize public information.

7.      The Federal Government should ensure that information about
government information is easily available and in a single index
accessible in a variety of formats.

       The government index of public information should be in
addition to inventories of information kept within individual government
agencies.

8.      The Federal Government should guarantee the public's access to
public information, regardless of where they live and work, through
national networks and programs like the Depository Library Program.

       Government agencies should periodically review such
programs as well as the emerging technology to ensure that access to
public information remains inexpensive and convenient to the public.

                          Conclusion

The National Commission on Libraries and information Science offers
these Principles of Public Information as a foundation for the decisions
made throughout the Federal Government and the nation regarding issues
of public information.  We urge all branches of the Federal Government,
state and local government and the private sector to utilize these
principles in the development of information policies and in the
creation, use, dissemination and preservation of public information.  We
believe that in so acting, they will serve the best interests of the
nation and the people in the Information Age.

            Adopted by the U.S. National Commission on Libraries
                           and Information Science June 29, 1990
A SHORT LIST OF REALLY GOOD READINGS


       Compiling a bibliography is a purely thankless task.  It
is analagous in many ways to being a translator of great books from one
language into another: it involves a lot of work, and receives very
little attention unless you do it really badly.  And even if you are
exhaustive to a fault, you will undoubtedly overlook some important work
or works and offend someone.  Probably for these reasons, I was not
successful in recruiting anyone to compile an exhaustive bibliography on
relatively short notice for this publication.  Therefore, what appears
here is not a bibliography.  Whether according to Webster or not, the
word "bibliography" seems to connote a high degree of thoroughness, even
to the point of perfection.  I make no such claims here.  And I
apologize in advance to anyone who's seminal articles or books on one of
these topics I have omitted, and I'm sure there are a few.

       Despite these disclaimers, the list that appears below
wasn't put together exactly haphazardly, either.  It is the result of
some online bibliographic searching, some manual bibliographic
searching, and the "invisible college" of colleagues who have shared
with me.  Apart from the latter method of collection -- plus the
inclusion of Ithiel de Sola Pool's book -- anything else listed here was
published at least in its most recent form in 1988 or later, and most of
it is from the library science literature.  You will not find this list
exhaustive; it's not intended to be.  I am confident, though that -- as
I have suggested by the title I have chosen for this listing -- readers
will find the articles, books, and reports listed here to be
well-written, informative, and thought-provoking, a very good starting
place for pursuing issues related to the topic of a Bill of Rights for
an Electronic Society.

... The Editor

                 *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *


Bollinger, William A. "Information Access Policies in the 1990s:
National and International Concerns" in Proceedings of the National
Online Meeting (New York, May 1-3, 1990). Medford, NJ:
LearnedInformation, Inc., 1990, pp. 51-55.


Burnham, David. "Data Protection" in Computers, Ethics, and Society. M.
David Ermann, Mary B. Williams,and Claudio Gutierrez, eds. New York and
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 94-106.


Connolly, Frank, Steven W. Gilbert, and Peter Lyman. A Bill of Rights
for Electronic Citizens. Washington,D.C.: Office of Technology
Assessment, 1990.


Critical Connections: Communications for the Future. Washington, D.C.:
Office of Technology Assessment,1990.


Flaherty, David H. "The Emergence of Surveillance Societies in the
Western World: Toward the Year 2000 "Government Information Quarterly, 5,
no.4(1988): 377-387.


Haywood, Trevor. "Electronic Information: The Withering of Public
Access" in New Horizons for the Information Profession. Los Angeles and
London: Taylor Graham, 1988, pp. 195-206.


Informing the Nation: Federal Information Dissemination in an Electronic
Age. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, 1988.


Karraker, Roger. "Highways of the Mind" Whole Earth Review, no.
70(Spring, 1991): 4-11.


Kirtley, Jane E. "Discussion Forum: From File Drawer to Floppy Disk:
FOIA Implications of Electronic Data Collection Raised in Two Recent
Supreme Court Cases" Government Information Quarterly, 6,no.4(1989):
335-338.


Lesser, Barry. "Information Protection Issues in the Information
Economy" Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science,
14(February/March, 1988): 21-22.


Lyon, David. "Information, Democracy, and the State" Chapter 5 in The
Information Society: Issues and Illusions. New York and Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1988, pp. 86-104.


Marx, Gary T., and Sanford Sherizen. "Monitoring on the Job" Technology
Review, 89 (November/December,1986): 62-72.


Nielson, Brian. "Intellectual Freedom in an Electronic Age" Online,
15(May, 1991): 88-90.


Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Technologies of Freedom. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press, 1983.


Rowe, Richard R. "Democracy and the Marketplace of the Mind" Bulletin
of the American Society for Information Science, 16(April/May, 1990): pp.
26-28.


Rubin, Michael Rogers. "The Computer and Personal Privacy, Part I: The
Individual Under Assault" Library Hi Tech, 5 (Spring, 1987): 23-31.


Rubin, Michael Rogers. "The Computer and Personal Privacy, Part III: The
Regulation of Computer Records in the United States" Library Hi Tech, 7,
no.3(1989): 11-21.


Schmidt, C. James. "Intellectual Freedom and Technology: Deja Vu?" North
Carolina Libraries, 45(Fall,1987): 129-130.


Shattuck, John. "The Right to Know: Public Access to Federal Information
in the 1980s" Government Information Quarterly, 5, no.4(1988): 369-375.


Shill, Harold B. "A Basis for Increasing Public Access to Federal
Electronic Information" Government Information Quarterly, 6, no.2(1989):
135-141.


Turn, Rein. "Privacy Protection" Annual Review of Information Science
and Technology, v.20(1985): 27-50.


Williams, Rt. Hon. Shirley. "The Impact of Information Technology on the
Wider Society" in New Horizons for the Information Profession.  Hilary
Dyer and Gwyneth Tseng, eds. Los Angeles and London:Taylor Graham, 1988,
pp. 212-225.


Wood, Fred B. "Directions in Federal Information Dissemination Policy in
1989" in Library and Book Trade Almanac, 34th ed., 1989-90. New York:

[Script from the NBC "Almost 2001" computer crime news report.]

SLUG                 SHOW    WRITER        MODIFIED kaul
TIMING  LC
2001: SCRIPT FOUR    =NN=THU glewis        Thu Mar 24 16:34 1994 READY
2:57  84

GEORGE LEWIS NARRATES:
A FINGERPRINT POPS UP ON A COMPUTER SCREEN AT THE LOS ANGELES POLICE
DEPARTMENT.  WITHIN MINUTES, THE PRINT, TAKEN FROM A CRIME SCENE, IS MATCHED
AGAINST A HUGE FILE OF 8 MILLION FINGERPRINTS KEPT BY THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA.

TECHNICIAN:
"We have a hit here."

LEWIS:
THE SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTING IS ABOUT 100 YEARS OLD.  COMPUTERS CAME INTO THE
PICTURE IN THE '80'S.  ONE OF THE FIRST BIG CASES THEY HELPED CRACK WAS THE
"NIGHT STALKER" SERIAL KILLINGS...RESULTING IN THE 1989 ARREST OF RICHARD
RAMIREZ.

JOSEPH BONINO--LOS ANGELES POLICE DEPARTMENT:
"If, before we had automated fingerprint systems, it would have taken us 60
years to find a night stalker's print in our file."

LEWIS:
NOW, THE FBI IS BUILDING A NATIONWIDE COMPUTER LIBRARY OF FINGERPRINTS FOR
USE BY LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY.  THE FEDS ARE PROMISING

THAT COMPUTER SEARCHES WILL TAKE TWO HOURS OR LESS.

BY 2001, IT WILL BE STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR POLICE TO USE ELECTRONIC SCANNERS
TO  TAKE PRINTS FROM SUSPECTS.  THE LOS ANGELES SHERIFF'S DEPARTMENT IS ALREADY

DOING THAT.  BUT GUESS WHAT?  CRIMINALS ARE ALSO USING HIGH TECH.

CAPT. STEPHEN D'ARCY--SAN JOSE POLICE DEPARTMENT:
"The information superhighway is going to be filled with highway robbers, and
that is clearly one of the trends of the future that law enforcement at this
time is not even prepared to deal with."

GEORGE LEWIS ON CAMERA:
"While computer technology is making law enforcement more efficient at solving
cases, it is creating whole new types of crime.  That's why the San Jose Police

Department, in the heart of California's Silicon Valley, has a high tech crime
unit."

SGT JIM MCMAHON--SAN JOSE POLICE DEPARTMENT:
"The Intel 486-66 D.X..."

LEWIS:
SERGEANT JIM MCMAHON SAYS THESE STOLEN COMPUTER CHIPS...WHICH COST ABOUT 450
DOLLARS APIECE...ARE WORTH MORE THAN THEIR WEIGHT IN GOLD.

MCMAHON:
"So that makes what I'm holding in my hand here worth about four to five
thousand dollars."

LEWIS:
SAN JOSE HAS MADE A MAJOR COMMITMENT NOT ONLY TO SOLVING HIGH- TECH CRIMES BUT
TO THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN OTHER AREAS.  THE POLICE HERE SAY THAT'S A FACTOR
IN SAN JOSE'S LOW CRIME RATE. ONE CRIME FOR EVERY 20 PEOPLE.  ABOUT HALF THE
BIG CITY AVERAGE.

UNIDENTIFIED POLICEMAN:
"We depend heavily on technology."

LEWIS:
DEPEND HEAVILY BECAUSE SAN JOSE HAS A RELATIVELY SMALL NUMBER OF OFFICERS, ONE
AND A HALF...FOR EVERY THOUSAND RESIDENTS.  OTHER CITIES PUT MORE COPS ON THE
STREET, BUT HAVE HIGHER CRIME RATES.

JOSEPH BONINO--L.A.P.D.:
"We want to try in law enforcement to keep from third world solutions and
problems.  Throwing large amounts of people at a problem that technology can
solve much more effectively and at a much lower taxpayer cost."

LEWIS:
LAW ENFORCEMENT'S PLUNGE INTO HIGH TECH DOES HAVE SOME CIVIL LIBERTIES GROUPS
WORRIED.  WILL BIG BROTHER BE WATCHING US?

MIKE GODWIN--COUNSEL, ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION:
"One of the things that we are spearheading right now is resistance to
this--uh--information SNOOPER highway."

LEWIS:
AS 2001 NEARS, TECHNOLOGY IS TURNING OUT TO BE A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR LAW
ENFORCEMENT.  IT IS HELPING BOTH COPS AND CRIMINALS...AND IT HAS STARTED A HOT
DEBATE ABOUT THE PUBLIC'S RIGHT TO PRIVACY.  GEORGE LEWIS, NBC NEWS, SAN JOSE,
CALIFORNIA.

###



FEDERAL ENFORCEMENT 1991
Georgetown University Law Center
Washington, D.C.
May 16-17, 1991

CONSTITUTIONAL, LEGAL, AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEALING
WITH ELECTRONIC FILES IN THE AGE OF CYBERSPACE

Harvey A. Silverglate and Thomas C. Viles (FN1)


Introduction -- The Reach of
Cybernetic Technology.

       Without pause over the past decade, computers have transformed the
physical organization of work in virtually every office in the nation.
Businesses and law firms are spurning the use of paper to deliver and
store information; instead, they have become dependent upon the use of
computers and electronic systems for these functions.  Now it is common to
draft, revise, and edit all documents -- from briefs, to business
proposals, to contracts -- without ever generating a paper "hard" copy
until the document is ready for signature and submission.
       Furthermore, now it is possible for the personnel of a company or
law firm to conduct all of their in-house discussions on a computer
network which transmits and receives electronic mail ("e-mail").  E-mail
can be used for written messages of great import as well as trivial asides
and gossip.  All such messages can be stored for later retrieval.  Using
networks and e-mail in tandem, teams of people in different offices can
create, edit and complete lengthy written projects, literally without ever
speaking to each other, or ever looking at paper copy.
       Communications between the office workplace and the outside world
also can be conducted through the use of  "networks" of computer systems.
For example, the home office of a company can communicate with all of its
affiliates and subsidiaries by the transmission of written messages
between their respective computers ("nodes", in computer argot).  In this
way, all operations which can be performed simultaneously within one
office, can be performed with equal facility among many offices, linked by
the computer networks.  Such systems also enable the attorney to stay in
close contact with a client when it is necessary to work together on a
project which requires close attention to detail.
       Computers and computer networks also promise to substantially and
rapidly transform civil society.  There exists a variety of computer
networks, which enable academic institutions and scholars, to conduct
global conferences on matters of common interest.  Through e-mail and
electronic bulletin boards, scholars and researchers can share
experimental data and resources.  See "Common Electronic Policy," The
Economist, Feb. 16, 1991, at 24.  Recently, the volume of academic message
traffic in the United States has been increasing by 30-40% per month.  Id.
This session of Congress is considering a bill, introduced by Sen. Albert
Gore, to spend over $1 billion in computer research, of which $400 million
would be dedicated to the construction of a new National Research and
Education Network (NREN), capable of handling computer traffic many times
faster than the networks currently in existence -- analogous to a new
electronic interstate highway system.  See id.; Leccese, "Hackers under
Attack: Crackdown Raises Questions about New Forms of Speech," Boston
Phoenix, Sept. 7, 1990, at 8, 18.  It is estimated that the entire project
will cost $200 billion to complete.  Leccese, supra, at 22.
       There also are smaller networks, too numerous to mention, which
are not affiliated with any company, university, government agency, or
other established entity.  These independent networks function as forums
for people all over the world to communicate with one another about
matters of interest, from the sublime to the ridiculous.  The largest
computer networks in the United States, InterNet and UseNet, are each
actually made up of 2,000 smaller networks.  See, e.g., "Common Electronic
Policy," supra, at 24; Costikyan, "Closing the Net," Reason, Jan. 1991, at
22.  InterNet reportedly carries the electromagnetic impulses created by
over 500 billion keystrokes per month.  Leccese, supra, at 9.
Approximately 5,000 bulletin boards operate over the networks.  Costikyan,
supra, at 22.
       One notable example of the use of computer networks for purely
expressive purposes is the Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link ("WELL"), which
provides political activists, small businessmen, rock and roll fans, and
hundreds of other groupings of people (including lawyers) a forum in which
to discuss matters of common interest.  The WELL is a "node" capable of
running hundreds of different multi-party conversations (or "conferences")
simultaneously.  Like an electronic town meeting, groups of people can
communicate together on a multiplicity of bulletin boards, or users can
send each other private messages by e-mail. (FN2)
       Other networks, utilizing more modest equipment, can maintain only
one or two bulletin boards at a time.  Everyone with a personal computer
and access to a phoneline can participate in any of these open networks --
and, with only a little extra equipment, can start a new bulletin board.

Searches and Seizures
Involving Cybernetic Machines.

       Over the past 15 months, the following incidents have come to our
attention:
       *On January 24, 1990, a handful of Secret Service agents,
accompanied by two employees of the local telephone company, seized the
equipment of a twenty year old man living with his mother in New York.
>From his bedroom, they seized a Commodore 128 computer, 200 floppy disks,
a telephone answering machine, cassette-playing radio, and all of his
musical cassette tapes.  Apparently, the Secret Service was searching for
evidence of alleged "computer crimes."  See Dibbell, "On Line and Out of
Bounds", Village Voice, July 24, 1990, at 27; Jahnke, "The Cops Come to
Cyberspace," Boston Magazine, November 1990, at 140; J. Barlow, Crime and
Puzzlement 8P9 (1990)  According to some reports, this raid (and a few
other raids which were carried out simultaneously) marked the beginning of
the so-called "Operation Sun Devil," described as a "two-year Secret
Service investigation which involved 150 federal agents, numerous local
and state law enforcement agencies, and the combined security resources"
of numerous private telecommunications companies.(FN3)  Barlow, supra, at
9; see also "Crime of the Century," Personal Computer World, Mar. 1991, at
187; Zachary, "Group to Defend Civil Rights of Hackers Founded by Computer
Industry Pioneer," Wall Street Journal, July 11, 1990, at B4; Schatz,
"Foundation to Defend PC Users," Washington Post, July 11, 1990, at B8;
Edelman, "Kapor for the Defense in Computer Field," Boston Globe, July 11,
1990, at 33; "Kapor Forms Group to Aid Hackers," USA Today, July 11, 1990,
at 2B.
       *On March 1, 1990 the Secret Service raided the offices of Steve
Jackson Games, a small Austin start-up company which designed and
manufactured fantasy role-playing books and games.  The Secret Service
seized the company's three computer systems, two laser printers,
miscellaneous hardware, papers, back-up disks, and a single pocket
calculator.  The company's plans and galleys for a new role-playing game,
GURPS Cyberpunk(FN4), also were seized, after an agent opined that the
game was a handbook for computer crime.  (The format of Steve Jackson's
games is similar to that of "Dungeons and Dragons"; GURPS Cyberpunk
consists of a lengthy instruction book plus general information about the
game.  In fact, all of the company's games consist solely of printed
matter.  The company was not in the business of manufacturing any
software.)  The Secret Service apparently suspected that an employee of
Steve Jackson Games had participated in unlawful activity on the
employee's own home computer system.  At no time was the owner or any
other employee of Steve Jackson Games considered a suspect.  Because the
seizure of the computers thoroughly disrupted Steve Jackson's business,
half of the company's employees had to be laid off.  It was months before
the company was even able to gain access to its equipment, which held the
manuscript for the about-to-be-published GURPS Cyberpunk game.  Some of
the seized equipment ran a bulletin board which was maintained for the
purpose of swapping new role-playing game ideas with similarly interested
people elsewhere in the United States.  The board, which users gave the
tongue-in-cheek title of "The Illuminati," ceased to operate.  See Levy,
"Search and Destroy: What Happened when the Secret Service Visited Steve
Jackson Games," MacWorld, March 1991, at 51, 52; Costikyan, "Closing the
Net," Reason, Jan. 1991, at 22P24; Lewis, "Can Invaders Be Stopped but
Civil Liberties Upheld?," New York Times, Sept. 9, 1990, at 12; Zachary,
supra, at B4; O'Connor, "$275,000 Donated for Hackers," San Jose Mercury
News, July 11, 1990, at 1F; "Computer Foundation Planned," San Francisco
Chronicle, July 11, 1990, at C4; Edelman, supra, at 39; "Kapor Forms Group
to Aid Hackers," supra, at 2B.
       *On the day of the Steve Jackson Games raid, the employee's home
was searched.  His computer equipment, software, a quantity of TV cable
wire, and telephone parts were seized and carted away.  Also seized was an
arcade version of Pac Man.  To date, the employee has not been charged
with any crime.  See Lewis, supra, at 12; Dibbell, supra, at 30.
       *Two years ago, a computer hobbyist running a small bulletin board
service out of Lockport, Illinois, discovered that his bulletin board had
been used to transmit a telephone company document.  He promptly notified
the telephone company, and cooperated fully and voluntarily with law
enforcement authorities in the investigation of what he had reported.  He
probably regrets that now, for the Secret Service agents, armed with a
warrant, later seized all of the man's computer equipment, in order to
secure evidence in their investigation of the transfer of telephone codes.
Because of the seizure, his bulletin board was shut down.  See, e.g.,
Costikyan, supra, at 24; Leccese, supra, at 21; Goldstein, Special Issue,
"2600 magazine's commentary on Operation Sun Devil," 1 Computer
Underground Digest #1.10 (May 17, 1990) (available on the WELL, April 12,
1991); J. Barlow, supra, at 11-12.
       *A college student in Missouri published a computer magazine
entitled Phrack, which he distributed over the networks to about 1,300
people.  He found a phone company document on a publicly accessible
computer bulletin board, and he reprinted it in his magazine.  Although
the government never alleged that he was involved in taking the document,
his computer system was seized, and he was charged with interstate
transportation of stolen property.  The computer seizure, ostensibly
occasioned by his republication of a stolen document, effectively
restrained him from publishing any more issues of Phrack.(FN5)  Charges
against the young man later were quietly dropped, when it was discovered
that the "stolen property" -- the phone company document -- was available
from the phone company itself, and that it cost somewhat less that $20.
But the entire episode must have dampened his zeal to publish, for the
magazine no longer appears.  See "Crime of the Century," supra, at 188;
Costikyan, supra, at 23-25; Levy, supra, at 52, 54; "United States v.
Zod," The Economist, Sept. 7, 1990, at 23; Leccese, supra, at 20; J.
Barlow, supra, at 10-11; Zachary, supra, at B4; Edelman, supra, at 39;
"Kapor Forms Group to Aid Hackers," supra, at 2B; "Computer Foundation
Planned," supra, at C4; O'Connor, supra, at 8F; Markoff, "U.S. Drops
Computer Case against Student," New York Times, July 28, 1990, at 9.
       *On May 8, 1990(FN6), as part of "Operation Sun Devil," another
bulletin board, called "RIPCO," was raided.  All of the equipment
necessary to run the bulletin board was seized.  The RIPCO board had
operated since 1983, and it had accumulated extensive text files which
were accessible to its 600 users.  No arrests were made, nor have any
charges been filed against the operators.  But the board was shut down.
See, e.g., Thomas & Meyer, "Update on Ripco BBS and Dr. Ripco," 1 Computer
Underground Digest, #1.26, (Aug. 2, 1990) (available on the WELL, Apr. 12,
1991).
       *Also frequent are instances where computers are seized incident
to an unrelated arrest.  For example, on February 28, 1991, following an
arrest on charges of rape and battery, the Massachusetts state and local
police seized the suspect's computer equipment.  The suspect reportedly
operated a 650-subscriber bulletin board called "BEN," which is described
as "geared largely to a gay/leather/S&M crowd."  It is not clear what the
board's seizure is supposed to have accomplished, but the board is now
shut down, and the identities and messages of its users are in the hands
of the police.  See Boyce, "Police Confiscate SM Files," Gay Community
News, Mar. 11-17, 1991, at 3.(FN7)

The Gulf between Law Enforcement
Procedure and the Constitution.

       This small sampling of cases demonstrates the unequivocal
determination of the government to conduct investigative seizures of
entire computer systems, even when only a few files may be relevant to an
investigation or prosecution.  Such seizures can have immediate and
catastrophic effects on computer users who have no connection to the
conduct being investigated.  Offices cease to function; businesses can no
longer operate or service customers; bulletin boards and other forums are
shut down.  As discussed below, it is no exaggeration to compare such
searches and seizures to the writs of assistance and general warrants
which the Constitution's framers found so odious, and which the Fourth
Amendment was designed to prevent.
       Law enforcement agencies explain this practice by referring to
problems inherent in searching not only computers but any other storage
system:  The searching officers cannot know precisely which part of the
system contains the data they seek. Furthermore, with the right sort of
elegant technology, computer files can be deleted at the push of a button.
According to this view, prudence  suggests that the computer search will
be futile, unless the entire system is seized and removed, so that the
contents can be examined at leisure.
       That means, of course, the government's leisure, not the user's.
It is cold comfort that the Fourth Amendment tolerates searches of the
property of people not suspected of criminal conduct, and that it even
permits searches in entirely noncriminal contexts.(FN8)  People who are
the victims of such a seizure are naturally outraged.  Where the object of
the seizure is a bulletin board, potentially thousands of users are
deprived of a forum in which to communicate, and their words (recorded in
the computer system housing the bulletin board) now are open to government
scrutiny.  The seizure of a small business's computer system, especially
one involved in sales or research and development, effectively destroys
the business.  In larger companies, when the investigation into the
operations of one department or subsidiary leads to a computer seizure,
the operations of the entire company can be crippled or frozen.  And, of
course, the seizure of one or two pieces of computer equipment in a law
office effectively can constitute the seizure of all of the office's
client and billing files.
       The practice of conducting these searches and seizures represents
the immense gulf that exists between law enforcement personnel and
magistrates, on the one hand, and sophisticated computer users, on the
other.  As Mitchell Kapor and Michael Godwin point out in "Civil Liberties
Implications of Computer Searches and Seizures: Some Proposed Guidelines
for Magistrates who Issue Search Warrants," law enforcement personnel who
conduct computer seizures seem to focus exclusively on what *could* go
wrong in a computer-related situation.(FN9)  The appropriate question
under the Fourth Amendment, which every  magistrate should ask before
issuing a warrant, is not what could go wrong, but instead for what
adverse events probable cause has been shown.

It may be useful for prosecutors to know that "the data in the storage
device or media can be erased, replaced with other data, hidden,
encrypted, modified, misnamed, misrepresented, physically destroyed, or
otherwise made unusable."  But this does not mean that the magistrate
should always find probable cause to believe that a particular computer
owner or operator has done so, and then authorize a highly intrusive and
disruptive seizure of a BBS [computer bulletin board system] so that
investigators can do a low-level search for hidden or encrypted data.

Reprinted in  Proceedings: Fourth Annual Virus & Security Conference 426,
428 (1991), quoting D. Parker, Computer Crime:  Criminal Justice Resource
Manual, at 68 (1989).  What seems to have happened is that prosecutors and
law enforcement agents, in their zeal to avoid even the possibility that
evidence might be lost, have gone overboard and undertaken general
searches.  As noted, the seizure of an entire computer system is
equivalent to seizing all of a person's hard copy files, or (in the case
of a bulletin board system or desktop publisher) seizing an entire
printing press.

Writs of Assistance, General Searches,
and the Fourth Amendment.

       Even people of the so-called "framer's intent" school of
constitutional interpretation must concede that such seizures go too far.
"The use by government of the power of search and seizure as an adjunct to
a system for the suppression of objectionable publications is not new."
Marcus v. Search Warrant, 367 U.S. 717, 724 (1961).  The Writs of
Assistance, which the British Crown issued to authorize searches for, and
seizures of, unlicensed publications, were an abomination to the American
colonists.  See generally Stanford v. Texas, 379 U.S. 476, 481-82 (1965).
James Otis described the general search warrants used to enforce as "the
worst instrument of arbitrary power, the most destructive of English
liberty, and the fundamental principles of law, that ever was found in an
English law book."  Id. at 481, citing Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S.
616, 625 (1886).  The Writs authorized the search of anyone connected with
an unlawful or unlicensed publication, and the seizure of all of the
papers and documents of such people.
       The Fourth Amendment has roots in the cases of Wilkes v. Wood, 19
How. St. Tr. 1153 (1763), and Entick v. Carrington, 19 How. St. Tr. 1029
(1765), in which free-thinking pamphleteers were arrested, and all of
their books and papers seized, because of their alleged publication of
seditious libels.  The Wilkes case ended in liberty's favor, when the
Court of Common Pleas ordered the Secretary of State to pay Wilkes
damages.  The Entick case resulted in Lord Camden's declaration that the
power to issue Writs of Assistance, and to conduct general searches, was
an unlawful offense to civilized notions of justice.  In Lord Camden's
words,

this power so assumed by the Secretary of State is an execution upon all
of the party's papers, in the first instance.  His house is rifled; his
most valuable secrets are taken out of his possession, before the paper
for which he is charged is found to be criminal by any competent
jurisdiction, and before he is convicted either of writing, publishing, or
being concerned in the paper.

19 How. St. Tr. at 1064, quoted in Stanford, supra, 379 U.S. 484.
Parliament later acted legislatively to declare general warrants to be
unlawful.  Stanford, supra, 379 U.S. at 484, citing 16 Hansard's
Parliamentary History of England, at 207.
       The Fourth Amendment was adopted a generation after Wilkes and
Entick, while the memory of the Crown's unrestrained searches of colonial
businesses for statutory violations was fresh.  The amendment provides
that all warrants shall "particularly describ[e] the place to be searched,
and the ... things to be seized."  In view of the Fourth Amendment's
history, and its explicit language, it is beyond serious dispute that the
Constitution prohibits wide-ranging exploratory searches.  Neither can the
police rummage through a person's belongings sua sponte, nor can a
magistrate issue a warrant permitting a general and unlimited search.
E.g., Steagald v. United States, 451 U.S. 204, 220 (1980); Lo-Ji Sales,
Inc. v. New York, 442 U.S. 319, 325-26 (1979); see also Marshall v.
Barlow's, Inc., 436 U.S. 307, 312-13 (1978); Roaden v. Kentucky, 413 U.S.
496 (1973); Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 467 (1971)("[T]he
specific evil is the 'general warrant' abhorred by the colonists, and the
problem is not that of an intrusion per se, but of a general, explanatory
rummaging in a person's belongings."); Stanford, supra, 379 U.S. at
485-86; Marcus, supra, 367 U.S. at 728-29.  Instead, the Fourth Amendment
plainly directs that a search shall be lawful only when it is directed to
particular items for which probable cause is demonstrable.
       The courts recognize that the First and Fourth Amendments grew
from the same historical source, for the struggle for press freedom was
energized by the struggle against the license to print, and against the
prior restraints imposed by the Crown to enforce the license.  In the
Supreme Court's words,
The struggle for the freedom of the press was primarily directed against
the power of the licensor ... And the liberty of the press became
initially a right to publish "without a license what formerly could be
published only with one."  While this freedom from previous restraint upon
publication cannot be regarded as exhausting the guaranty of liberty, the
prevention of that restraint was a leading purpose in the adoption of that
constitutional provision.

Lovell v. City of Griffin, 303 U.S. 444, 452 (1938).  The Supreme Court
commands that special care be taken when authorizing or reviewing a search
involving any entity engaged in the publication or dissemination of ideas.

       "Freedom of the press" long has been interpreted broadly to
protect not only newspapers publishers and pamphleteers, e.g., Lovell,
supra, 303 U.S. at 452, but also motion pictures, Roaden, supra, 413 U.S.
496; Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. 495, 502 (1952); United
States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., 334 U.S. 131, 166 (1948), and even
computer bulletin boards, Legi-Tech v. Keiper, 766 F.2d 728, 734-35 (2d
Cir. 1985), from prior restraints and general searches.  In order to avoid
prior restraints on speech, the particularity requirement of the Fourth
Amendment "is to be accorded the most scrupulous exactitude when the
`things [to be seized]' are books, and the basis for their seizure is the
ideas which they contain."  Stanford, supra, 379 U.S.at 485, citing
Marcus, supra, 367 U.S. 717; A Quantity of Copies of Books v. Kansas, 378
U.S. 205 (1964).

The Need for Heightened Awareness
and New Limiting Rules.

       The seizure of a computer's hard drive is the functional
equivalent of the seizure of all of the files in a small to medium size
law office, or all of the records of a small to medium size business.
After the seizure is accomplished, law enforcement personnel are able to
read virtually every word that had been printed in an attorney's files, or
to control the continued life of a business.  It is critical that rules
and protocols be developed so that the scope of computer searches and
seizures are minimized.
       Law enforcement professionals and attorneys must begin to realize
that just because it is convenient to seize a computer system (because the
system can consist of no more than a half dozen pieces of equipment), it
is not necessarily constitutional.  Such seizures are tantamount to the
general searches and seizures which were generally regarded as the patent
abuses of tyranny when the Constitution was drafted.
       Judges and magistrates who issue computer search warrants must
become more sensitive to the constitutional problems posed by authorizing
the seizure of entire computer systems.  Because such warrants are
tantamount to the Writs of Assistance (which even the English courts under
George III condemned a generation before the United States Constitution
was adopted) the courts should be especially aware not only of Fourth
Amendment interests, but also of the First Amendment interests, when a
bulletin board or network equipment is seized.  The Constitution imposes
"special restraints upon searches for and seizures of material arguably
protected by the First Amendment."  Lo-Ji Sales, supra, 442 U.S. at 326
n.5.(FN10)
       We all need to think more critically when dealing with the notion
that, unless entire computer systems are seized, electronic data will be
altered or destroyed.  Magistrates should also require that parties
seeking a warrant similarly should demonstrate the probability that the
owner of the system is capable and willing to obliterate data within the
system during the short interval between presentation of the warrant and
commencement of the search.
       To seize an entire computer system for the sake of a couple of
documents contained therein is inefficient, overly intrusive, and
potentially disastrous for the owner of the system.  A better course would
be to have agents sophisticated in the use of computer equipment search
the system on-site, and to copy onto a disk the documents which motivated
the application for a warrant in the first place.  Before authorizing the
seizure of entire computer systems, magistrates should require that the
applicant demonstrate probable cause for the belief that the entire system
is either completely dedicated to illegal activity, or permeated with
evidence of unlawful conduct.  Wherever possible, the warrant should
authorize the seizure only of the relevant documents; if the documents
cannot be identified, then just the disks or tapes containing the relevant
documents should be taken.  Too often there have been cases where a
computer operator's entire collection of disks has been seized.  There is
no difference between this and ransacking a library.
       Law enforcement professionals and magistrates also should be aware
of the fact that, where there are no disks, and the document to be seized
is likely to be found in the computer's central data storage (or "hard
disk"), the document easily can be copied onto a portable (or "floppy")
disk.  The need to show authenticity should not justify the seizure of a
computer when disk or tape copies can be made.  A document thus retrieved
still would be admissible evidence under Rule 1001(1), which defines
"writings" and "recordings" broadly to include "letters, words, or
numbers, or theirequivalent, set down by  . . . magnetic impulse,
mechanical or electronic recording, or other form of data
compilation."(FN11)
       It is technologically possible that a computer system is rigged
with a "booby trap or degausser," which is designed to obliterate data in
a computer when there has been unauthorized tampering.  This possibility
can be invoked to justify all sorts of Fourth Amendment mischief,
including wholesale seizure and "no-knock" warrants.  In fact, it is
highly unlikely that a computer system would be fitted with a such booby
trap, and this factor should not be regarded as common, but as highly
exceptional as the "Mission: Impossible" tape which self-destructs in five
seconds.  When an officer posits a potential booby trap to justify a
highly intrusive and disruptive search and seizure, the courts should be
prepared to impose a heavy burden of proof on law enforcement officials
who claim that such devices are in place; law enforcement officials should
be prepared to meet such a burden.
       It is worth noting, however, that in certain situations the
computer system itself is the means or instrumentality of a crime.  Using
a network, software can be stolen, funds can be embezzled, and various
wire frauds can occur.  See, e.g., J. McEwen, Dedicated Computer Crime
Units 1-5 (National Institute of Justice, 1989).  But it is critical that
magistrates and law enforcement officials distinguish investigations where
the computer itself has been used to commit a crime, and where the
computer system merely is a channel of communication, like a telephone.
To seize a computer, because information related to a crime was merely
communicated through it, is tantamount to seizing telephones because two
co-conspirators spoke to each other over it.  Proof of the crime can be
gotten by less intrusive means, and innocent third parties still may need
to use those telephones.

Law Enforcement and the
Particularity Requirement.

       It is well established that search warrants should leave nothing
to the discretion of the executing officer; indiscriminate searches are
constitutionally intolerable.  Indeed, any search warrant which authorizes
the search and seizure of items beyond those for which probable cause has
been demonstrated, is constitutionally defective.  See, e.g., Lo-Ji Sales,
supra, 442 U.S. 319; Voss v. Bergsgaard, 774 F.2d 402, 404-05 (10th Cir.
1985)(warrant invalid where most of it authorized rummaging through files
and records for evidence pertaining to any federal crime, under the guise
of a criminal conspiracy investigation).  It therefore is troubling that
law enforcement officers have so frequently resorted to the general
seizures of computer systems, which contain a myriad of different files,
when only particular files or categories of files are relevant.  Even more
disturbing is the apparent insouciance with which some law enforcement
officers regard the seizure of entire systems of computer equipment; to
some officers, the particularity clause of the Fourth Amendment is not
even relevant.  Illustrative is this statement by a Special Agent at the
FBI Academy:

[The Fourth Amendment "particularity"] provision requires that a warrant
authorize only a search of a specific place for specific named items.
Coupled with the probable cause requirement, this provision prevents
general searches by insuring that the warrant describes a discreet,
defined place to be searched, describes only items connected with criminal
activity for which probable cause has been established, and describes the
items so definitely that it removes from an officer executing the warrant
the discretion of determining which items are covered by the warrant and
which are not.  It also provides a signal of when a search is at an end,
that is, when all items named in the warrant have been located and seized
or when all possible hiding places for items not located have been
explored.  Since the "place to be searched" portion of the particularity
requirement has no special impact on computer searches, it will not be
discussed.

Sauls, "Raiding the Computer Room:  Fourth Amendment Considerations (Part
I), 55 FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 25, 29 (May 1986) (emphasis added).
Similarly, another Department of Justice publication sets forth, with
apparent approval, the following wide-ranging language in a "sample"
search warrant:
In the county of Baltimore, there is now property subject to seizure, as
such computers, keyboards, central processing units, external and/or
internal drives, internal and/or external storage devices such as magnetic
tapes and/or disks, terminals and/or video display unit and/or receiving
devices and peripheral equipment such as, but not limited to, printers,
automatic dialers, modems, acoustic couplers, and or [sic] direct line
couplers, peripheral interface boards and connecting cables or ribbons,
diaries, logs, and other records, correspondence, journals, ledgers
memoranda [sic], computer software, programs and source documentation,
computer logs, magnetic audio tapes and recorders used in the obtaining,
maintenance, and or [sic] dissemination of information obtained from the
official files and computers of the [sic] MCI Telecommunications, Inc. and
other evidence of the offense.

See, C. Connolly, Organizing for Computer Crime Investigation and
Prosecution at 81 (National Institute of Justice, 1989).
       When computers are the object of the search, we see again the zeal
of the special investigating judges in the Court of High Commission under
King James I -- whose mission was "to inquire and search for . . . all
heretical, schismatical and seditious books, libels, and writings, and all
other books, pamphlets and portraitures offensive to the state or set
forth without sufficient and lawful authority in that behalf . . . and
their printing-presses themselves likewise to seize and so to order and
dispose of them . . . as they may not have to serve or be employed for any
such lawful use,"  Marcus, supra, 367 U.S. at 725-26, citing Pat. Roll, 9,
Jac. I, Pt. 18 & Jac. II, Pt. 15.  The electronic bulletin board
appropriately should be viewed not as a weapon or burglary tool, but
instead as a First Amendment-protected institution, like the newspaper or
any public forum.(FN12)  See generally, Jensen, An Electronic Soap
Box:Computer Bulletin Boards and the First Amendment, 39
Fed.Communications L.J. 217, 235P43, and authorities cited therein.
       In all cases, consideration should be given to training
technologically sophisticated law enforcement officers, and having them
available to execute the computer searches.  Furthermore, magistrates
should consider appointing similarly knowledgeable special masters to
supervise such searches.  Such roles can be assumed by people who, though
technically literate, are not officers of the court or law enforcement
agency.  See, e.g., Forro Precision, Inc. v. International Business
Machines Corp., 673 F.2d 1045, 1054 (9th Cir. 1982)(police search assisted
by IBM employee because warrants required that specific technical
documents be identified); see also, DeMassa v. Nunez, 747 F.2d 1283, 1285
(9th Cir. 1984)(court-appointed special master supervised search of law
office files, permitted seizure only of documents within scope of
warrant).  Of course, the court should clearly explain to any appointed
special master the proper limits of the master's role in the search.  See,
e.g., Lo-Ji Sales, supra, 442 U.S. at 321-24.

Privacy Rights of Third Parties
and Statutory Provisions.

       In addition to the Constitution's basic guarantees, Congress and
various state legislatures have enacted additional privacy protections for
people who use computers, and for people whose information is stored in
them.
       Magistrates and law enforcement officials should be cognizant of
the Electronic Communications Privacy Act ("ECPA"), 18 U.S.C.  2701-2711,
which protects the privacy of various electronic communications, including
e-mail.  See, Kapor & Godwin, supra, at 431-32.  Under the ECPA, a piece
of electronic mail cannot be reviewed or seized unless the law governing
warrants has been strictly complied with.  See 18 U.S.C.  2703(a).  The
language of this section seems to require that an order for the disclosure
of electronic mail must particularly describe the communications to be
sought; general rummaging and reviewing is not permitted. Id.(FN13)
       Also important is the First Amendment Privacy Protection Act
("PPA"), 42 U.S.C.  2000aa et seq., which was enacted in response to the
Supreme Court's holding in Zurcher v. Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547 (1978).
Protected under the PPA are documents and materials "possessed in
connection with a purpose to disseminate to the public a newspaper, book,
broadcast or similar form of public communication," 42 U.S.C.  2000aa(a),
which would seem to embrace electronic bulletin boards and
publicly-accessible computer networks.  The PPA operates to prohibit
blanket searches and seizures of such entities, unless there exists
"probable cause to believe that the person possessing the materials has
committed a criminal offense to which the materials relate," and such
criminal offense does not consist of "the receipt, possession,
communication or withholding of such materials." 42 U.S.C.  2000aa(a)(1).

       The practical effect of the PPA would seem to be to strictly limit
wholesale computer seizures where the systems are used for bulletin boards
or other general communications.  In such situations, a seizure is
appropriate only where the system's operators are directly implicated in
unlawful activity.  However, where the system has been used as a conduit
by others who are criminally motivated, but the operator is not involved,
the PPA would seem to require that no search take place, but that instead
a subpoena be issued for the relevant information.
       It also is worth noting that the Attorney General has issued
guidelines under the PPA, governing the execution of search warrants where
highly confidential or personal information relating to innocent third
parties might fall into the hands of law enforcement authorities.  See 28
C.F.R., Part 59. Under the guidelines, federal officials should "not use
search and seizure to obtain documentary materials in the possession of
disinterested third parties unless reliance on alternative means would
substantially jeopardize their availability. . . or usefulness," where
less obtrusive means of obtaining such materials are available.  28 C.F.R.
59.1, 59.4(a)(1).  Under the PPA guidelines, "documentary materials"
include "materials upon which information is electronically or
magnetically recorded."  28 C.F.R.  59.2(c).  Sensitive to the potential
for violating the privacy rights of innocent third parties, the Attorney
General's guidelines impose strict controls over search warrants executed
upon records in the custody of physicians, lawyers, or the clergy.  28
C.F.R.  29.4(b)(4).  This heightened sensitivity to the privacy rights of
innocent third parties is reasonable, and should be extended to situations
where third parties other than patients, clients, and penitents are
affected by the documentary search and seizure.  Considering the high
volume of communications which occur over many computer systems, and the
potential chilling effect that the government seizure of such
communications will have, magistrates and prosecutors appropriately should
impose similar limiting rules for computer seizures.

Ethical and Practical
Considerations for Attorneys.

       Private defense attorneys and in-house corporate counsel also can
play a useful role in controlling the unbridled search and seizure of
computers.
       They should become aware of how vulnerable their clients' computer
systems are to such searches, and of the potentially disastrous
consequences which would follow the seizure of a computer system.  They
should be prepared to move for the return of seized computer equipment
under Rule 41(e), Fed.R.Crim.P., on the ground, inter alia, that the
particularity clause of the Fourth Amendment has been violated by such an
overbroad search and seizure.  For the same reason, if the client is
indicted, computer searches and seizures provide fertile grounds for
suppression motions.(FN14)
       Short of such disasters, however, counsel should be aware of some
of the ethical problems which computer filekeeping and communications
pose.  Both the Constitution and the ethical precepts of the legal
profession protect client secrets.  Although some details of the
attorney-client relationship may not be privileged -- for example, the
mere fact that the relationship exists, the identity of the client, and
the legal fees paid -- communications between counsel and client are
absolutely privileged, and attorney work-product enjoys presumptive
protection from disclosure.
       The Code of Professional Responsibility prohibits the attorney
from revealing either "confidences" which a client has revealed for the
purpose of obtaining legal services, or "secrets" of the client's affairs
which, although not useful for the purpose of representation, might
embarrass the client or hurt business interests.  See DR 4-101(A), (B).
The attorney-client privilege, limited by law to communications for the
purpose of seeking or rendering legal advice, is "more limited than the
ethical obligation of a lawyer to guard the confidences and the secrets of
his client."  EC 4-4.  The code similarly imposes on the attorney the duty
to exercise reasonable care to prevent employees, associates and all
others from disclosing client secrets and confidences.  See DR 4-101(D).
       The Model Rules of Professional Conduct also are protective of
client confidences.  Rule 1.1 enjoins the lawyer not to reveal
"information relating to the representation of a client."  Although this
language seems to eliminate from the attorney's duties the protection of
information which, though not essential to representation, may prejudice
the client's non-legal interests, the Comment to Rule 1.1 seems to
rehabilitate the protection of non-legal client secrets.  The Comment
explains that attorney-client confidentiality is necessary for the client
"to communicate fully and frankly with the lawyer even as to embarrassing
or legally damaging subject matter." (Emphasis added.)  The Comment
distinguishes Rule 1.6 from DR 4-101, and it holds that the Rule's
application to information "relating to the representation" reaches
morebroadly than the Code's protection of information "gained in" the
relationship which the client has requested to be kept confidential.
       In-house counsel should be certain that confidential legal files
are segregated from general corporate files.  Other attorneys should make
sure that their clients similarly segregate such files on separate disks.
If possible, and especially when a particularly sensitive investigation is
underway, in-house counsel should detach its computer system from the
network upon which the rest of the company's computers operate.  Clients
should be instructed to store privileged information to "floppy" disks,
and that such information should be erased completely from the computer's
memory or "hard" disks.
       Counsel need to be prepared to convince a court that certain
communications were made in complete confidence.  See, e.g., S.E.C. v.
Gulf & Western Industries, Inc., 518 F. Supp. 675 (D.D.C. 1981); In re
Ampicillin Antitrust Litigation, 81 F.R.D. 377 (D.D.C. 1978).  It will be
harder to make this showing if it should turn out that privileged files
were accessible to anyone in the corporation.  Instead, the expectation of
confidentiality should be clearly apparent from the demonstrable conduct
of the party asserting a privilege.  Gulf & Western, supra, 518 F.Supp. at
682; see also, Upjohn Co. v. United States, 449 U.S. 383, 387 (1981)
(counsel should be able to show that employee was aware that
communications were for the purpose of legal advice when made).
       Similarly, counsel should make sure that employees understand that
confidential communications should not be placed over a generally
accessible office computer network, and that legal communications should
be removed and segregated from parts of the system which are generally
accessible.  Under certain circumstances, when privileged documents are
left in computer files where others can view them, confidentiality may
have been constructively waived.  "[O]nce the privilege exists
the corporate client must be diligent in its intra-corporate
confidentiality."  J. Gergacz, Attorney-Corporate Client Privilege
3.02[2][d][ii](1987) (FN15)
       There is only so much counsel can do, however, to minimize the
possibility that privileged information is seized.  Obviously, it would be
wasteful to restructure an entire filing system in seemingly paranoid
anticipation of a general search.  But counsel should insure that the
client takes deliberate and painstaking precautions to keep its
electronically recorded confidential communications from prying eyes
within the office, as well as from without.
       It is important to note that the law is far from settled on the
issue of whether privileged materials which have been abandoned or stolen
lose their protective character.  Older authorities hold that all
involuntary disclosures of information remove the privilege.  8 Wigmore,
Evidence, sec. 2326 (McNaughton Rev. Ed. 1961).  The modern view is to the
contrary.  See, e.g., J. Gergacz, supra,  5.03[2][e]; Suburban Sew 'N
Sweep, Inc. v. Swiss-Bernina, Inc., 91 F.R.D. 254, 260 (N.D.Ill. 1981);
see also Bower v. Weisman, 669 F. Supp. 602, 606 (S.D.N.Y. 1987).  But it
is safe to say that it does not help a client's case to have filed
confidential communications promiscuously in the company's computer
network.  And disclosure of communications beyond employees who "need to
know" may constitute a waiver of confidentiality.  See, J. Gergacz, supra,
at  5.03[3], citing James Julian, Inc. v. Raytheon Co., 93 F.R.D. 138, 142
(D.Del. 1982).  As John Gergacz observes,

Courts which have strongly emphasized the confidentiality characterization
of the waiver doctrine may be less amenable to corporate policies that do
not strongly limit access by non-essential employees to the privileged
communications.  Even so, corporate counsel should take care in preserving
the confidentiality of the privileged communications within the
organization.  Privileged documents should be circulated only to those
corporate members who need to know.  The broader the circulation list, the
less distinguishable corporate treatment of confidential communications
will be from general firm memos.  In addition, . . . separate files should
be kept for privileged communications and those that are circulated should
be kept in separately marked . . . folders so as to minimize commingling
of privileged documents with nonPprivileged, even within the same filing
system.  Finally, the corporation should have and follow a policy of
authorized and unauthorized access to various files.

J. Gergacz Attorney-Corporate Client Privilege, supra,  5.03[3].


Conclusion.

       This suggestive (but far from exhaustive) review is a plea to
judges and magistrates, prosecutors and defense attorneys, in-house and
independent counsel, who are or may be involved in the criminal process --
to study the constitutional, ethical, strategic, and business implications
of the new computer technology more closely.  Computers have essentially
miniaturized the office place; but they pose the concomitant danger of the
revival of the Writ of Assistance.  True, computers enable us to easily
store, and more easily to retrieve, a wide variety of information using a
very small "file cabinet"; but one should resist the temptation to pack
everything into one system.  The courts and prosecutors should be
sensitive to how close indiscriminate computer seizures come to the police
practices which precipitated a revolution.  And counsel should be
sensitive to the possibility that the poorly considered use of computer
technology can erode the client's constitutional rights and privileges.
We should be alert to the computer's dangers as well as to its undeniable
convenience and other benefits.


FN1.  Mr. Silverglate is a partner, and Mr. Viles an associate, at the
Boston (Mass.) law firm of Silverglate & Good.  The authors are counsel to
the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), which is described in this
paper, and which is involved in a few of the matters discussed here.  The
authors gratefully acknowledge the help of Mitchell Kapor and Michael
Godwin of EFF, as well as of associate Sharon Beckman and legal assistants
Chauncey Wood and Gia Barresi of Silverglate & Good.

FN2.  John Perry Barlow, one of the founders of the Electronic Frontier
Foundation, explains the meaning of "cyberspace" best -- it is the
totality of interconnected computer networks, and the activities taking
place on them:
       The WELL ... is an example of the latest thing in frontier
villages, the computer bulletin board.  In this kind of small town, Main
Street is a minicomputer to which ... as many as 64 microcomputers may be
connected at one time by phone lines and ... modems.
       In this silent world, all conversation is typed.  To enter it, one
forsakes both body and place and becomes a thing of words alone.  You can
see what your neighbors are saying (or recently said) ... .  Town meetings
are continuous and discussions rage on everything from sexual kinks to
depreciation schedules.
       There are thousands of these nodes in the United States, ranging
from PC clone hamlets of a few users to mainframe metros like CompuServe,
with its 550,000 subscribers.  They are used by corporations to transmit
memoranda and spreadsheets, universities to disseminate research, and a
multitude of factions, from apiarists to Zoroastrians, for purposes unique
to each.
       Whether by one telephonic tendril or millions, they are all
connected to one another.  Collectively, they form what their inhabitants
call the Net.  It extends across the immense region of electron states,
microwaves, magnetic fields, light pulses and thought which sci-fi writer
William Gibson named Cyberspace.

J. Barlow, Crime and Puzzlement, 2P3 (1990)(emphasis in original).  For
other descriptions of the range of topics open for discussion on the
networks, see Walker, "American Diary: In Thrall to the Data Bank,"
Manchester Guardian Weekly, Mar. 24, 1991, at 24, and Leccese, supra, at
18.

FN3.  As of this writing, the scope of "Operation Sun Devil" is unclear.
Although many wholesale seizures of computer equipment have occurred over
the past year and a half, executed by teams of federal and state agents,
some law enforcement officers specifically have disavowed that their
particular police action was a part of "Sun Devil."   For example,
"[f]ederal officials said that the raid on Steve Jackson Games [see infra]
was not part of Operation Sun Devil."  Lewis, "Can Invaders Be Stopped but
Civil Liberties Upheld?," New York Times, Sept. 9, 1990, at 12F.

FN4.  "GURPS" is an acronym for "Generic Universal Role-Playing System."

FN5  It is instructive to compare the experience of Phrack's young
publisher with the treatment accorded other well-known publishers of
pilfered documents.  See New York Times v. United States, 403 U.S. 713
(1971).

FN6  This apparently was the climactic day for the "Sun Devil"
investigations.  Barlow writes:

One May 8, 1990, Operation Sun Devil, heretofore an apparently random and
nameless trickle of Secret Service actions, swept down on the Legion of
Doom and its ilk like a bureaucratic tsunami.  On that day, the Secret
Service served 27 search warrants in 14 cities from Plano, Texas to New
York, New York. ...
       In a press release following the sweep, the Secret Service boasted
having shut down numerous computer bulletin boards, confiscated 40
computers, and seized 23,000 disks.  They noted in their statement that
"the conceivable criminal violations of this operation have serious
implications for the health and welfare of all individuals, corporations,
and United States Government agencies relying on computers and telephones
to communicate." ...
       [T]he deliciously ironic truth is that, aside from [a]  3-page
Bell South document, the hackers had neither removed nor damaged anyone's
data.  Operation Sun Devil, on the other hand, had "serious implications"
for a number of folks who relied on "computers and telephones to
communicate."  They lost the equivalent of about 5.4 million pages of
information.  Not to mention a few computers and telephones.

J. Barlow, supra, at 14.  Similar numbers were reported in Leccese,
"Hackers under Attack," supra, at 9.

FN7.  It would be impossible to exaggerate the frequency with which
computer information banks containing private information of third parties
are seized, ostensibly in search of criminal evidence.  A greenhouse owner
in Indiana, charged with aiding and abetting in the cultivation of
marijuana, had his computer equipment seized.  More bizarre is the story
of the nonprofit California cryogenics organization, whose computer
equipment and cryogenics-related bulletin board were seized and shut down,
in the course of a coroner's office investigation into the whereabouts of
a missing human head.  The organization reportedly initiated litigation
under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 18 U.S.C.  2701 et seq.
(discussed infra), and at this writing it appears that the case was
settled after some proceedings.  See Meeks, "The Case of the Missing Head
and the Missing BBS" (available on the WELL, Apr. 12, 1991)(story reported
as originating from BIX's Microbytes newswire, no date given).

FN8.  See e.g., Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 595 (1981); Zurcher v. Stanford
Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 554-55 (1978); United States v. Kahn, 415 U.S. 143,
157 (1974); See v. City of Seattle, 387 U.S. 541 (1967); Camara v.
Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523 (1967).

FN9  See Proceedings: Fourth Annual Computer Virus & Security Conference
426P42 (1991).  Kapor and Godwin are, respectively, the President and
Staff Counsel of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a civil liberties
group headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, dedicated to "civilizing
the electronic frontier."  It "aims to lobby for laws to facilitate public
computer networks, and to help in the legal defense of those it considers
unjustly charged with computer crimes."  See Dyson, "Commentary: Hackers'
Rights," Forbes, Jan. 7, 1991, at 288.  As part of EFF's work, it has
undertaken litigation efforts on behalf of some of the parties described
above who have been subjected to computer searches and seizures (including
Steve Jackson Games and the publisher of Phrack).  EFF also has intervened
as amicus curiae in other cases implicating the constitutional liberties
of bulletin board operators.

FN10.  Similarly, as discussed below, courts and attorneys should be
sensitive to the interests protected by the Fifth and Sixth Amendments,
when the equipment to be seized potentially contains attorney-client
communications and legal work-product.

FN11  Furthermore, Rule 1001(3) holds that an "original" can be "any
print-out or other output readable by sight [and] shown to reflect the
data accurately," which has been taken from a "computer or similar
device."  In view of this, it would seem that the Rules of Evidence have
eliminated the need for many evidentiary disputes over the admissibility
of a transcribed disk (as a supposed "duplicate") in lieu of the entire
"original" computer system's data storage.

FN12.  Plainly, the decisional law has given newspapers and books stronger
and surer protection against government intrusion than it has given to the
broadcast media.  Compare, e.g., Minneapolis Star and Tribune v. C.I.R.,
460 U.S. 575 (1983); Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931), with F.C.C.
v. League of Women Voters, 468 U.S. 364 (1984); Red Lion Broadcasting v.
F.C.C., 395 U.S. 367 (1969).  The courts' tolerance for government
interference in broadcasting finds its principal justification in the
notion that "[u]nlike other modes of expression, radio inherently is not
available to all.  That is its unique characteristic, and that is why,
unlike other modes of expression, it is subject to government regulation."
National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, 319 U.S. 190, 226 (1943).  The
N.B.C. Court's observation may have been accurate in the 1940's but it is
not so today.  In the past fifty years we have witnessed a dizzying
proliferation of electronic channels of communication.  It would be a
mistake to assume that there is a scarcity of modes of expression on the
computer networks, and to consequently limit speech in those forums.  See
generally Peretti, "Computer Publication and the First Amendment," 3
Computer Underground Digest #3.09 (Feb. 28, 1991)(available on the WELL
Apr. 12, 1991).

FN13.  It should be pointed out, however, that the ECPA also sets up as
defenses to civil actions under the Act, "good faith reliance" on warrants
or court orders.  See 18 U.S.C.  2707(d)(1).

FN14.  Although the seizure of law office computer systems has not yet
caught on in this country, it seems that it is a only a matter of time
before it does.  In the past decade, we have witnessed wide-ranging
searches through attorneys' client files.  E.g., DeMassa v. Nunez, 747
F.2d 1283 (1984).  Other nations already have extended this procedure to
electronic files.  One example is the case of South African anti-apartheid
attorney Yunus Mahomed.  According to reports, his professional activities
were "directly disrupted by police searches of his office and home in
January and again in February 1989.  On the first occasion computer disks
were removed and later returned.  During the second raid, the computer was
removed.  Mr. Mahomed obtained an injunction restraining police from
tampering or retrieving information from the computer unless he is
present."  "Lawyer to Lawyer Network," March 1989 (appeal issued by
Lawyers Committee for Human Rights).

FN15.  See also Baltica-Skandinavia Insurance Co. v. Booth, Potter, Seal &
Co., No. 86-1967, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 9371 slip op. (E.D.Pa. Oct. 15,
1987), cited in J. Gergacz, supra, at 36 (Mar. 1989 Supp.)(court decided
that document intended to remain confidential when it had been filed
separately with other privileged documents, file was specially marked, and
staff was instructed concerning its confidentiality); Allen v. Burns Fry,
Ltd., No. 83 C 2915, 1987 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 4777, slip op. (N.D.Ill. June 8,
1987), cited in J. Gergacz, supra, at 36 (same).  Generally, in cases
where the client is a corporation, the courts seem to be most willing to
honor the confidential nature of documents which both the attorney and
client took explicit and energetic measures to guard.  Compare Lois
Sportswear U.S.A., Inc. v. Levi Strauss & Co., 104 F.R.D. 103 (S.D.N.Y.
1985)("Because the client's intent determines whether the communication
was confidential to begin with, such intent must be negated before the
confidentiality can be deemed to have been destroyed and the privilege
surrendered.").



                               FEDERAL REGISTER
                                VOL. 58, No. 243

                                   Notices

                     UNITED STATES SENTENCING COMMISSION

                Sentencing Guidelines for United States Courts

                                    Part V

                                58 Fed. Reg. 67522

DATE: Tuesday, December 21, 1993

ACTION: Notice of proposed amendments to sentencing guidelines, policy
statements, and commentary; request for public comment. Notice of hearing.

SUMMARY: The Commission is considering promulgating certain amendments to
the sentencing guidelines, policy statements, and commentary. The proposed
amendments and a synopsis of issues to be addressed are set forth below.
The Commission may report amendments to the Congress on or before May 1,
1994. Comment is sought on all proposals, alternative proposals, and any
other aspect of the sentencing guidelines, policy statements, and
commentary.

DATES:  The Commission has scheduled a public hearing on these proposed
amendments for March 24, 1994, at 9:30 a.m. at the Education Center
(concourse level), South Lobby, Thurgood Marshall Federal Judiciary
Building, One Columbus Circle, NE., Washington, DC 20002-8002.

  Anyone wishing to testify at this public hearing should notify Michael
Courlander, Public Information Specialist, at (202) 273-4590 by March 10,
1994.

  Public comment, including written testimony for the hearing, should be
received by the Commission no later than March 18, 1994, to be considered
by the Commission in the promulgation of amendments due to the Congress by
May 1, 1994.

ADDRESSES:  Public comment should be sent to:  United States Sentencing
Commission, One Columbus Circle, NE, Suite 2-500, South Lobby, Washington,
DC 20002-8002, Attention:  Public Information.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:  Michael Courlander, Public Information
Specialist, Telephone: (202) 273-4590.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:  The United States Sentencing Commission is an
independent agency in the judicial branch of the United States Government.
The Commission is empowered under 28 U.S.C. 994(a) to promulgate sentencing
guidelines and policy statements for federal sentencing courts. The statute
further directs the Commission to review and revise periodically guidelines
previously promulgated and authorizes it to submit guideline amendments to
the Congress no later than the first day of May each year. See 28 U.S.C.
994(o), (p).

  Ordinarily, the Administrative Procedure Act rule-making requirements
are inapplicable to judicial agencies; however, 28 U.S.C. 994(x) makes the
Administrative Procedure Act rulemaking provisions of 5 U.S.C. 553
applicable to the promulgation of sentencing guidelines by the Commission.

  The proposed amendments are presented in one of three formats. First,
the majority of the amendments are proposed as specific revisions of a
guideline, policy statement, or commentary. Second, for some amendments,
the Commission has published alternative methods of addressing an issue,
shown in brackets. Commentators are encouraged to state their preference
among listed alternatives or to suggest a new alternative. Third, the
Commission has highlighted certain issues for comment and invites
suggestions for specific amendment language.

  Section 1B1.10 of the United States Sentencing Commission Guidelines
Manual sets forth the Commission's policy statement regarding retroactivity
of amended guideline ranges. Comment is requested as to whether any of the
proposed amendments should be made retroactive under this policy statement.

  Although the amendments below are specifically proposed for public
comment and possible submission to the Congress by May 1, 1994, the
Commission emphasizes that it welcomes comment on any aspect of the
sentencing guidelines, policy statements, and commentary, whether or not
the subject of a proposed amendment.

  The amendments below are derived from a variety of sources, including:
monitoring and hotline data, case law review, and the recommendations of
the Judicial Conference of the United States, Department of Justice,
Federal and Community Defenders, Practitioners' Advisory Group, Probation
Officers' Advisory Group, American Bar Association Sentencing Guidelines
Committee, Families Against Mandatory Minimums, individual judges,
probation officers, attorneys, and others. Publication of a proposed
amendment or issue for comment reflects only the Commission's determination
that the amendment or issue is worthy of public comment.

  As a resource when considering the proposed amendments, working group
reports prepared by Commission staff are available for inspection at
Commission offices or off-site duplication. The reports contain empirical
and legal sentencing research focusing on (1) money laundering offenses;
(2) computer-related offenses; (3) public corruption offenses; and (4)
controlled substance offenses/role in the offense. Contact the Commission's
public information specialist at (202) 273-4590 for details.

  Authority: 28 U.S.C. Section 994(a), (o), (p), (x).

William W. Wilkins, Jr.,

Chairman.

Computer-Related Offenses

Chapter Two, Parts B (Offenses Involving Property) and F (Offenses
Involving Fraud or Deceit)

  1. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds Commentary to
SectionSection 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms of Theft;
Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing Stolen
Property), 2B1.3 (Property Damage or Destruction), and 2F1.1 (Fraud and
Deceit; Forgery; Offenses Involving Altered or Counterfeit Instruments
Other than Counterfeit Bearer Obligations of the United States) to address
harms that may be significant in computer-related cases but not adequately
accounted for by the loss table. In addition, this amendment revises
Appendix A (Statutory Index) for violations of 18 U.S.C. 1030 to reference
the offense guidelines that most appropriately address the underlying
harms.

  Proposed Amendment:  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended by inserting the following additional note:]

  "15. In cases in which the loss determined under subsection (b)(1) does
not fully capture the harmfulness and seriousness of the conduct, an upward
departure may be warranted. For example, an upward departure may be
warranted if the offense involved a substantial invasion of a privacy
interest. Although every violation of 18 U.S.C. Section 1030(a)(2)
(intentional, unauthorized access of financial or credit card information)
constitutes an invasion of a privacy interest, the Commission does not
consider each such invasion to be a substantial invasion of a privacy
interest. When the primary purpose of the offense was pecuniary, a sentence
within the applicable guideline range ordinarily will be sufficient. By
contrast, an upward departure may be warranted if the financial records of
a particular individual were accessed for a non-pecuniary motive.".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 4 by inserting "or interference with a telecommunications network"
immediately before "may cause".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional note:   [*67523]

  "5. In a case in which a computer data file was altered or destroyed,
loss can be measured by the cost to restore the file. If a defendant
intentionally or recklessly altered or destroyed a computer data file and,
due to a fortuitous circumstance, the cost to restore the file was
substantially lower than the defendant could reasonably have expected, an
upward departure may be warranted. For example, if the defendant
intentionally or recklessly damaged a valuable data base, the restoration
of which would have been very costly but for the fortuitous circumstance
that, unknown to the defendant, an annual back-up of the data base had
recently been completed thus making restoration relatively inexpensive, an
upward departure may be warranted.".

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 10 by deleting the period at the end of subdivision (f) and
inserting in lieu thereof a semicolon; and by inserting the following
additional subdivisions:

  "(g) the offense involved a substantial invasion of a privacy interest;

  (h) the offense involved a conscious or reckless risk of harm to a
person's health or safety.".

  Appendix A (Statutory Index) is amended in the line beginning "18 U.S.C.
1030(a)(2)" by deleting "2F1.1" and inserting in lieu thereof "2B1.1"; in
the line beginning "18 U.S.C. 1030(a)(3)" by deleting "2F1.1" and inserting
in lieu thereof "2B2.3"; and in the line beginning "18 U.S.C. Section
1030(a)(5)" by deleting "2F1.1" and inserting in lieu thereof "2B1.3".

Public Corruption Offenses

Chapter Two, Part C (Offenses Involving Public Officials)

  2(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment consolidates
SectionSection 2C1.3 (Conflict of Interest) and 2C1.4 (Payment or Receipt
of Unauthorized Compensation). Although the elements of the offenses of
conflict of interest and unauthorized payment differ in some ways, the
gravamen of the offenses is similar-unauthorized receipt of a payment in
respect to an official act. The base offense levels for both guidelines are
identical. The few cases in which these guidelines were applied usually
involved a conflict of interest offense that was associated with a bribe or
gratuity; i.e., the conflict of interest

statute was used as a plea bargaining statute. None of the cases involved
application of the adjustment in Section 2C1.3(b)(1) for planned or actual
harm to the government. In this consolidation, the adjustment for actual or
planned harm to the government is replaced by an upward departure
consideration and a cross-reference to the guidelines for offenses
involving a bribe or gratuity.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2C1.4 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2C1.3 is amended in the title by inserting at the end "; Payment
or Receipt of Unauthorized Compensation".

  Section 2C1.3 is amended by deleting subsection (b) and inserting in
lieu thereof:

"(b) Cross Reference

  If the offense involved a bribe or gratuity, apply Section 2C1.1
(Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color
of Official Right) or Section 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or
Receiving a Gratuity), as appropriate.".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.3 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by inserting ", 209, 1909" immediately following "208".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.3 captioned "Application Note" is amended
by deleting "Note" and inserting in lieu thereof "Notes"; and by inserting
the following additional note:

  "2. If the offense involved actual or planned harm to the government, an
upward departure may be warranted.".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.3 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting:

  "The maximum term of imprisonment authorized by statute is two years.",

and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "It also applies to offenses involving the unlawful supplementation of
salary of various federal employees.".

  (B). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment consolidates
SectionSection 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a
Gratuity) and 2C1.6 (Loan or Gratuity to Bank Examiner, or Gratuity for
Adjustment of Farm Indebtedness, or Procuring Bank Loan, or Discount of
Commercial Paper). Both guidelines cover offenses involving gratuities and
have identical base offense levels. The only differences between the
guidelines is the absence of adjustments in Section 2C1.6 for multiple
gratuities and high-level officials. This amendment removes this
inconsistency. In addition, an application note is inserted to clarify the
treatment of a gratuity in the form of a loan.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2C1.6 is deleted in its entirety.

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.2 captioned "Statutory Provision" is
amended by deleting "Provision: 18 U.S.C. Section 201(c)(1)." and inserting
in lieu thereof "Provisions: 18 U.S.C. SectionSection 201(c)(1), 212-214,
217.".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional note:

  "5. For the purposes of this guideline, a gratuity includes any unlawful
payment (including a loan). When an unlawful payment is in the form of a
loan, the value of the loan may be determined by the savings in interest
over the life of the loan under the terms given compared with the loan
terms for which the applicant would have legitimately qualified. Note,
however, that in the case of a gratuity disguised as a loan, the "value of
the gratuity" is the face value of the loan.".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.2 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting the second, third, and fourth sentences and inserting in lieu
thereof:

  "It also applies to the offer to, or acceptance by, a bank examiner of
any unlawful payment; the offer or receipt of anything of value for
procuring a loan or discount of commercial paper from a Federal Reserve
Bank; and the acceptance of a fee or other consideration by a federal
employee for adjusting or cancelling a farm debt.".

  (C). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether
SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe;
Extortion Under Color of Official Right) and 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving,
Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity) should be consolidated. Bribery and
gratuity statutes vary in their respective definitions of these offenses.
Some case law identifies the existence of a quid pro quo and related timing
issues as key distinctions between a bribe and a gratuity. In contrast,
some case law identifies Section 2C1.1 as applying to offenses in which a
"corrupt purpose" is an element of the offense of conviction, even where
there has been no quid pro quo. Moreover, review of case files indicates
that Section 2C1.2 is sometimes used as a plea bargain statute for bribery
offenses. To simplify determination of the appropriate guideline and to
ensure consistent application of the guidelines to similar conduct,
SectionSection 2C1.1 and 2C1.2 might be consolidated by providing
alternative base offense levels for bribery and gratuity offenses and by
adding clearer, more objective definitions of the conduct covered. Section
2E5.1 (Offering, Accepting, or Soliciting a Bribe or Gratuity Affecting the
Operation of an Employee Welfare or Pension Benefit Plan; Prohibited
Payments or Lending of Money by Employer or Agent to Employees,
Representatives, or Labor Organizations) uses this type of structure.

  Comment is also invited on whether such a consolidation also should
include Section 2C1.7 (Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right
to the Honest Services of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by
Interference with Governmental Functions), a guideline that shares many of
the same   [*67524] specific offense characteristics and cross references.

  3. Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether the
offense levels for the public corruption guidelines and other guidelines
concerning bribes and gratuities appropriately account for the seriousness
of these offenses. The Commission specifically invites comment on whether,
and if so to what extent, the offense levels of SectionSection 2C1.1,
2C1.2, 2C1.6, 2C1.7, 2B3.3, 2B4.1, and 2E5.1 should be modified or
harmonized. It is noted that Section 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting,
or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official Right) provides a
base offense level of 10 for extortion under color of official right, but
Section 2B3.3 (Blackmail and Similar Forms of Extortion) provides a base
offense level of 9 with a possible additional 2-level enhancement under
Section 3B1.3 (Abuse of Position of Trust). Section 2C1.1 provides a base
offense level of 10 for offenses involving bribery, but guidelines
involving bribery in other contexts provide a base offense level of 8
(Section 2B4.1 (Bribery in Procurement of Bank Loan and Other Commercial
Bribery)) or 10 (Section 2E5.1 (Offering, Accepting, or Soliciting a Bribe
or Gratuity Affecting the Operation of an Employee Welfare or Pension
Benefit Plan; Prohibited Payments or Lending of Money by
Employer or Agent to Employees, Representatives, or Labor Organizations))
with a possible additional 2-level enhancement under Section 3B1.3.
Sections 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity) and
2C1.6 (Loan or Gratuity to Bank Examiner, or Gratuity for Adjustment of
Farm Indebtedness, or Procuring Bank Loan, or Discount of Commercial Paper)
provide a base offense level of 7, while Section 2E5.1 provides a base
offense level of 6 for a gratuity with a possible additional 2-level
enhancement under Section 3B1.3.

  The Department of Justice has recommended an increase in the offense
levels for SectionSection 2C1.1, 2C1.2, and 2C1.7, with a specific
recommendation for an increase in the base offense level of Section 2C1.1
from 10 to 14 in order to reflect more adequately the seriousness of this
conduct and to prevent any defendant to whom this guideline applies from
being eligible for a non-imprisonment sentence.

  4(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: The adjustments in SectionSection
2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under
Color of Official Right) and 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or
Receiving a Gratuity) for more than one bribe, extortion, or gratuity were
designed to reflect the increased culpability associated with offenses that
involve more than a single incident. Commission data indicate that a
majority of cases involve more than one such incident. Option 1 would
retain these adjustments but make the commentary and guideline language for
SectionSection 2C1.1 and 2C1.2 more consistent. Option 2 would eliminate
these adjustments as substantially duplicative with the adjustment based on
value or benefit of the payment because multiple instances typically are
associated with larger values or benefits.

  Proposed Amendment: [Option 1: Section 2C1.1(b)(1) is amended by
deleting "bribe" and inserting in lieu thereof "incident of bribery".

  Section 2C1.2(b)(1) is amended by inserting "incident of offering,
giving, soliciting, or receiving a" immediately following "one".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 4 by inserting the following additional sentence as the first
sentence:

  "Subsection (b)(1) provides an adjustment for offenses involving more
than one incident of offering, giving, soliciting, or receiving a
gratuity.".]

  [Option 2: Section 2C1.1(b) is amended by deleting subdivision (1); by
renumbering subdivision (2) as subdivision (1); and in the caption by
deleting "Characteristics" and inserting in lieu thereof "Characteristic".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 6.

  Section 2C1.2(b) is amended by deleting subdivision (1); by renumbering
subdivision (2) as subdivision (1); and in the caption by deleting
"Characteristics" and inserting in lieu thereof "Characteristic".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 4.]

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether the
discussion of the adjustments for multiple payments in the Commentary to
SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe;
Extortion Under Color of Official Right) and 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving,
Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity) should be amended to facilitate more
consistent application of these adjustments.

  5(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment makes the
adjustments for value of the payment and high-level official in
SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe;
Extortion Under Color of Official Right), 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving,
Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity), and 2C1.7 (Fraud Involving
Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the Honest Services of Public
Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference with Governmental
Functions) cumulative, rather than alternative, so as to reflect the harm
involved in offenses involving both high values of payment or benefit and
high-level officials. The Commission invites comment on the proper level of
adjustment for high-level officials if these adjustments are made
cumulative.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2C1.1(b) is amended by deleting: "(2) (If
more than one applies, use the greater):"; by deleting "(A)" and inserting
in lieu thereof "(2)"; by deleting "(B)" and inserting in lieu thereof
"(3)"; and by deleting "8 levels" and inserting in lieu thereof "[2-8]
levels".

  Section 2C1.2(b) is amended by deleting "(2) (If more than one applies,
use the greater):"; by deleting "(A)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(2)";
by deleting "(B)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(3)"; and by deleting "8
levels" and inserting in lieu thereof "[2-8] levels".

  Section 2C1.7(b) is amended by deleting "(1) (If more than one applies,
use the greater):"; by deleting "(A)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(1)";
by deleting "; or" and inserting in lieu thereof a period; by deleting
"(B)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(2)"; and by deleting "8 levels" and
inserting in lieu thereof "[2-8] levels".

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether the
definition of high-level official in SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering,
Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official
Right), 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity), and
2C1.7 (Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the Honest
Services of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference with
Governmental Functions) should be modified to facilitate more consistent
application of this adjustment. [*67525]   Case review indicates some
confusion as to whether this adjustment is to be applied, for example, to
(1) line immigration or IRS agents who do not have supervisory authority
and (2) federal procurement officials with authority to obligate
substantial agency funds for contracts. The Commission invites comment on
objective standards (e.g., specific job descriptions or titles, salary or
grade, number of employees supervised, amount of funds authorized to be
dispensed) that might be added to facilitate application of this
adjustment.

  The Commission also invites comment on whether the 8-level adjustment
for high-level officials in SectionSection 2C1.1(b)(2), 2C1.2(b)(2), and
2C1.7(b)(1) should be modified as discussed below:

  (1) Should the adjustment for a high-level official in Section 2C1.2
(Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity) be reduced by [2-6]
levels to limit the frequency with which the adjustment results in
sentences at the statutory maximum? This adjustment is applied in
approximately 15 percent of the cases under Section 2C1.2 and typically
results in an adjusted offense level 17 (base offense level 7 plus 2 levels
for multiple gratuities and 8 levels for high-level official). The
resulting guideline range (assuming criminal history category I) is 15-21
months (if a 3-level acceptance of responsibility reduction applies) and
18-24 months (if a 2-level acceptance of responsibility reduction applies);
the statutory maximum for this offense is 24 months.

  (2) Should the adjustment for a high-level official in SectionSection
2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under
Color of Official Right), 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving
a Gratuity), and 2C1.7 (Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right
to the Honest Services of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by
Interference with Governmental Functions) be modified to provide different
adjustments ([2-12] levels) depending on the level of authority,
responsibility, salary, or other characteristics of the public officials
involved; should it be reduced to moderate the impact of this adjustment
which is relatively large in comparison with most guideline adjustments; or
should the current adjustment remain and, as recommended by the Department
of Justice, an additional subdivision be created increasing the adjustment
to 12 levels for elected or very high-level officials (a legislator,
department or agency head, a judge, a presidential appointee, or another
person at a similarly high level of state or federal government)?

  (3) Instead of, or in addition to, modifying the current 8-level
adjustment for a high-level official in SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering,
Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official
Right), 2C1.2 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Gratuity), and
2C1.7 (Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the Honest
Services of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference with
Governmental Functions), should the Commission amend the commentary to
authorize or recommend a departure in certain cases? Examples might include
a suggested downward departure in cases of particularly low-level elected
public officials (e.g., an elected treasurer to a local school board) or a
suggested upward departure in cases of very high-level officials.

  6(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies that the
term "payment" in SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or
Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official Right) and 2C1.7
(Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the Honest Services
of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference with
Governmental Functions) refers to anything of value and need not be
monetary. In addition, this amendment clarifies the definition of the value
of "the benefit received or to be received" in respect to cases involving
extortion under color of official right. Finally, this amendment clarifies
that the term "high-level official" for purposes of Section 2C1.7(b)(1) is
limited to high-level public officials.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2C1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 2 by inserting the following
additional sentence as the second sentence:

  ""Payment" means anything of value.";

and by inserting the following additional sentence at the end:

  "In offenses involving extortion under color of official right, the
value of "the benefit received or to be received" includes the value of the
benefit that would have been denied, or the loss that would have been
caused, to the victim had the victim not made the extorted payment.".

  Section 2C1.7(b)(1)(B) is amended by inserting "public" immediately
before "official" each time the latter term appears.

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.7 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by deleting "Official" and inserting in lieu thereof "Public
official".

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether
Application Note 2 of the Commentary to Section 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving,
Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official Right)
defining "benefit received" should be clarified to address varying
approaches among the circuits as to the extent to which the defendant is to
be held accountable for relevant conduct of others. Compare United States
v. Muldoon, 931 F.2d 282 (4th Cir. 1991) with United States v. Ellis, 951
F.2d 580 (4th Cir. 1991), cert. denied, 112 S. Ct. 3030 (1992), United
States v. Kant, 946 F.2d 267 (4th Cir. 1991), and United States v. Narvaez,
995 F.2d 759 (7th Cir. 1993).

  (C). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds an application
note to SectionSection 2C1.1 (Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a
Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official Right) and 2C1.7 (Fraud Involving
Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the Honest Services of Public
Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference with Governmental
Functions) authorizing an upward departure where the offense involved
ongoing harm or a risk of ongoing harm to a government entity or program to
address cases in which a public official engages in behavior for a
significant period of time even though the additional benefit received by
the person is small or difficult to quantify.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2C1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended by inserting the following additional note:

  "7. If the offense involved ongoing harm, or a risk of ongoing harm, to
a government entity or program, an upward departure may be warranted.".

  The Commentary to Section 2C1.7 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional note:

  "6. If the offense involved ongoing harm, or a risk of ongoing harm, to
a government entity or program, an upward departure may be warranted.".

  7. Issue for Comment: Section 994(d) of title 28, United States Code,
requires the Commission to "assure that the guidelines and policy
statements are entirely neutral as to the race, sex, national origin,
creed, and socioeconomic status of offenders." Some courts have determined
that departures may be based on certain factors such as cultural
characteristics of the defendant or the collateral consequences that a
public official might encounter as a result of a conviction. See United
States v. Aguilar, 994 F.2d 609 (9th Cir. 1993) (collateral consequences);
United States v. Yu, 954 F.2d 951 (3d Cir. 1992) (leaving to Commission the
question of permissibility of departure for cultural characteristics in IRS
bribery case); United States v. Swapp, 719 F. Supp. 1015 (D. Utah 1989)
(downward departure justified for defendant convicted of damaging church
with explosives because defendant operated in context of unique cultural
history and culturally isolated family). The Commission invites comment on
how it might resolve these competing policy concerns. The Commission also
invites comment on whether additional departures should be suggested to
[*67526] address unusual types of public corruption cases.

Drug Offenses and Role in the Offense

Chapter Two, Part D (Offenses Involving Drugs) and Chapter Three, Part B
(Role in the Offense)

  8(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment keys the mandatory
minimum levels in the Drug Quantity Table to levels 30 and 24, rather than
32 and 26, and sets the upper limit of this table at Level 38. When the
Commission initially developed the Drug Quantity Table, it keyed the
offense level for 1 KG of heroin (10 year mandatory minimum) at level 32
(121-151 months for a first offender) and 100 grams of heroin (5 year
mandatory minimum) at level 26 (63-78 months for a first offender) because
these guideline ranges included the 5 and 10 year mandatory minimum
sentences. However, offense levels 30 (97-121 months) and 24 (51-63 months)
also include the 5 year and 10 year mandatory minimum sentences, as do
offense levels 31 (108-135 months) and 25 (57-71 months). This amendment
revises the Drug Quantity Table to reflect mandatory minimums at levels 30
and 24, rather than 32 and 26. In addition, the upper limit of the Drug
Quantity Table is set at level 38. As an organizer or leader of a very
large operation generally will receive a 4-level increase for an
aggravating role, and may receive an additional 2-level weapon enhancement,
extension of the Drug Quantity Table above level 38 for quantity itself
does not seem required.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2D1.1(c) is amended by deleting subdivisions
1-12; by renumbering subdivisions 13-19 as 11-17; and by inserting the
following as subdivisions 1-10:

Level 38

  "(1) 100 KG or more of Heroin (or the equivalent amount of other
Schedule I or II Opiates);

  500 KG or more of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount of other Schedule I
or II Stimulants);

  5 KG or more of Cocaine Base;

  100 KG or more of PCP, or 10 KG or more of PCP (actual);

  100 KG or more of Methamphetamine, or 10 KG or more of Methamphetamine
(actual), or 10 KG or more of "Ice";

  1 KG or more of LSD (or the equivalent amount of other Schedule I or II
Hallucinogens);

  40 KG or more of Fentanyl;

  10 KG or more of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  100,000 KG or more of Marihuana;

  20,000 KG or more of Hashish;

  2,000 KG or more of Hashish Oil.

Level 36

  (2) At least 30 KG but less than 100 KG of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 150 KG but less than 500 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 1.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Cocaine Base;

  At least 30 KG but less than 100 KG of PCP, or at least 3 KG but less
than 10 KG of PCP (actual);

  At least 30 KG but less than 100 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 3 KG
but less than 10 KG of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 3 KG but less
than 10 KG of "Ice";

  At least 300 G but less than 1 KG of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 12 KG but less than 40 KG of Fentanyl;

  At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 30,000 KG but less than 100,000 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 6,000 KG but less than 20,000 KG of Hashish;

  At least 600 KG but less than 2,000 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 34

  (3) At least 10 KG but less than 30 KG of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 50 KG but less than 150 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 500 G but less than 1.5 KG of Cocaine Base;

  At least 10 KG but less than 30 KG of PCP, or at least 1 KG but less
than 3 KG of PCP (actual);

  At least 10 KG but less than 30 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 1 KG
but less than 3 KG of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 1 KG but less
than 3 KG of "Ice";

  At least 100 G but less than 300 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 4 KG but less than 12 KG of Fentanyl;

  At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 10,000 KG but less than 30,000 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 2,000 KG but less than 6,000 KG of Hashish;

  At least 200 KG but less than 600 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 32

  (4) At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 15 KG but less than 50 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 150 G but less than 500 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of PCP, or at least 300 G but less
than 1 KG of PCP (actual);

  At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 300 G
but less than 1 KG of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 300 G but less
than 1 KG of "Ice";

  At least 30 G but less than 100 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 1.2 KG but less than 4 KG of Fentanyl;

  At least 300 G but less than 1 KG of Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 3,000 KG but less than 10,000 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 600 KG but less than 2,000 KG of Hashish;

  At least 60 KG but less than 200 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 30

  (5) At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of Heroin (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 5 KG but less than 15 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 50 G but less than 150 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of PCP, or at least 100 G but less than
300 G of PCP (actual);

  At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 100 G
but less than 300 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 100 G but less
than 300 G of "Ice";

  At least 10 G but less than 30 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 400 G but less than 1.2 KG of Fentanyl;

  At least 100 G but less than 300 G of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 1,000 KG but less than 3,000 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 200 KG but less than 600 KG of Hashish;

  At least 20 KG but less than 60 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 28

  (6) At least 700 G but less than 1 KG of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 3.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 35 G but less than 50 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 700 G but less than 1 KG of PCP, or at least 70 G but less than
100 G of PCP (actual);

  At least 700 G but less than 1 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 70 G
but less than 100 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 70 G but less
than

100 G of "Ice";

  At least 7 G but less than 10 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 280 G but less than 400 G of Fentanyl;

  At least 70 G but less than 100 G of Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 700 KG but less than 1,000 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 140 KG but less than 200 KG of Hashish;

  At least 14 KG but less than 20 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 26

  (7) At least 400 G but less than 700 G of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);   [*67527]

  At least 2 KG but less than 3.5 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 20 G but less than 35 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 400 G but less than 700 G of PCP, or at least 40 G but less
than 70 G of PCP (actual);

  At least 400 G but less than 700 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 40 G
but less than 70 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 40 G but less
than 70 G of "Ice";

  At least 4 G but less than 7 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of other
Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 160 G but less than 280 G of Fentanyl;

  At least 40 G but less than 70 G of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 400 KG but less than 700 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 80 KG but less than 140 KG of Hashish;

  At least 8 KG but less than 14 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 24

  (8) At least 100 G but less than 400 G of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 500 G but less than 2 KG of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 5 G but less than 20 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 100 G but less than 400 G of PCP, or at least 10 G but less
than 40 G of PCP (actual);

  At least 100 G but less than 400 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 10 G
but less than 40 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 10 G but less
than 40 G of "Ice";

  At least 1 G but less than 4 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of other
Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 40 G but less than 160 G of Fentanyl;

  At least 10 G but less than 40 G of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 100 KG but less than 400 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 20 KG but less than 80 KG of Hashish;

  At least 2 KG but less than 8 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 22

  (9) At least 70 G but less than 100 G of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 350 G but less than 500 G of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 3.5 G but less than 5 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 70 G but less than 100 G of PCP, or at least 7 G but less than
10 G of PCP (actual);

  At least 70 G but less than 100 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 7 G
but less than 10 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 7 G but less
than 10 G of "Ice";

  At least 700 MG but less than 1 G of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 28 G but less than 40 G of Fentanyl;

  At least 7 G but less than 10 G of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 70 KG but less than 100 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 14 KG but less than 20 KG of Hashish;

  At least 1.4 KG but less than 2 KG of Hashish Oil.

Level 20

  (10) At least 40 G but less than 70 G of Heroin (or the equivalent
amount of other Schedule I or II Opiates);

  At least 200 G but less than 350 G of Cocaine (or the equivalent amount
of other Schedule I or II Stimulants);

  At least 2 G but less than 3.5 G of Cocaine Base;

  At least 40 G but less than 70 G of PCP, or at least 4 G but less than 7
G of PCP (actual);

  At least 40 G but less than 70 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 4 G but
less than 7 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 4 G but less than 7
G of "Ice";

  At least 400 MG but less than 700 MG of LSD (or the equivalent amount of
other Schedule I or II Hallucinogens);

  At least 16 G but less than 28 G of Fentanyl;

  At least 4 G but less than 7 G of a Fentanyl Analogue;

  At least 40 KG but less than 70 KG of Marihuana;

  At least 8 KG but less than 14 KG of Hashish;

  At least 800 G but less than 1.4 KG of Hashish Oil;

  20 KG or more of Secobarbital (or the equivalent amount of other
Schedule I or II Depressants) or Schedule III substances (except anabolic
steroids);

  40,000 or more units of anabolic steroids.".
  (B). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds an additional
enhancement in Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting,
or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy) for weapon use/assault. Two options
are set forth. The Commission, in addition, invites comment on whether the
weapon enhancement should be amended to differentiate the dangerousness of
certain weapons (e.g., assault weapons, machine guns, and sawed-off
shotguns) and the number of weapons involved.

  Proposed Amendment: [Option 1: Section 2D1.1(b) is amended by deleting
subdivision (1) and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "(1) (A) If a firearm was discharged or a dangerous weapon (including a
firearm) was otherwise used, increase by 4 levels; or

  (B) If a dangerous weapon (including a firearm) was possessed, increase
by 2 levels.";

by renumbering subdivision (2) as subdivision (3); and by inserting the
following additional subdivision:

  "(2) If the offense resulted in serious bodily injury, other than that
to which subsection (a) (1) or (2) applies, increase by 2 levels.".

  The Commentary to Section 2D1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 3 by inserting ", "otherwise used,"" immediately before "and".]

  [Option 2: Section 2D1.1 is amended by inserting the following
additional subsection:

"(e) Special Instruction

  (1) If the offense involved an attempted murder or aggravated assault,
apply Section 2A2.1 (Assault With Intent to Commit Murder; Attempted
Murder) or Section 2A2.2 (Aggravated Assault) as if the defendant had been
convicted of a separate count charging such conduct.

Notes

  (A) This instruction is in addition to, and not in lieu of, the
application of subsection (b)(1).

  (B) The "count" established under this instruction is not to be grouped
with the count for the underlying controlled substance offense under
Section 3D1.2 (Groups of Closely Related Counts).

  (C) For the purposes of this instruction, the discharge of a firearm
under circumstances that create a substantial risk of serious bodily
injury, even without the specific intent to cause such injury, is to be
treated as an aggravated assault.".]

  (C). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises subsection
(a)(3) of Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or
Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy) to provide a ceiling in the Chapter Two
offense level for defendants who receive a mitigating role adjustment under
Section 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role). Some commentators have argued that the
current guidelines may over-punish certain low-level defendants when the
sentence is driven in large part by the quantity of drugs involved in the
offense. For such low-level defendants, the quantity of drugs involved is
often opportunistic and may be a less appropriate measure of the
seriousness of the offense than when the defendant has a mid-level or
high-level role. This amendment limits the impact quantity will play in
determining the sentence of a defendant who qualifies for a mitigating role
adjustment.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2D1.1(a)(3) is amended by inserting the
following additional sentence at the end:

  "Provided, that if the defendant qualifies for a mitigating role
adjustment under Section 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role), the base offense level
shall not be greater than level [32] [30].".

  (D). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether it
should deemphasize the impact of drug quantity on offense level by using a
broader range of quantity at each level in the offense table, and
[*67528]   instead provide greater enhancements for weapons or violence.

  9. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Section 3B1.1
(Aggravating Role) by (1) defining "participant" more comprehensively; (2)
providing that subsection (b) applies where the defendant managed or
supervised at least four other participants, a result more consistent with
the structure of 21 U.S.C. 848 (Continuing Criminal Enterprise) (which
requires supervision of at least five other participants) and one that will
correct what appears to be an anomaly in the guideline in that a lower
level defendant who supervises only one participant in an offense with a
total of five participants currently receives a higher offense level than a
defendant who is the leader or organizer of an offense having a total of
four participants and manages or supervises all of those participants; and
(3) clarifying the interaction of Section 3B1.1 with Section 3B1.2 in the
case of a defendant who would otherwise qualify as a minor or minimal
participant but exercises limited supervision over other participants with
minor or minimal roles. This interaction has been the subject of
inconsistent interpretation, and at least one circuit court decision,
United States v. Tsai, 954 F.2d 155 (3rd Cir. 1992), has required that
sections 3B1.1 and 3B1.2 be independently and sequentially applied to the
same defendant.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 3B1.1 is amended by deleting "follows:" and
inserting in lieu thereof "follows (Apply the Greatest):".

  Section 3B1.1(a) is amended by deleting "a criminal activity that
involved five or more participants" and inserting in lieu thereof "the
offense, and the offense involved at least four other participants".

  Section 3B1.1(b) is amended by deleting "(but not an organizer or
leader) and the criminal activity involved five or more participants or was
otherwise extensive" and inserting in lieu thereof "of at least four other
participants in the offense".

  Section 3B1.1(c) is amended by deleting "in any criminal activity other
than described in (a) or (b)" and inserting in lieu thereof "of at least
one other participant in the offense".

  The Commentary to Section 3B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting:

  "A person who is not criminally responsible for the commission of the
offense (e.g., an undercover law enforcement officer) is not a
participant."

and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "A person who is not criminally responsible for the offense is not
considered a participant, except as provided below:

  (A) Undercover Agents. An undercover agent (a law enforcement officer or
a person operating under the direction of a law enforcement officer)
playing the role of a participant is counted as a participant (even though
he is not criminally responsible for the offense), provided that he was
recruited by, or at the direction of, a criminally responsible participant.
For example, if the defendant recruited two undercover agents to offload a
shipment of marihuana, both undercover agents would be counted as
participants for the purposes of this guideline. However, if the defendant
recruited one undercover agent to offload a shipment of marihuana and that
agent then counseled or encouraged the recruitment of other agents, only
the first undercover agent would be counted as a participant.

  (B) Certain Other Persons. In unusual cases, a person may be recruited
by a criminally responsible participant for a significant role in the
offense that is typically held by a criminally responsible participant, yet
the person recruited may not be criminally responsible (1) because he is
unaware that an offense is being committed, (2) because he has not yet
reached the age of criminal responsibility, or (3) because of mental
deficiency or condition. For example, a person hired by a defendant to
solicit money for a charitable organization who was unaware that the
charitable organization was fraudulent, a person duped by a defendant into
driving the getaway car from a bank robbery who was unaware that a robbery
was being committed, or a child recruited by a defendant to deliver a
quantity of cocaine would meet these criteria. For the purposes of this
guideline, such persons are counted as participants. Note, however, that
persons such as postal employees, messengers, and taxi drivers, who are
merely performing their normal duties, and are not otherwise criminally
responsible for the offense, are not included in this provision.".

  The Commentary to Section 3B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "As used in this guideline, a "manager" or "supervisor" means a person
who managed or supervised another participant, whether directly or
indirectly.".

  The Commentary to Section 3B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by renumbering Note 4 as Note 5; and by inserting the following additional
note:

  "4. When a defendant, who otherwise would merit a mitigating role
reduction under Section 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role), exercised limited
supervision over participants with equal or lesser roles, do not apply an
adjustment from this section. For example, an increase in offense level
under this section would not be appropriate for a defendant whose only
function was to offload a single large shipment of marihuana, and who
supervised other offloaders of that shipment. Instead, consider such
circumstances in determining the appropriate reduction, if any, under
Section 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role).".

  10. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
Introductory Commentary of Chapter Three, Part B (Role in the Offense);
Section 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role); and the Commentary to Section 3B1.2 to
provide clearer definitions of the defendants who merit a mitigating role
reduction.

  Proposed Amendment: The Introductory Commentary to Chapter Three, Part
B, is amended by deleting:

  "When an offense is committed by more than one participant, Section
3B1.1 or Section 3B1.2 (or neither) may apply.",

and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "In the case of criminal activity involving more than one participant,
Section 3B1.1 or Section 3B1.2, or neither section, may apply. When the
criminal activity involves only one participant, or only participants of
roughly equal culpability, neither Section 3B1.1 nor Section 3B1.2 will
apply. In some cases, some participants in a criminal activity may receive
an upward adjustment in offense level under Section 3B1.1, other
participants may receive a downward adjustment in offense level under
Section 3B1.2, and still other participants may receive no adjustment.
Section 3B1.3 may apply to offenses committed by any number of
participants.

  Sections 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role) and 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role) authorize
an increase or decrease in offense level for a defendant who qualifies as
having an aggravating or mitigating role, respectively, in the criminal
activity for which he is accountable under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant
Conduct). These sections are designed to work in conjunction with Section
1B1.3. Section 1B1.3 focuses upon the acts and omissions in which the
defendant participated (i.e., that he committed, aided, abetted, counseled,
commanded, induced, procured or willfully caused) and, in the case of a
jointly-undertaken criminal activity, the acts and omissions of others in
furtherance of the jointly-undertaken criminal activity that were
reasonably foreseeable. Within the context of that criminal activity,
SectionSection 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role) and 3B1.2 (Mitigating Role) focus
upon the role and relative culpability of the defendant.

  To determine whether a defendant qualifies for an increase under Section
3B1.1 or a decrease under Section 3B1.2 requires a comparative judgment.
The role and relative culpability of the defendant must be assessed in
relation to the criminal activity for which he is being held accountable
under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct).

  For example, in a controlled substance trafficking offense, the Chapter
Two offense level for Defendant A who, acting alone, purchases and resells
1000 kilograms of marihuana is level 32. The same Chapter Two offense level
applies to Defendant B, a hired hand whose only role was to assist in
offloading the ship upon which the marihuana was imported; Defendant C, a
hired hand whose only role was as a deckhand on that ship; and Defendant D,
a   [*67529]   hired hand whose only role was to act as a lookout for that
unloading. Defendant E, who organized the importing of the marihuana, also
receives the same Chapter Two offense level, provided that he was involved
only in importing that one shipment. Although the quantity of marihuana
involved for each of these defendants (and thus the Chapter Two offense
level) is identical, criminal justice decisionmakers traditionally have
distinguished among such defendants in imposing sentence to take into
account their relative culpability (based on their respective roles). For
example, Defendant E logically would be seen as having a more culpable role
because he recruited and managed others. Defendant A, who acted alone,
would receive no role adjustment. Defendants B, C, and D logically would be
seen as having less culpable roles. Sections 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role) and
3B1.2 (Mitigating Role) are designed to provide the court with the ability
to make appropriate adjustments in offense levels on the basis of the
defendant's role and relative culpability in the criminal activity for
which he is accountable under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct).".

  Section 3B1.2(a) is amended by deleting "in any criminal activity".

  Section 3B1.2(b) is amended by deleting "in any criminal activity".

  Section 3B1.2 is amended by deleting "In cases falling between (a) and
(b), decrease by 3 levels.".

  The Commentary to Section 3B1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by renumbering Note 4 as Note 9; and by deleting Notes 1-3 and inserting in
lieu thereof:

  "1. This section provides a downward adjustment in offense level for a
defendant who has a mitigating (minimal or minor) role in the criminal
activity for which the defendant is accountable under Section 1B1.3
(Relevant Conduct). One factor that determines whether a defendant warrants
a mitigating role adjustment is the defendant's role and relative
culpability in comparison with other participants, including any unindicted
participants, in the criminal activity. "Participant" is defined in the
Commentary to Section 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role).

  The fact that the conduct of one participant warrants an upward
adjustment for an aggravating role (Section 3B1.1) or warrants no
adjustment, does not necessarily mean that another participant must be
assigned a downward adjustment for a mitigating role. Example: Defendant A
plans a bank robbery and hires Defendant B to commit the robbery. Defendant
B commits the actual robbery. Both defendants plead guilty to bank robbery,
and each has a Chapter Two offense level of 24. Although Defendant B may be
less culpable than Defendant A who will receive an upward adjustment under
Section 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role), Defendant B does not have a minimal or
minor role in respect to the robbery.

  2. The following is a non-exhaustive list of characteristics that
ordinarily are associated with a mitigating role:

  (A) The defendant performed only unskilled and unsophisticated tasks;

  (B) The defendant had no decision-making authority or responsibility;

  (C) Total compensation to the defendant was small in amount [, i.e.,
value of $ 1,000 or less, generally in the form of a flat fee]; and

  (D) The defendant did not exercise any supervision over other
participant(s).

  In addition, although not determinative, a defendant's lack of knowledge
or understanding of the scope and structure of the criminal activity and of
the activities of others may be indicative of a mitigating role.

  3. With regard to offenses involving contraband (including controlled
substances), a defendant who

  (A) sold, or played a substantial part in negotiating the terms of the
sale of, the contraband;

  (B) had an ownership interest in any portion of the contraband; or

  (C) financed any aspect of the criminal activity

shall not receive a mitigating role adjustment below the Chapter Two
offense level that the defendant would have received for the quantity of
contraband that the defendant sold, negotiated, or owned, or for that
aspect of the criminal activity that the defendant financed because, with
regard to those acts, the defendant has acted as neither a minimal nor a
minor participant.

  For example, a defendant who sells 100 grams of cocaine and who is held
accountable under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct) for only that quantity
shall not be considered for a mitigating role adjustment. In contrast, a
defendant who sells 100 grams of cocaine, but who is held accountable,
pursuant to Section 1B1.3, for a jointly undertaken criminal activity
involving 5 kilograms of cocaine may, if otherwise qualified, be considered
for a mitigating role adjustment in respect to that jointly undertaken
criminal activity, but the resulting offense level may not be less than the
Chapter Two offense level for the 100 grams of cocaine that the defendant
sold.

  4. A defendant who is entrusted with a quantity of contraband for
purposes of transporting such contraband (e.g., a courier or mule), shall
not receive a minimal role adjustment for that quantity of contraband that
the defendant transported. If such a defendant otherwise qualifies for a
mitigating role adjustment, consideration may be given to a minor role
adjustment.

  5. [Option 1: This section does not apply if the defendant possessed a
firearm or directed or induced another participant to possess a firearm in
connection with the criminal activity.]

  [Option 2: A defendant who possessed a firearm or directed or induced
another participant to possess a firearm in connection with the criminal
activity shall not receive a minimal role adjustment. If such a defendant
otherwise qualifies for a mitigating role adjustment, consideration may be
given to a minor role adjustment.]

  6. To qualify for a minimal role adjustment under subsection (a), the
defendant must be one of the least culpable of the participants in the
criminal activity within the scope of Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct).
Such defendants ordinarily must have all of the characteristics consistent
with a mitigating role listed in Application Note 2(a)-(d) above.

  7. To qualify for a minor role adjustment under subsection (b), the
defendant must be one of the less culpable participants in the criminal
activity within the scope of Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct), but have a
role that cannot be described as minimal. Such defendants ordinarily must
have most of the characteristics listed in Application Note 2(a)-(d) above.

  8. Consistent with the structure of the guidelines, the defendant bears
the burden of persuasion in establishing entitlement to a mitigating role
adjustment. In determining whether a mitigating role adjustment is
warranted, the court should consider all of the available facts, including
any information arising from the circumstances of the defendant's arrest
that may be relevant to a determination of the defendant's role in the
offense. In weighing the totality of the circumstances, a court may
consider a defendant's assertion of facts that supports a mitigating role
adjustment. However, a court is not required to find, based solely on the
defendant's bare assertion, that such a role adjustment is warranted.".

  The Commentary to Section 3B1.2 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting "a defendant who plays a part in committing the offense that makes
him substantially less culpable than the average participant" and inserting
in lieu thereof "participants in the criminal activity within the scope of
Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct)".

Money Laundering Offenses

Chapter Two, Part S (Money Laundering and Monetary Transaction Reporting)

  11. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises and
consolidates SectionSection 2S1.1 (Laundering of Monetary Instruments) and
2S1.2 (Engaging in Monetary Transactions in Property Derived from Specified
Unlawful Activity), relating the offense levels more closely to the offense
level for the underlying offense from which the funds were derived. In
cases that involved nothing more than depositing proceeds from criminal
conduct into the defendant's bank account, the offense level for the
financial transaction offense generally would be the same as the offense
level for the underlying criminal conduct. An enhancement is provided if
the offense was designed to conceal or disguise the proceeds of criminal
activity. An additional enhancement is provided if the offense involved
sophisticated money laundering.

  Proposed Amendment: Sections 2S1.1 and 2S1.2 are deleted in their
entirety and the following is inserted in lieu thereof:   [*67530]

"Section 2S1.1. Laundering of Monetary Instruments; Engaging in Monetary
Transactions in Property Derived From Unlawful Activity

  (a) Base Offense Level (Apply the greatest):

  (1) The offense level for the underlying offense from which the funds
were derived, if the defendant committed the underlying offense (or
otherwise would be accountable for the commission of the underlying offense
under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct)) and the offense level for that
offense can be determined; or

  (2) 12 plus the number of offense levels from the table in Section 2F1.1
(Fraud and Deceit) corresponding to the value of the funds, if the
defendant knew or believed that the funds were the proceeds of an unlawful
activity involving the manufacture, importation, or distribution of
narcotics or other controlled substances; or

  (3) 8 plus the number of offense levels from the table in Section 2F1.1
(Fraud and Deceit) corresponding to the value of the funds.

  (b) Specific Offense Characteristics (Apply the Greater):

  (1) If the defendant knew or believed that (A) the transactions were
designed in whole or in part to conceal or disguise the proceeds of
criminal conduct, or (B) the funds were to be used to promote further
criminal activity, increase by 2 levels.

  (2) If subsection (b)(1)(A) is applicable and the offense (A) involved
placement of funds into, or movement of funds through or from a company or
financial institution outside the United States, or (B) otherwise involved
a sophisticated form of money laundering, increase by 2 levels.

Commentary

  Statutory Provisions: 18 U.S.C. SectionSection 1956, 1957.

Application Notes

  1. For purposes of this guideline, "value of the funds" means the amount
of the funds involved in the financial or monetary transaction that were
derived from or believed to have been derived from specified unlawful
activity.

  When the total proceeds from criminal conduct are involved in the
financial or monetary transaction, the value of the funds is ordinarily
equal to the total proceeds from the criminal conduct. For example, in the
case of funds that are the proceeds from sales of contraband substances,
the value of the funds is equal to the total proceeds.

  When a financial or monetary transaction involves legitimately derived
funds that have been commingled with criminally derived funds, the value of
the funds is the amount of the criminally derived funds, not the total
amount of the commingled funds. For example, if the defendant deposited $
50,000 derived from a bribe together with $ 25,000 of legitimately derived
funds, the value of the funds is $ 50,000, not $ 75,000.

  In certain cases involving fraud, the total proceeds from the offense
may exceed the amount of loss caused by the offense (e.g., the defendant
fraudulently sold stock for $ 200,000 that was worth only $ 100,000 and
deposited the $ 200,000 in a bank). The value of the funds shall be
presumed to be equal to the total proceeds from the offense. However, if
the defendant is able to establish that the loss caused by the offense, as
defined in Section 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit), was less than the total
proceeds from the offense, the loss from the offense shall be used as the
value of the funds.

  2. If the defendant is to be sentenced both on a count for an offense
from which the funds were derived and on a count under this guideline, the
counts will be grouped together under subsection (c) of Section 3D1.2
(Groups of Closely-Related Counts).

  3. Subsection (b)(1)(A) is intended to provide an increase for those
cases that involve actual money laundering, i.e., efforts to make
criminally derived funds appear to have a legitimate source. This
subsection will apply, for example, when the defendant conducted a
transaction through a straw party or a front company, concealed a
money-laundering transaction in a legitimate business, or used an alias or
otherwise provided false information to disguise the true source or
ownership of the funds.

  4. In order for subsection (b)(1)(B) to apply, the defendant must have
known or believed that the funds would be used to promote further criminal
activity, i.e., criminal activity beyond the underlying acts from which the
funds were derived.

  5. Subsection (b)(2) is designed to provide an additional increase for
those money laundering cases that are more difficult to detect because
sophisticated steps were taken to conceal the origin of the money.
Subsection (b)(2)(B) will apply, for example, if the offense involved the
layering of transactions, i.e., the creation of two or more levels of
transaction that were intended to appear legitimate.

  Background: The statutes covered by this guideline were enacted as part
of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and prohibit financial and monetary
transactions involving funds that are the proceeds of "specified unlawful
activity." These statutes cover a wide range of conduct. For example, they
apply to large-scale operations that engage in international laundering of
illegal drug proceeds. They also apply to a defendant who deposits $ 11,000
of fraudulently obtained funds in a bank. In order to achieve
proportionality in sentencing, this guideline generally starts from a base
offense level equivalent to that which would apply to the specified
unlawful activity from which the funds were derived. The specific offense
characteristics provide enhancements if the offense was designed to conceal
or disguise the proceeds of criminal conduct and if the offense involved
sophisticated money laundering.".

More Than Minimal Planning

Chapter One, Part B (General Application Principles) and Chapter Two, Parts
A (Offenses Against the Person), B (Offenses Involving Property), and F
(Offenses Involving Fraud or Deceit)

  12(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
specific offense characteristic "more than minimal planning" to distinguish
better those defendants whose culpability warrants an enhancement for this
factor. The current specific offense characteristic has been criticized as
overly broad, not well defined, and subject to inconsistent application.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 1B1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 1(f) by deleting the first two
paragraphs and inserting in lieu thereof:

  ""Sophisticated planning" means planning that is complex, extensive, or
meticulous.";

in the second (formerly third) paragraph by deleting the second sentence
and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "By contrast, luring the victim to an isolated location by pretending to
be a prospective customer would constitute sophisticated planning.";

in the third (formerly fourth) paragraph by deleting "more than minimal"
wherever it appears and inserting in lieu thereof in each instance
"sophisticated";

  and by deleting the fourth (formerly fifth) and fifth (formerly sixth)
paragraphs and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "In a theft, going to a secluded area of a store to conceal the stolen
item in one's pocket would not, by itself, constitute sophisticated
planning. By contrast, fashioning a special device to conceal the stolen
property would constitute sophisticated planning.

  In an embezzlement, making a false book entry to conceal the offense
entry would not, by itself, constitute sophisticated planning. By contrast,
maintaining dual accounting books; engaging in transactions through
corporate shells; using offshore bank accounts; or creating purchase orders
to, and invoices from, a dummy corporation for merchandise that was never
delivered to conceal an embezzlement would constitute sophisticated
planning.".

  Section 2A2.2(b)(1) is amended by deleting "more than minimal" and
inserting in lieu thereof "sophisticated".

  The Commentary to Section 2A2.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by deleting "more than minimal" and inserting in lieu thereof
"sophisticated".

  Section 2B1.1(b)(5)(A) is amended by deleting "more than minimal" and
inserting in lieu thereof "sophisticated".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "More than minimal" and inserting in lieu thereof
"Sophisticated".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 13; and by renumbering Note 14 as Note 13.

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting [*67531]   the second paragraph and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "The guidelines also provide an enhancement for sophisticated planning,
a factor related to the culpability of the offender and often to an
increased difficulty of detection and proof.".


  Section 2B1.3(b)(3) is amended by deleting "more than minimal" and
inserting in lieu thereof "sophisticated".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "More than minimal" and inserting in lieu thereof
"Sophisticated".

  Section 2B2.1(b)(1) is amended by deleting "more than minimal" and
inserting in lieu thereof "sophisticated".

  The Commentary to Section 2B2.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "More than minimal" and inserting in lieu thereof
"Sophisticated".

  Section 2F1.1(b)(2) is amended by deleting "(A) more than minimal
planning, or (B) a scheme to defraud more than one victim" and by inserting
in lieu thereof "sophisticated planning".

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by deleting ""More than minimal planning" (subsection (b)(2)(A))"
and inserting in lieu thereof ""Sophisticated planning"".

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Notes 3 and 18; and by renumbering the remaining notes
accordingly.

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Background" is amended in the
first paragraph by deleting the second sentence.

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting the second paragraph and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "The extent to which an offense involved sophisticated planning is
related to the culpability of the offender and often to an increased
difficulty of detection and proof. Accordingly, the guideline provides an
enhancement for sophisticated planning.".

  (B). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment raises the base
offense level in Section 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms of
Theft; Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing
Stolen Property) from

level 4 to level 6 (the same as in Section 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit)), and
conforms the loss table in Section 2B1.1 to that in Section 2F1.1. The
effect is that the offense levels from these guidelines will be the same
regardless of the amount of loss. Currently, where the loss is $ 1,000 or
more, SectionSection 2B1.1 and 2F1.1 provide the same offense levels. Where
the loss is $ 1,000 or less, Section 2B1.1 generally provides an offense
level that is 1 or 2 levels lower than Section 2F1.1. For example, the
theft of a $ 500 check has an offense level of 5 under Section 2B1.1, but
the forgery of that check has an offense level of 6 under Section 2F1.1.
Under this amendment, these offenses would be treated more consistently.
Section 2B1.3 (which has the same structure as Section 2B1.1) is amended to
conform.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2B1.1(a) is amended by deleting "4" and
inserting in lieu thereof "6".

  Section 2B1.1(b) is amended by deleting subdivision (1) and inserting in
lieu thereof the following:

  "(1) If the loss exceeded $ 2,000, increase the offense level as
follows:

 Loss (apply the greatest)          Increase in level

(A) $ 2,000 or less             No increase.
(B) More than $ 2,000           Add 1.
(C) More than $ 5,000           Add 2.
(D) More than $10,000           Add 3.
(E) More than $ 20,000          Add 4.
(F) More than $ 40,000          Add 5.
(G) More than $ 70,000          Add 6.
(H) More than $ 120,000         Add 7.
(I) More than $ 200,000         Add 8.
(J) More than $ 350,000         Add 9.
(K) More than $ 500,000         Add 10.
(L) More than $ 800,000         Add 11.
(M) More than $ 1,500,000       Add 12.
(N) More than $ 2,500,000       Add 13.
(O) More than $ 5,000,000       Add 14.
(P) More than $ 10,000,000      Add 15.
(Q) More than $ 20,000,000      Add 16.
(R) More than $ 40,000,000      Add 17.
(S) More than $ 80,000,000      Add 18.".

  Section 2B1.1(b)(2) is amended by deleting "; but if the resulting
offense level is less than 7, increase to level 7".

  Section 2B1.1(b) is amended by deleting subdivision (4); and by
renumbering subdivision (5) as subdivision (4).

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 6; and by renumbering the remaining notes accordingly.

  Section 2B1.3(a) is amended by deleting "4" and inserting in lieu
thereof "6".

  Section 2B1.3(b) is amended by deleting subdivision (2); and by
renumbering subdivision (3) as subdivision (2).

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 3; and by renumbering Note 4 as Note 3.

  (C). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment as to whether the
loss tables in SectionSection 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms
of Theft; Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting, or
Possessing Stolen Property), 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit; Forgery; Offenses
Involving Altered or Counterfeit Instruments Other than Counterfeit Bearer
Obligations of the United States), and 2T4.1 (Tax Table) should be revised
to provide one-level increases with a more uniform slope from small to
large offenses [Option 1]. Some commentators have noted that the slope of
the current loss tables is not uniform throughout the range of loss in the
tables. Or, should the loss tables in SectionSection 2B1.1, 2F1.1, and
2T4.1 be revised to provide two-level increases with a more uniform slope
from small to large offenses [Option 2]? A loss table with 2-level
increments, as in the drug quantity tables in Section 2D1.1 and the
precursor and essential chemical table in Section 2D1.11, might simplify
guideline application. Examples illustrating loss tables with more uniform
slopes for Options 1 and 2 are shown below. These examples assume that the
base offense level for Section 2B1.1 is raised from 4 to 6 as proposed in
Part B of this amendment. If not, two additional divisions in the table for
Section 2B1.1 would be necessary at the lower end.

  [Option 1: Sections 2B1.1(b)(1) and 2F1.1(b)(1) are deleted and the
following is inserted in lieu thereof:

  "(1) If the loss exceeded $ 1,500, increase the offense level as
follows:

 Loss (apply the greatest)     Increase in level

(A) $ 1,500 or less           No increase.
(B) More than $ 1,500         Add 1.
(C) More than $ 2,500         Add 2.
(D) More than $ 4,500         Add 3.
(E) More than $ 8,000         Add 4.
(F) More than $ 15,000        Add 5.
(G) More than $ 25,000        Add 6.
(H) More than $ 45,000        Add 7.
(I) More than $ 80,000        Add 8.
(J) More than $ 150,000       Add 9.
(K) More than $ 250,000       Add 10.
(L) More than $ 450,000       Add 11.
(M) More than $ 800,000       Add 12.
(N) More than $ 1,500,000     Add 13.
(O) More than $ 2,500,000     Add 14.
(P) More than $ 4,500,000     Add 15.
(Q) More than $ 8,000,000     Add 16.
(R) More than $ 15,000,000    Add 17.
(S) More than $ 25,000,000    Add 18.
(T) More than $ 45,000,000    Add 19.
(U) More than $ 80,000,000    Add 20.".

  The table in Section 2T4.1 is deleted and the following is inserted in
lieu thereof:

 "Tax loss (apply the greatest)          Increase in level

(A) $ 1,500 or less                     Add 6.
(B) More than $ 1,500                   Add 7.
(C) More than $ 2,500                   Add 8.
(D) More than $ 4,500                   Add 9.
(E) More than $ 8,000                   Add 10.
(F) More than $ 15,000                  Add 11.
(G) More than $ 25,000                  Add 12.
(H) More than $ 45,000                  Add 13.
(I) More than $ 80,000                  Add 14.
(J) More than $ 150,000                 Add 15.
(K) More than $ 250,000                 Add 16.
(L) More than $ 450,000                 Add 17.
(M) More than $ 800,000                 Add 18.
(N) More than $ 1,500,000               Add 19.
(O) More than $ 2,500,000               Add 20.
(P) More than $ 4,500,000               Add 21.
(Q) More than $ 8,000,000               Add 22.
(R) More than $ 15,000,000              Add 23.
(S) More than $ 25,000,000              Add 24.
(T) More than $ 45,000,000              Add 25.
(U) More than $ 80,000,000              Add 26.]".

  [Option 2: Section 2B1.1(b)(1) and 2F1.1(b)(1) are deleted and the
following is inserted in lieu thereof:

  "(1) If the loss exceeded $ 2,500, increase the offense level as
follows:

 Loss (apply the greatest)               Increase in level

(A) $ 2,500 or less                     No increase.
(B) More than $ 2,500                   Add 2.
(C) More than $ 8,000                   Add 4.
(D) More than $ 25,000                  Add 6.
(E) More than $ 80,000                  Add 8.
(F) More than $ 250,000                 Add 10.
(G) More than $ 800,000                 Add 12.
(H) More than $ 2,500,000               Add 14.
(I) More than $ 8,000,000               Add 16.
(J) More than $ 25,000,000              Add 18.
(K) More than $ 80,000,000              Add 20.".

  The table in Section 2T4.1 is deleted and the following is inserted in
lieu thereof:

 "Tax loss (apply the greatest)          Offense level

(A) $ 2,500 or less                     6
(B) More than $ 2,500                   8
(C) More than $ 8,000                   10
(D) More than $ 25,000                  12
(E) More than $ 80,000                  14
(F) More than $ 250,000                 16
(G) More than $ 800,000                 18
(H) More than $ 2,500,000               20
(I) More than $ 8,000,000               22
(J) More than $ 25,000,000              24
(K) More than $ 80,000,000              26.".]

Career Offenders

Chapter Four, Part B (Career Offenders and Criminal Livelihood)

  13(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds additional
background commentary explaining the Commission's rationale and authority
for Section 4B1.1 (Career Offender). The amendment responds to a recent
decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia
Circuit in United States v. Price, 990 F.2d 1367 (D.C. Cir. 1993). In
Price, the court invalidated application of the career offender guideline
to a defendant convicted of a drug conspiracy because 28 U.S.C. 994(h),
which the Commission cites as the mandating authority for the career
offender guideline, does not expressly refer to inchoate offenses. The
court indicated that it did not foreclose Commission authority to include
conspiracy offenses under the career offender guideline by drawing upon its
broader guideline promulgation authority in 28 U.S.C. 994(a).

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 4B1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended by repromulgating Note 1.

  The Commentary to Section 4B1.1 captioned "Background" is amended in the
first sentence by deleting ", as defined in the statute," immediately
following "offenders"; in the second sentence by deleting "mandate" and
inserting in lieu thereof:

"directive, with the definition of a career offender tracking in large part
the criteria set forth in 28 U.S.C. 994(h). However, in accord with its
general guideline promulgation authority under 28 U.S.C. 994(a)-(f), and
its amendment authority under 28 U.S.C. 994 (o) and (p), the Commission has
modified this definition in several respects to focus more precisely on the
class of recidivist offenders for whom a lengthy term of imprisonment is
appropriate and avoid "unwarranted sentencing disparities among defendants
with similar records who have been found guilty of similar criminal conduct
* * *" 28 U.S.C. 991(b)(1)(B). The Commission's refinement of this
definition over time is consistent with Congress' choice of a directive to
the Commission rather than a mandatory minimum sentencing statute ("The
[Senate Judiciary] Committee believes that such a directive to the
Commission will be more effective; the guidelines development process can
assure consistent and rational implementation of the Committee"s view that
substantial prison terms should be imposed on repeat violent offenders and
repeat drug traffickers.' S. Rep. No. 225, 98th Cong., 1st Sess. 175
(1983))";

by deleting "98-225" and inserting in lieu thereof "No. 225"; by deleting
", 128" and inserting in lieu thereof "; 128"; by deleting ", 26, 515" and
inserting in lieu thereof "; id. at 26, 515"; by deleting "26, 517-18" and
inserting in lieu thereof "; id. at 26, 517-18"; and by beginning a new
paragraph with the fifth (formerly third) sentence.

  (B). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Section
4B1.1 (Career Offender) by defining the term "offense statutory maximum" as
the statutory maximum prior to any enhancement based on prior criminal
record. That is, an enhancement of the statutory maximum sentence that
itself was based upon the defendant's prior criminal record would not be
used in determining the offense level under this guideline. This avoids
what appears to be unwarranted double counting. It is noted that when the
instruction to the Commission that underlies 4B1.1 (28 U.S.C. 994(h)) was
enacted by the Congress in 1984, the enhanced maximum sentences provided
for recidivist drug offenders (e.g., under 21 U.S.C. 841) did not exist.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 4B1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 2 by deleting the first sentence and
inserting in lieu thereof:

  ""Offense Statutory Maximum," for the purposes of this guideline, refers
to the maximum term of imprisonment authorized for the offense of
conviction that is a crime of violence or controlled substance offense, not
including any increase in that maximum term under a sentencing enhancement
provision that applies because of the defendant's prior criminal record
(such sentencing enhancement provisions are contained, for example, in 21
U.S.C. 841(a)(1)(B), 841(a)(1)(C), 841(a)(1)(D), and 844(a)). For example,
where the statutory maximum term of imprisonment under 21 U.S.C.
841(a)(1)(C) is increased from twenty years to thirty years because the
defendant has one or more qualifying prior drug convictions, the "Offense
Statutory Maximum" for the purposes of this guideline is twenty years and
not thirty years.".

  (C). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment makes Section 4B1.1
(Career Offender) more of a true "recidivist" provision by providing that
the offenses that resulted in the two qualifying prior convictions must be
separated by an intervening arrest for one of the offenses. Option 2
includes the provisions of Option 1 but, in addition, broadens the portion
of the career offender provision for prior convictions of a crime of
violence or possession of a weapon during and in relation to a drug
offense.

  Proposed Amendment: [Option 1: Section 4B1.2(3) is amended by inserting
immediately before the period at the end of the first sentence:

"and the offenses resulting in those two convictions were separated by an
intervening arrest for one of the offenses (i.e., the defendant was
arrested for the first offense prior to committing the second offense)".]

  [Option 2: Section 4B1.2(3) is amended by inserting immediately before
the period at the end of the first sentence:

"and the offenses resulting in those two convictions were separated by an
intervening arrest for one of the offenses (i.e., the defendant was
arrested for the first offense prior to committing the second offense).
Provided, that in the case of a prior felony conviction of a crime of
violence, any such   [*67533] conviction countable under Section 4A1.1(f)
is also countable under this provision. In addition, any prior conviction
for carrying or possessing a weapon during and in relation to a drug
trafficking offense is to be counted separately from the underlying drug
trafficking offense".]

  (D). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
operation of Section 4B1.2 (Definitions of Terms Used in Section 4B1.1) and
addresses an inter-circuit conflict. In United States v. Fiore, 983 F.2d 1
(1st Cir. 1992), the First Circuit read Section 4B1.2 to include all types
of burglary despite the express listing of burglary of a dwelling in
Section 4B1.2(1)(ii). In contrast, the Fourth Circuit has held that
burglary of a commercial structure is not a "crime of violence" under
Section 4B1.2. United States v. Talbott, 902 F.2d 1129 (4th Cir. 1990).
Similarly, the Tenth Circuit has held that non-residential burglary is not
a crime of violence under Section 4B1.2. United States v. Smith, F.2d, No.
91-4169 (10th Cir. November 30, 1993).

  In addition, the phrase "punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding
one year" in Section 4B1.2(1) is redundant because it is covered by the
requirement in Section 4B1.1 that the offense be a felony. Moreover, as the
guideline is currently written, the phrase "punishable by imprisonment for
a term exceeding one year" is used in subsection (1) but not in subsection
(2), although both subsections actually contain the same requirements. This
drafting inconsistency could lead to confusion. Elimination of this phrase
resolves this issue.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 4B1.2(1) is amended by deleting "punishable
by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year".

  The Commentary to Section 4B1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "The term "crime of violence" includes burglary of a dwelling (including
any adjacent outbuilding considered part of the dwelling). It does not
include other kinds of burglary.".

  (E). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Section
4B1.2 (Definitions of Terms Used in Section 4B1.1) to narrow the portion of
the definition of crimes of violence that "otherwise involve conduct that
presents a serious risk of physical injury" to offenses that are in some
respect similar to the offenses expressly listed. Currently, Section
4B1.2(1) uses the same wording to define crime of violence as 18 U.S.C.
924(e), except that in Section 4B1.2(1) the Commission restricted the term
burglary to residential burglary. However, the Third Circuit in United
States v. Parson, 955 F.2d 858 (3rd Cir. 1992) has pointed out that
Application Note 2 calls for a considerably broader reading of the
definition of crime of violence than is set forth in 18 U.S.C. 924(e), when
this statute is read in conjunction with its legislative history. The court
found that the phrase "or otherwise involved conduct that presents a
serious potential risk of physical injury to another" in 18 U.S.C. 924(e)
was intended to cover only offenses similar to those expressly listed and
that the wording of the statute produces this result under the principle of
statutory construction "ejusdem genesis." Thus, under 18 U.S.C. 924(e),
crimes not traditionally considered crimes of violence, e.g., crimes
involving reckless or negligent child endangerment, are not included.
Although the guideline itself uses the same phraseology as the statute,
current Application Note 2 in the Commentary to Section 4B1.2 sets forth a
broader definition of the term "otherwise involved." Thus, for example,
driving while intoxicated or recklessly endangering a child by leaving it
alone might qualify as a crime of violence under the definition in Section
4B1.2, but would not qualify as a crime of violence under 18 U.S.C. 924(e).

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 4B1.2 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 2 by deleting the first paragraph
and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "An offense may be a "crime of violence" under either subsection (1)(i)
or subsection (1)(ii).

  Under subsection (1)(i), a "crime of violence" includes an offense that
has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical
force against the person of another. For example, murder, voluntary
manslaughter, kidnapping, aggravated assault, forcible sex offenses, and
robbery are included under this subsection.

  Under subsection (1)(ii), a "crime of violence" includes certain listed
offenses: burglary of a dwelling, arson, extortion, and offenses involving
the use of explosives (including any explosive material or destructive
device). It also includes certain unlisted offenses. For an unlisted
offense to qualify, it must both-

  (a) be similar in some respect to one of the listed offenses, and

  (b) involve conduct (expressly charged in the count of which the
defendant was convicted) that presents a serious potential risk of physical
injury to another.

  The requirement that an unlisted offense be similar in some respect to
one of the listed offenses limits application of this definition to
offenses traditionally considered crimes of violence.";

by renumbering Notes 3 and 4 as Notes 4 and 5, respectively; and by
inserting the following as Note 3:

  "3. "Crime of violence" and "controlled substance offense," as used in
this section, are based upon the offenses (instant and prior) of which the
defendant was convicted. Therefore, the conduct considered in determining
whether an offense is a crime of violence or a controlled substance offense
is the conduct set forth (i.e., expressly charged) in the count of which
the defendant was convicted; i.e., the conduct of which the defendant was
convicted is the focus of inquiry.".

  The Commentary to Section 4B1.2 is amended by adding the following at
the end thereof:

  "Background: The use of the phrase "or otherwise involves" following the
series of listed offenses in subsection (1)(ii) limits the unlisted
offenses to those that are similar in some respect to one of the listed
offenses under the canon of statutory interpretation "ejusdem generis."".

Chapter Five, Part H (Specific Offense Characteristics)

Chapter Five, Part K (Departures)

  14. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment addresses the issue
of a departure for an offender characteristic or other circumstance, or
combination of characteristics or circumstances, that are not ordinarily
relevant to a determination of whether a sentence should be outside the
applicable guideline range. The amendment is derived from proposals and
comments submitted by the Judicial Conference Committee on Criminal Law,
the Department of Justice, and the Federal and Community Defenders.

  The Commission specifically invites comment on whether or not the
bracketed language pertaining to combination of circumstances should be
included.

  Proposed Amendment: The Introductory Commentary to Chapter Five, Part H,
is amended in the second paragraph by inserting the following additional
sentence at the end:

  "Furthermore, although these factors are not ordinarily relevant to the
determination of whether a sentence should be outside the applicable
guideline range, they may be relevant to this determination in exceptional
cases. See Section 5K2.0 (Grounds for Departure).".

  Section 5K2.0 is amended by inserting the following additional paragraph
at the end:

  "An offender characteristic or other circumstance that is not ordinarily
relevant in determining whether a sentence should be outside the applicable
guideline range may be relevant to this determination if such
characteristic or circumstance [, or   [*67534]   combination of
characteristics or circumstances,] is present to an unusual degree and
distinguishes the case from the "heartland" cases covered by the guidelines
in a way that is important to the statutory purposes of sentencing.".

  Section 5K2.0 is amended by inserting the following at the end:

"Commentary

  A useful analytic framework for the consideration of circumstances that
may warrant a departure from the applicable guideline range is set forth in
United States v. Rivera, 994 F.2d 942 (1st Cir. 1993):

  (1) What features of the case, potentially, take it outside the
Guidelines' "heartland" and make of it a special, or unusual case?

  (2) Has the Commission forbidden departures based on those features?

  (3) If not, has the Commission encouraged departures based on those
features?

  (4) If not, has the Commission discouraged departures based on those
features?

  If no special features are present, or if special features are also
"forbidden" features [factors that the Commission has expressly listed as
not relevant to departure (e.g., race, sex, national origin)], then the
sentencing court, in all likelihood, simply would apply the relevant
guidelines. If the special features are "encouraged" features [factors that
the Commission has expressly listed as warranting departure in the
circumstances described (e.g., the factors listed in SectionSection
2K2.1-2K2.16)], the court would likely depart, sentencing in accordance
with the Guidelines' suggestions. If the special features are "discouraged"
features [factors that the Commission has expressly listed as not
ordinarily relevant to sentencing (e.g., family ties and
responsibilities)], the court would go on to decide whether the case is
nonetheless not "ordinary," i.e., whether the case differs from the
ordinary case in which those features are present. If the case is ordinary,
the court would not depart. If it is not ordinary, the court would go on to
consider departure.'

  In the absence of a characteristic or circumstance [or combination of
characteristics or circumstances] that distinguishes a case as sufficiently
atypical to warrant a sentence different from that called for under the
guidelines, a sentence outside the guideline range is not authorized. See
18 U.S.C. 3553(b). For example, dissatisfaction with the available
sentencing range or a preference for a different sentence than that
authorized by the guidelines is not an appropriate basis for a sentence
outside the applicable guideline range.".

Guideline Simplification-Consolidation of Offense Guidelines

  15. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: In 1993, the Commission simplified
the operation of the guidelines by reducing the number of Chapter Two
offense guidelines from 179 to 150 by the consolidation of closely related
offense guidelines. The following additional consolidations of closely
related guidelines are designed to simplify further the operation of the
guidelines:

  (A) Section 2A2.4 (Obstructing or Impeding Officers) is consolidated
with Section 2A2.3 (Minor Assault). The resulting offense levels are
identical, except that the cross reference to aggravated assault will apply
to both SectionSection 2A2.3 and 2A2.4, rather than only to Section 2A2.4.
This amendment also addresses a split among the circuits as to whether
subsection (c) refers to the conviction offense or is based upon
consideration of the underlying conduct (compare United States v. Jennings,
991 F.2d 725 (11 Cir. 1993) with United States v. Padilla, 961 F.2d 322 (2d
Cir. 1992)) by conforming the language in this cross reference to that used
in other cross references;

  (B) Section 2B1.3 (Property Damage or Destruction) is consolidated with
Section 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms of Theft; Receiving,
Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing Stolen Property)
with no substantive change;

  (C) Section 2D2.2 (Acquiring a Controlled Substance by Forgery, Fraud,
Deception, or Subterfuge; Attempt or Conspiracy) is consolidated with
Section 2D2.1 (Unlawful Possession; Attempt or Conspiracy). The only
substantive change is that any adjustment for acquiring a controlled
substance by forgery, fraud, deceit, or subterfuge will be determined as a
sentencing factor rather than on the basis of the offense of conviction;

  (D) Section 2E1.4 (Use of Interstate Commerce Facilities in the
Commission of Murder-For-Hire) is consolidated with Section 2A1.5
(Conspiracy or Solicitation to Commit Murder) with no substantive change;

  (E) Section 2G1.2 (Transportation of a Minor for the Purpose of
Prostitution or Prohibited Sexual Conduct) is consolidated with Section
2G1.1 (Transportation for the Purpose of Prostitution or Prohibited Sexual
Conduct). The specific offense characteristics and cross references that
now apply only to Section 2G1.2 are added to Section 2G1.1, making these
characteristics and cross references sentencing factors (rather than
offense of conviction factors);

  (F) Section 2N3.1 (Odometer Laws and Regulations) is consolidated with
Section 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit; Forgery; Offenses Involving Altered or
Counterfeit Instruments Other than Counterfeit Bearer Obligations of the
United States). Currently, Section 2N3.1 has the same base offense level as
Section 2F1.1 and is cross-referenced to Section 2F1.1 if more than one
vehicle was involved (one vehicle cases are infrequent; there were only 5
one-vehicle cases reported in monitoring data in 1991). Under this
consolidation, fraud by odometer tampering involving one vehicle will be
treated the same as other fraud (i.e., the specific offense characteristics
for loss and more than minimal planning will apply, if warranted);

  (G) Section 2T2.2 (Regulatory Offenses) is consolidated with Section
2T1.1 (Tax Evasion; Willful Failure to File Return, Supply Information, or
Pay Tax; Fraudulent or False Returns, Statements, or Other Documents). This
amendment consolidates two infrequently applied guidelines (1 case under
Section 2T2.1 and 2 cases under Section 2T2.2 were reported in monitoring
data in 1991). Under this consolidation, the base offense level for Section
2T2.2 is raised from 4 to 6, which is the base offense most typical for
regulatory offenses; and

  (H) Section 3B1.4 (Untitled) is deleted as unnecessary and inconsistent
with the remainder of the Guidelines Manual. Absent an upward or downward
adjustment under SectionSection 3B1.1-3B1.3, there is no authority for any
adjustment and thus no need for this section. The Commentary to Section
3B1.4 is moved to the Introductory Commentary of Chapter Three, Part B,
where it fits better, and a technical inaccuracy in this commentary is
corrected (the statement that a single individual cannot receive an
adjustment under this Part is accurate with respect to SectionSection 3B1.1
and 3B1.2 but inaccurate with respect to Section 3B1.3).

  Proposed Amendment: (A). Section 2A2.4 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2A2.3 is amended in the title by inserting at the end ";
Obstructing or Impeding Officers".

  Section 2A2.3 is amended by inserting the following additional
subsections:

"(b) Specific Offense Characteristic

  (1) If the offense involved obstructing or impeding a governmental
officer in the performance of his duty, increase by 3 levels.

(c) Cross Reference

  (1) If the offense involved aggravated assault, apply Section 2A2.2
(Aggravated Assault).".

  The Commentary to Section 2A2.3 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by inserting "111," immediately before "112"; by inserting "1501,
1502," immediately following "351(e),"; and by inserting ", 3056(d)"
immediately following "1751(e)".

  The Commentary to Section 2A2.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional notes:

  "3. Subsection (b)(1) reflects the fact that the victim was a
governmental officer performing official duties. Therefore, do not apply
Section 3A1.2 (Official Victim) unless the   [*67535]   offense level is
determined by use of the cross reference in subsection (c).

  4. The offense level under this guideline does not assume any
significant disruption of governmental functions. In situations involving
such disruption, an upward departure may be warranted. See Section 5K2.7
(Disruption of Governmental Function).".

  The Commentary to Section 2A2.3 captioned "Background" is deleted.

  (B). Section 2B1.3 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2B1.1 is amended in the title by inserting at the end ";
Property Damage or Destruction".

  Section 2B1.1(b)(4) is amended by inserting "or destroyed" immediately
following "taken"; and by inserting "or destruction" immediately following
"taking".

  Section 2B1.1 is amended by inserting the following additional
subsection:

"(c) Cross Reference

  (1) If the offense involved arson, or property damage by use of
explosives, apply Section 2K1.4 (Arson; Property Damage by Use of
Explosives).".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by deleting "1702," and inserting in lieu thereof "1361, 1702,
1703,".

  The Commentary to Section 2B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional note:

  "15. In some cases, the monetary value of the property damaged or
destroyed may not adequately reflect the extent of the harm caused. For
example, the destruction of a $ 500 telephone line may cause an
interruption in service to thousands of people for several hours. In such
instances, an upward departure may be warranted.".

  Section 2K1.4(a)(4) is amended by deleting "Section 2B1.3 (Property
Damage or Destruction)" and inserting in lieu thereof: "Section 2B1.1
(Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms of Theft; Receiving, Transporting,
Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing Stolen Property; Property Damage
or Destruction)".

  Section 2H3.3(a)(2) is amended by inserting "or destruction" immediately
following "theft"; and by inserting "; Receiving, Transporting,
Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing Stolen Property; Property Damage
or Destruction" immediately following "Theft".

  Section 2H3.3(a)(3) is deleted.

  The Commentary to Section 2H3.3 captioned "Background" is amended by
inserting "; Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, or Possessing Stolen
Property; Property Damage or Destruction" immediately following "Theft";
and by deleting "or Section 2B1.3 (Property Damage or Destruction)".

  (C). Section 2D2.2 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2D2.1 is amended in the title by inserting "of a Controlled
Substance; Acquiring a Controlled Substance by Forgery, Fraud, Deception,
or Subterfuge" immediately following "Possession". Section 2D2.1 is amended
by redesignating subsection (b) as subsection (c); and by inserting the
following additional subsection:

"(b) Specific Offense Characteristic

  (1) If the offense involved acquiring a controlled substance by forgery,
fraud, deception, or subterfuge, and the offense level as determined above
is less than level 8, increase to level 8.".

   The Commentary to Section 2D2.1 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by deleting "Section 844(a)" and inserting in lieu thereof
"SectionSection 843(a)(3), 844(a)".

  The Commentary to Section 2D2.1 captioned "Background" is amended in the
second paragraph by deleting "2D2.1(b)(1)" and inserting in lieu thereof
"2D2.1(c)(1)".

  (D). Section 2E1.4 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2A1.5 is amended in the title by inserting at the end "; Use of
Interstate Commerce Facilities in the Commission of Murder For Hire".

  The Commentary to Section 2A1.5 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by inserting ", 1958 (formerly Section 1952A)" immediately
following "1751(d)".

  The Commentary to Section 2A1.5 is amended by inserting the following
additional subdivision:

  "Application Note:

  1. In the case of a defendant convicted under 18 U.S.C. 1958 (formerly
18 U.S.C. 1952A), subsection (b)(1) always will apply.".

  (E). Section 2G1.2 is deleted in its entirety.

  Section 2G1.1(b) is amended by deleting "Characteristic" and inserting
in lieu thereof "Characteristics"; and by inserting the following
additional subdivisions:

  "(2) If the offense involved the transportation of a person who (A) has
not attained the age of twelve years, increase by 6 levels; (B) has
attained the age of twelve years but has not attained the age of sixteen
years, increase by 4 levels; or (C) has attained the age of sixteen years
but has not attained the age of eighteen years, increase by 2 levels.

  (3) If subsection (b)(2) applies, and the defendant was a parent,
relative, or legal guardian of the minor, or if the minor was otherwise in
the custody, care, or supervisory control of the defendant, increase by 2
levels.".

  Section 2G1.1 is amended by redesignating subsection (c) as subsection
(d); and by inserting the following additional subsection:

"(c) Cross References

  (1) If the offense involved causing, transporting, permitting, or
offering or seeking by notice or advertisement, a minor to engage in
sexually explicit conduct for the purpose of producing a visual depiction
of such conduct, apply Section 2G2.1 (Sexually Exploiting a Minor by
Production of Sexually Explicit Visual or Printed Material; Custodian
Permitting Minor to Engage in Sexually Explicit Conduct; Advertisement for
Minors to Engage in Production).

  (2) If the offense involved criminal sexual abuse, attempted criminal
sexual abuse, or assault with intent to commit criminal sexual abuse, apply
Section 2A3.1 (Criminal Sexual Abuse; Attempt or Assault with the Intent to
Commit Criminal Sexual Abuse).

  (3) If the offense did not involve transportation for the purpose of
prostitution, and neither subsection (c)(1) nor (c)(2) is applicable, use
the offense guideline applicable to the underlying prohibited sexual
conduct. If no offense guideline is applicable to the prohibited sexual
conduct, apply Section 2X5.1 (Other Offenses).".

  Section 2G1.1(d) (formerly subsection (c)) is amended by deleting
"Instruction" and inserting in lieu thereof "Instructions"; and by
inserting the following additional subdivision:

  "(2) For the purposes of this guideline, "transportation" includes (A)
transporting a person for the purpose of prostitution or prohibited sexual
conduct, and (B) persuading, inducing, enticing, or coercing a person to
travel for the purpose of prostitution or prohibited sexual conduct.".

  The Commentary to Section 2G1.1 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by inserting ", 2423" immediately following "2422".

  The Commentary to Section 2G1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 1 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "1. "Sexually explicit conduct," as used in this guideline, has the
meaning set forth in 18 U.S.C. 2256.".

  The Commentary to Section 2G1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional notes:

  "6. Subsection (b)(4) is intended to have broad application and includes
offenses involving a minor entrusted to the defendant, whether temporarily
or permanently. For example, teachers, day care providers, baby-sitters, or
other temporary caretakers are among those who would be subject to this
enhancement. In determining whether to apply this adjustment, the court
should look to the actual relationship that existed between the defendant
and the child and not simply to the legal status of the defendant-child
relationship.

  7. If the adjustment in subsection (b)(4) applies, do not apply Section
3B1.3 (Abuse of Position of Trust or Use of Special Skill).

  8. The cross reference in subsection (c)(1) is to be construed broadly
to include all instances where the offense involved   [*67536]   employing,
using, persuading, inducing, enticing, coercing, transporting, permitting,
or offering or seeking by notice or advertisement, a minor to engage in
sexually explicit conduct for the purpose of producing any visual depiction
of such conduct.

  9. The cross reference at subsection (c)(3) addresses the unusual case
in which the offense did not involve transportation for the purpose of
prostitution and neither subsection (c)(1) nor (c)(2) is applicable. In
such case, the guideline for the underlying prohibited sexual conduct is to
be used, e.g., Section 2A3.2 (Criminal Sexual Abuse of a Minor (Statutory
Rape) or Attempt to Commit Such Acts) or Section 2A3.4 (Abusive Sexual
Contact or Attempt to Commit Abusive Sexual Contact). If there is no
offense guideline for the underlying prohibited sexual conduct, Section
2X5.1 (Other Offenses) is to be used.".

  (F). Section 2N3.1 is deleted in its entirety.

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Statutory Provisions" is
amended by inserting ", 1983-1988, 1990c" immediately following "1644".

  The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned "Background" is amended by
inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "This guideline also covers offenses relating to odometer laws and
regulations.".

  (G). Section 2T2.2 is deleted in its entirety.

  The Introductory Commentary to Subpart Two of Chapter Two, Part T, is
amended by deleting the last two sentences.

  Section 2T2.1(a) is amended by deleting "Level from Section 2T4.1 (Tax
Table) corresponding to the tax loss." and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "(1) Level from Section 2T4.1 (Tax Table) corresponding to the tax loss;

  (2) 6, if there is no tax loss.".

  (H). Section 3B1.4 is deleted in its entirety.

  The Introductory Commentary to Chapter Three, Part B is amended by
deleting "When an offense is committed by more than one participant,
Section 3B1.1 or Section 3B1.2 (or neither) may apply."

and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "In the case of criminal activity involving more than one participant,
Section 3B1.1 or Section 3B1.2, or neither section, may apply. When the
criminal activity involves only one participant, or only participants of
roughly equal culpability, neither Section 3B1.1 nor Section 3B1.2 will
apply. In some cases, some participants in a criminal activity may receive
an upward adjustment in offense level under Section 3B1.1, other
participants may receive a downward adjustment in offense level under
Section 3B1.2, and still other participants may receive no adjustment.".

Aging Prisoners

  16. Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether and how
the guidelines, policy statements and pertinent statutory provisions should
be amended to provide greater sentencing flexibility, or authority for
modification of a previously imposed sentence of imprisonment, in the case
of older, infirm defendants who do not pose a risk to public safety. In
particular, the Commission invites comment on whether the authority under
18 U.S.C. 3582(c)(1)(A) (relating to court authority to modify a term of
imprisonment upon motion of the Director of the Bureau of Prisons for
"extraordinary and compelling reasons" if consistent with Commission policy
statements) and 28 U.S.C. 994(t) (relating to Commission authority to issue
policy statements describing what should be considered extraordinary and
compelling reasons under 18 U.S.C. 3582(c)(1)(A)) is adequate to address
concerns about an aging inmate population within the Federal prison system,
or whether additional statutory authority is needed.

Miscellaneous Substantive, Clarifying, and Conforming Amendments

  17(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
operation of Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct) in respect to the liability
of a defendant for actions of conspirators prior to the defendant's joining
the conspiracy. There is a split among the circuits as to whether a
defendant ever may have substantive criminal liability for actions of
conspirators prior to the defendant's joining the conspiracy, but this
split need not be resolved to provide useful guidance in respect to the
application of relevant conduct.

  In addition, this amendment adds a well phrased formulation for
analyzing the same course of conduct developed by the Ninth Circuit in
United States v. Hahn, 960 F.2d 903 (9th Cir. 1992), to supplement the
commentary currently addressing this concept.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 1B1.3 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 2 by inserting the following
additional paragraph as the eighth paragraph:

  "A defendant's relevant conduct under subsection (a)(1)(B) does not
include the conduct of members of a conspiracy prior to the defendant's
joining the conspiracy, even if the defendant knows of that conduct (e.g.,
in the case of a defendant who joins an ongoing drug distribution
conspiracy knowing that it had been selling two kilograms of cocaine per
week, the cocaine sold prior to the defendant's joining the conspiracy is
not included as relevant conduct in determining the defendant's offense
level). The Commission does not foreclose the possibility that there may be
some unusual set of circumstances in which an exception to this principle
may be necessary to appropriately reflect the defendant's culpability; such
a case, however, may be addressed through a departure.".

  The Commentary to Section 1B1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 9(B) by inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "The essential components of the same course of conduct are similarity,
regularity, and temporal proximity. When one component is absent, the
courts must look for a stronger presence of at least one of the other
components. Where the conduct alleged to be relevant is relatively remote
to the offense of conviction, a stronger showing of similarity or
regularity is necessary to compensate for the absence of the third
component. United States v. Hahn, 960 F.2d 903 (9th Cir. 1992).".

  (B). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment makes conforming
changes pertaining to the interaction of Chapter Two (Offense Conduct) and
Chapter Eight (Sentencing of Organizations). The amendment conforms the
language of the special instructions in SectionSection 2B4.1 (Bribery in
Procurement of Bank Loan and Other Commercial Bribery), 2C1.1 (Offering,
Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving a Bribe; Extortion Under Color of Official
Right), and 2E5.1 (Offering, Accepting, or Soliciting a Bribe or Gratuity
Affecting the Operation of an Employee Welfare or Pension Benefit Plan;
Prohibited Payments or Lending of Money by Employer or Agent to Employees,
Representatives, or Labor Organizations) to the language of subsection
(c)(3) of Section 8C2.4 (Base Fine). The amendment also adds a conforming
special instruction concerning fines for organizations in SectionSection
2C1.6 (Loan or Gratuity to Bank Examiner, or Gratuity for Adjustment of
Farm Indebtedness, or Procuring Bank Loan, or Discount of Commercial Paper)
and 2C1.7 (Fraud Involving Deprivation of the Intangible Right to the
Honest Services of Public Officials; Conspiracy to Defraud by Interference
with Governmental Functions).

  In addition, this amendment modifies Section 2R1.1 (Bid-Rigging Price
Fixing, or Market-Allocation Agreements Among Competitors) by moving the
test for determining an organization's volume of commerce in a bid-rigging
case in which the organization submitted one or more complementary bids to
subsection (b) where it logically fits; extending to individual defendants
the same standard for determining the volume of commerce in a bid-rigging
case involving complementary bids as is now used for organizational
defendants;   [*67537] deleting language from the original Guidelines
Manual that has been made obsolete by the provisions of Section 1B1.3(a)(2)
and could now be misread to inappropriately narrow the scope of relevant
conduct; revising the last paragraph of subsection (b)(2) to address a
bid-rigging conspiracy in which the defendant agrees not to bid rather than
affirmatively submitting a complementary bid; and deleting Application Note
6 as no longer necessary because a complementary bid now would be included
directly in determining the offense level.

  Finally, this amendment revises the language in Section 8C2.5
(Culpability Score) (adopted in 1991) to conform to changes in the language
of Section 3E1.1 (Acceptance of Responsibility) made in 1992 (amendment
459).

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2B4.1(c)(1)(C) is amended by inserting
"reasonably foreseeable" immediately before "consequential".

  Section 2C1.6 is amended by inserting the following additional
subsection:

"(c) Special Instruction for Fines-Organizations

  (1) In lieu of the pecuniary loss under subsection (a)(3) of Section
8C2.4 (Base Fine), use the value of the unlawful payment.".

  Section 2C1.7 is amended by inserting the following additional
subsection:

"(d) Special Instruction for Fines-Organizations

  (1) In lieu of the pecuniary loss under subsection (a)(3) of Section
8C2.4 (Base Fine), use the greatest of: (A) the value of the unlawful
payment; (B) the value of the benefit received or to be received in return
for the unlawful payment; or (C) the reasonably foreseeable consequential
damages resulting from the unlawful payment.".

  Section 2E5.1(c)(1)(C) is amended by inserting "reasonably foreseeable"
immediately before "consequential".

  Section 2R1.1(b)(2) is amended by deleting "in a conspiracy"; by
deleting "violation" and inserting in lieu thereof "offense"; and by
deleting the last sentence.

  Section 2R1.1(b)(2) is amended by inserting the following additional
paragraph at the end:

  "In a bid-rigging offense in which an individual participant or his
principal, or an organization, submitted one or more complementary bids or
agreed not to submit one or more bids, use as the individual's or the
organization's volume of commerce the greater of (A) the volume of commerce
done by the individual participant or his principal, or the organization,
in the goods or services that were affected by the offense, or (B) the
largest contract on which the individual participant or his principal, or
the organization, submitted a complementary bid or agreed not to bid in
connection with the offense.".

  Section 2R1.1(d) is amended by deleting subdivision (3).

  The Commentary to Section 2R1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 6.

  Section 8C2.5(g)(3) is amended by deleting "recognition and
affirmative"; and by deleting "criminal conduct" and inserting in lieu
thereof "offense".

  The Commentary to Section 8C2.5 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 13 by deleting "truthful admission of involvement in the offense
and related conduct" and inserting in lieu thereof "truthfully admitting
the conduct comprising the offense of conviction, and truthfully admitting
or not falsely denying any additional relevant conduct for which it is
accountable under Section 1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct),".

  (C). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
operation of Section 2B5.1 (Offenses Involving Counterfeit Bearer
Obligations of the United States) in two respects to address issues raised
in litigation. First, this amendment deletes a phrase concerning
photocopying a note which could lead to the inappropriate conclusion that
an enhancement from subsection (b)(2) does not apply even to sophisticated
copying of notes. Second, this amendment expressly provides that items
clearly not intended for circulation (e.g., discarded, defective items) are
not counted under subsection (b)(1).

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2B5.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 3 by deleting "merely photocopy
notes or otherwise".

  The Commentary to Section 2B5.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional Note:

  "4. For the purposes of subsection (b)(1), do not count items that
clearly were not intended for circulation (e.g., discarded, defective
items).".

  (D). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds definitions of
hashish and hashish oil to subsection (c) of Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful
Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy)
in the notes following the Drug Quantity Table. Currently, these terms are
not defined by statute or in the guidelines, leading to litigation as to
which substances are to be classified as hashish or hashish oil (as opposed
to marihuana). This issue has arisen in sentencing hearings, see United
States v. Schultz, 810 F. Supp. 230 (S.D. Ohio 1992) and United States v.
Gravelle, 819 F. Supp. 1076 (S.D. Florida 1993), training presentations,
and hotline questions.

  In addition, this amendment clarifies the treatment of marihuana that
has a moisture content sufficient to render it unusable without drying
(e.g., a bale of marihuana left in the rain or recently harvested marihuana
that had not had time to dry). In such cases, including the moisture in the
weight of the marihuana can increase the offense level for a factor that
bears no relationship to the scale of the offense or the marketable form of
the marihuana. Prior to the effective date of the 1993 amendments, two
circuits have approved weighing wet marihuana despite the fact that the
marihuana was not in a usable form. United States v. Garcia, 925 F.2d 170
(7th Cir., 1991); United States v. Pinedo-Montoya, 966 F.2d 591 (10th Cir.
1992). Although Application Note 1 of Section 2D1.1, effective November 1,
1993 (pertaining to unusable parts of a mixture or substance) should
produce the appropriate result because marihuana must be dried before being
used, this type of case is sufficiently distinct to warrant a specific
reference to ensure correct application of the guideline.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2D1.1(c) is amended in the Notes following
the Drug Quantity Table by inserting the following additional paragraphs as
the fourth and fifth paragraphs:

  "Hashish, for the purposes of this guideline, means a concentrate of
cannabis containing cannabinoids and fragments of plant material (such as
cystolith fibers).

  Hashish oil, for the purposes of this guideline, means a preparation of
the soluble cannabinoids derived from cannabis that includes one or more of
the tetrahydrocannabinols (as defined in 21 CFR 1308.11(d)(25)) and at
least two of the following: Cannabinol, cannabidiol, or cannabishromene,
and is essentially free of plant material (e.g., plant fragments).
Typically, hashish oil is a viscous, dark colored oil, but it can vary from
a dry resin to a colorless liquid.".

  The Commentary to Section 2D1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "Similarly, in the case of marihuana having a moisture content that
renders the marihuana unsuitable for consumption without drying (this might
occur, for example with a bale of rain-soaked marihuana or freshly
harvested marihuana that had not been dried), an approximation of the
weight of the marihuana without such excess moisture content is to be
used.".

  (E). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
Commentary to Section 2D1.2 (Drug Offenses Occurring Near Protected
Locations or Involving Underage or Pregnant Individuals; Attempt or
[*67538]   Conspiracy) to make explicit that Section 3B1.1 (Aggravating
Role) operates independently of Section 2D1.2. Absent such an express
statement, the Seventh Circuit has held that it is inappropriate double
counting to apply Section 2D1.2 for the supervision of a person under age
eighteen in a drug trafficking offense and also apply Section 3B1.1 for the
supervision of that person. United States v. Stevenson, No. 91-3431 (7th
Cir. Oct. 6, 1993). Under this logic, however, there is no differentiation
in final offense level between the organizer, leader, manager, or
supervisor of an adult in a drug sale and the organizer, leader, manager,
or supervisor of a juvenile in a drug sale.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2D1.2 captioned
"Application Note" is amended by deleting "Note" and inserting in lieu
thereof "Notes"; and by inserting the following additional note:

  "2. Section 3B1.1 (Aggravating Role) is to be applied independently of
the operation of this section. Thus, for example, in the case of a
defendant who hires an underage person to deliver a controlled substance,
an adjustment from Section 3B1.1 will apply in addition to the offense
level determined under this section.".

  (F). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
operation of SectionSection 2D1.6 (Use of Communication Facility in
Committing Drug Offense; Attempt or Conspiracy), 2E1.1 (Unlawful Conduct
Relating to Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations), 2E1.2
(Interstate or Foreign Travel or Transportation in Aid of a Racketeering
Enterprise), 2E1.3 (Violent Crimes in Aid of Racketeering Activity), and
2E1.4 (Use of Interstate Commerce Facilities in the Commission of
Murder-For-Hire) in a manner consistent with the operation of Section 1B1.2
(Applicable Guidelines) governing the selection of the offense guideline
section. In addition, this amendment deletes an application note from
SectionSection 2E1.1, 2E1.2, and 2E1.3 that is unnecessary and is not
included in other sections of the Guidelines Manual.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2D1.6 captioned
"Application Note" is amended by deleting "Note" and inserting in lieu
thereof "Notes"; by renumbering Note 1 as Note 2; and by inserting the
following as Note 1:

  "1. "Offense level applicable to the underlying offense" means the
offense level determined by using the offense guideline applicable to the
controlled substance offense that the defendant was convicted of using a
communication facility to commit, cause, or facilitate.".

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "Where there is more than one underlying offense" and
inserting in lieu thereof:

  "The offense guideline applicable to the underlying offense under
subsection (a)(2) is determined under the provisions of Section 1B1.2
(Applicable Guidelines). Where more than one underlying offense is
established (for this determination, apply the provisions of Application
Note 5 of the Commentary to Section 1B1.2 as in a conspiracy case).".

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 3; and by renumbering Note 4 as Note 3.

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "Where there is more than one underlying offense" and
inserting in lieu thereof:

  "The offense guideline applicable to the underlying offense under
subsection (a)(2) is determined under the provisions of Section 1B1.2
(Applicable Guidelines). Where more than one underlying offense is
established (for this determination, apply the provisions of Application
Note 5 of the Commentary to Section 1B1.2 as in a conspiracy case).".

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 3.

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by inserting the following additional sentence as the first
sentence:

  "The offense guideline applicable to the underlying offense under
subsection (a)(2) is determined under the provisions of Section 1B1.2
(Applicable Guidelines).";

by deleting Note 2; and, in the caption, by deleting "Notes" and inserting
in lieu thereof "Note".

  The Commentary to Section 2E1.4 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by inserting the following additional sentence as the first
sentence:

  "The offense guideline applicable to the underlying offense under
subsection (a)(2) is determined under the provisions of Section 1B1.2
(Applicable Guidelines).".

  (G). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Application
Note 13 in the Commentary to Section 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit; Forgery;
Offenses Involving Altered or Counterfeit Instruments Other than
Counterfeit Bearer Obligations of the United States). On two occasions, the
Ninth Circuit has read this application note as requiring application of
Section 2T3.1 to false statements to a customs officer in connection with
currency reporting violations even though Section 2S1.3 (Structuring
Transactions to Evade Reporting Requirements; Failure to Report Cash or
Monetary Transactions; Failure to File Currency and Monetary Instrument
Report; Knowingly Filing False Reports) clearly better fit the facts of the
cases. United States v. Carillo-Hernandez, 963 F.2d 1316 (9th Cir. 1992),
United States v. Mendoza-Fernandez, 4 F.3d 815 (9th Cir. 1993) No.
92-50761. This amendment clarifies the intended operation of this
application note.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 13 by inserting "Section 2S1.3 or"
immediately before "Section 2T3.1".

  (H). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
interaction of subsection (c)(1) of Section 2J1.2 (Obstruction of Justice)
and subsection (c)(1) of Section 2J1.3 (Perjury or Subornation of Perjury;
Bribery of Witness) with Section 2X3.1 (Accessory After the Fact). In
addition, this amendment clarifies the application of SectionSection 2X1.1
(Attempt, Solicitation, or Conspiracy) and 2X3.1 (Accessory After the Fact)
when these guidelines are used as the result of a cross reference.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2J1.2 captioned
"Background" is amended in the second paragraph by inserting the following
at the end:

  "Note that application of this cross reference does not require that the
defendant's conduct constitute the offense of accessory after the fact.
Rather, it provides for the use, in the circumstances specified, of the
guideline that applies to accessory after the fact offenses. Thus, the fact
that a defendant cannot be an accessory after the fact, under federal law,
to an offense in which he is a principal does not bar application of this
cross reference.".

  The Commentary to Section 2J1.3 captioned "Background" is amended in the
last sentence by deleting:

", and an alternative reference to the guideline for accessory after the
fact is made";

and by inserting the following additional sentences at the end:

  "Because the conduct covered by this guideline is frequently part of an
effort to avoid punishment for an offense that the defendant has committed
or to assist another person to escape punishment for an offense, a cross
reference to Section 2X3.1 (Accessory After the Fact) is provided. Use of
this cross reference will provide an enhanced offense level when the
obstruction is in respect to a particularly serious offense, whether such
offense was committed by the defendant or another person. Note that
application of this cross reference does not require that the defendant's
conduct constitute the offense of accessory after the fact. Rather, it
provides for the use, in the circumstances specified, of the guideline that
applies to accessory after the fact offenses. Thus, the fact that a
defendant   [*67539]   cannot be an accessory after the fact, under federal
law, to an offense in which he is a principal does not bar application of
this cross reference.".

  The Commentary to Section 2X1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by beginning a new paragraph with the second sentence; and by
inserting the following additional sentence at the end of the first
paragraph:

  "However, if the application of Section 2X1.1 results from a cross
reference or other instruction in another Chapter Two offense guideline
(e.g., SectionSection 2K1.3(c)(1)(A), 2K2.1(c)(1)(A), 2K3.2(a)(1)), the
substantive offense is the offense determined by that cross reference or
instruction.".

  The Commentary to Section 2X3.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by beginning a new paragraph with the second sentence; and by
inserting the following additional sentence immediately after the first
sentence:

  "However, if the application of Section 2X3.1 results from a cross
reference or other instruction in another Chapter Two offense guideline
(e.g., SectionSection 2J1.2(c)(1), 2J1.3(c)(1)), the underlying offense is
the offense determined by that cross reference or instruction.".

  (I). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
application of subsection (c) of Section 2K2.1 (Unlawful Receipt,
Possession, or Transportation of Firearms or Ammunition; Prohibited
Transactions Involving Firearms or Ammunition) and addresses an
intercircuit conflict. In United States v. Concepcion, 983 F.2d 369 (2d
Cir. 1992), involving a defendant found to have possessed a firearm in
connection with a RICO drug operation, the court held that application of
the firearms guideline cross-reference to Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful
Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy)
could not include the weapon enhancement in Section 2D1.1(b)(1). In
applying cross-references in somewhat similar circumstances, other courts
have held that a specific offense characteristic for weapon use contained
in the cross-referenced guideline should be applied. See, e.g., United
States v. Gonzalez, 996 F.2d 88 (5th Cir. 1993) (upholding application of
two-level increase in kidnapping guideline for dangerous weapon where
defendant, convicted of being a felon in possession, was held accountable
for firearm used in kidnapping scheme). This amendment adds an additional
Application Note to Section 2K2.1 to address this issue.

  In addition, the definitions of firearms listed under 26 U.S.C. Section
5845(a) that are currently contained in the Application Notes to
SectionSection 2K2.1 (Unlawful Receipt, Possession, or Transportation of
Firearms or Ammunition; Prohibited Transactions Involving Firearms or
Ammunition) and 7B1.1 (Classification of Violations) are inconsistent with
each other and are insufficiently defined to serve their intended purpose
(i.e., to allow probation officers and courts to apply the pertinent
guideline adjustment without having to consult 26 U.S.C. Section 5845).
This amendment addresses this issue by substituting a single, revised
definition.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2K2.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 3 by deleting:

"any short-barreled rifle or shotgun or any weapon made therefrom",

and inserting in lieu thereof:

"a shotgun, or a weapon made from a shotgun, having a barrel or barrels of
less than 18 inches in length; a rifle, or a weapon made from a rifle,
having a barrel or barrels of less than 16 inches in length; or a weapon
made from a shotgun or rifle, having an overall length of less than 26
inches";

and by deleting:

"or (v) any "other weapon," as that term is defined by 26 U.S.C. 5845(e). A
firearm listed in 26 U.S.C. 5845(a) does not include unaltered handguns or
regulation-length rifles or shotguns",

and inserting in lieu thereof:

"and (v) certain other weapons (that are not conventional, unaltered
handguns, rifles, or shotguns) as defined in 26 U.S.C. 5845(e)".

  The Commentary to Section 2K2.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by inserting the following additional note:

  "20. Where subsection (c)(1) requires the application of another offense
guideline, the entire offense guideline that is referenced (including any
enhancement for possession of a firearm) is to be applied. See Section
1B1.5 (Interpretation of References to Other Offense Guidelines).".

  The Commentary to Section 7B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 4 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "4. "Firearm or destructive device of a type described in 26 U.S.C.
Section 5845(a)" is defined in the Commentary to Section 2K2.1 (Unlawful
Receipt, Possession, or Transportation of Firearms or Ammunition;
Prohibited Transactions Involving Firearms or Ammunition).".

  (J). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
Commentary to Section 2K2.4 (Use of Firearm, Armor-Piercing Ammunition, or
Explosive During or in Relation to Certain Crimes) by expanding the list of
examples to which Application Note 2 applies to facilitate application of
this provision. In addition, this amendment clarifies that, if an
enhancement from Section 2K2.4 applies, any specific offense characteristic
for use or possession of any weapon in the offense is not to be applied.
This addresses an issue raised in United States v. Kimmons, 965 F.2d 1001
(11th Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 113 S. Ct. 1065, and cert. granted, vacated
and remanded sub nom. Small v. United States, 113 S. Ct. 2326 (1993). In
Kimmons, a case involving a defendant who used a firearm in a robbery and
was convicted of both robbery and 18 U.S.C. 924(c), the court held that
even though the defendant was convicted of a 924(c) count, he was also
subject to the weapon enhancement in the robbery guideline because of his
co-defendant's use of a firearm during the robbery.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2K2.4 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 2 in the first sentence of the first
paragraph by deleting "an explosive or firearm (e.g., Section
2B3.1(b)(2)(A)-(F) (Robbery))" and inserting in lieu thereof "any explosive
or firearm for which the defendant would be accountable under Section 1B1.3
(Relevant Conduct)"; and by inserting the following additional sentence as
the second sentence of the first paragraph:

  "For example, an adjustment from SectionSection 2A2.2(b)(2),
2A3.1(b)(1), 2B3.1(b)(2)(A-F), 2B3.2(b)(3), 2D1.1(b)(1), 2D1.11(b)(1),
2K1.3(b)(3), or 2K2.1(b)(5) would not apply. In addition, in Section 4B1.4
(Armed Career Criminal), the adjustment from subsection (b)(3)(A) is not to
be applied.".

  (K). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment corrects a technical
error in Section 2L2.1 (Trafficking in a Document Relating to
Naturalization, Citizenship, or Legal Resident Status, or a United States
Passport; False Statement in Respect to the Citizenship or Immigration
Status of Another; Fraudulent Marriage to Assist Alien to Evade Immigration
Law). Currently this guideline uses the term "set" to include either a
single document or multiple related documents. However, in common usage,
the term "set" refers to a group containing at least two items, thereby
making it arguable that subsection (b)(2) applies only to sets of two or
more related documents. See United States v. Martinez-Cano, F.2d , No. 93-
50257 (9th Cir. Oct. 7, 1993). This amendment corrects this error and
ensures comparability in offense level with Section 2L1.1 (Smuggling,
Transporting, or Harboring an Unlawful Alien).

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2L2.1(b)(2) is amended by deleting "sets
of"; and by deleting "Sets of".   [*67540]

  The Commentary to Section 2L2.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 2 by deleting "a single" and inserting in lieu thereof "one"; and
by deleting "as one set" and inserting in lieu thereof "in the set as one
document for the purposes of subsection (b)(2)".

  (L). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
operation of Chapter Three, Part D (Multiple Counts) and Section 5G1.2
(Sentencing on Multiple Counts of Conviction) in respect to statutes that
require consecutive sentences of imprisonment.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 3D1.1(b) is amended by deleting "imposition
of a consecutive sentence" and inserting in lieu thereof "both that a term
of imprisonment be imposed and that such term of imprisonment run
consecutively to any other term of imprisonment".

  The Commentary to Section 3D1.1 captioned "Application Note" is amended
by deleting Note 1 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "1. Subsection (b) provides that any count for which the statute
mandates both that a term of imprisonment be imposed and that such term of
imprisonment run consecutively to any other term of imprisonment is
excepted from application of the multiple count rules. Convictions on such
counts are not used in the determination of a combined offense level under
this part, but may affect the offense level for other counts. See Section
2K2.4 (Use of Firearm, Armor-Piercing Ammunition, or Explosive During or in
Relation to Certain Crimes).

  Certain statutes (1) require a consecutive sentence only if a term of
imprisonment is imposed (e.g., 18 U.S.C. 3146), or (2) set forth a
sentencing enhancement rather than a separate count of conviction (e.g., 18
U.S.C. 3147). Subsection (b) does not apply in such cases. See, e.g.,
Application Note 3 of the Commentary to Section 2J1.6 (Failure to Appear),
Application Note 2 of the Commentary to Section 2J1.7 (Offense Committed
While on Release), and Application Note 3 of the Commentary to Section
2K2.5 (Possession of Firearm or Dangerous Weapon in Federal Facility;
Possession or Discharge of Firearm in School Zone).".

  The Commentary to Section 3D1.2 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 1 by deleting "imposition of a consecutive sentence" and inserting
in lieu thereof "both that a term of imprisonment be imposed and that such
term of imprisonment run consecutively to any other term of imprisonment".

  Section 5G1.2(a) is amended by deleting "a consecutive sentence" and
inserting in lieu thereof "both that a term of imprisonment be imposed and
that such term of imprisonment run consecutively to any other term of
imprisonment".

  The Commentary to Section 5G1.2 is amended by deleting the fourth
paragraph and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "Subsection (a) applies to any count for which a statute mandates both
that a term of imprisonment be imposed and that such term of imprisonment
run consecutively to any other term of imprisonment (e.g., a count charging
a violation of 18 U.S.C. 844(h), 924(c), or 929(a)). The sentence for such
a count is determined independently of, and runs consecutively to, the
sentences for any other counts. See Commentary to SectionSection 2K2.4 and
3D1.1 regarding determination of the offense levels for related counts when
a conviction under 18 U.S.C. 844(h), 924(c), or 929(a) is involved.
Subsection (a) does not apply to a statute that requires a consecutive
sentence only if a term of imprisonment is imposed (e.g., 18 U.S.C. 3146)
or sets forth a sentencing enhancement rather than a separate count of
conviction (e.g., 18 U.S.C. 3147). See, e.g., Application Note 3 of the
Commentary to Section 2J1.6 (Failure to Appear), Application Note 2 of the
Commentary to Section 2J1.7 (Offense Committed While on Release), and
Application Note 3 of the Commentary to Section 2K2.5 (Possession of
Firearm or Dangerous Weapon in Federal Facility; Possession or Discharge of
Firearm in School Zone).".

  (M). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment makes the listing of
the offense guidelines in subsection (d) of Section 3D1.2 (Groups of
Closely-Related Counts) more comprehensive. Expressly listing these
additional sections will simplify the application of this guideline.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 3D1.2(d) is amended in the second paragraph
by inserting "2C1.6," immediately before "2C1.7"; by inserting
"SectionSection 2G2.2, 2G2.4, 2G3.1, 2G3.2;" as an additional line
immediately below "2F1.1, 2F1.2;"; and by inserting "Section 2K1.3,"
immediately before "2K2.1".

  (N). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies that
Application Note 7 in the Commentary to Section 4A1.2 (Definitions and
Instructions for Computing Criminal History) explains Section 4A1.2(d) and
does not impose an additional limitation on the counting of sentences
committed prior to age eighteen. The variation in language between Section
4A1.2(d) and Application Note 7 has resulted in litigation. See United
States v. Carillo, 991 F.2d 590 (9th Cir. 1993). Although the prisoner was
unsuccessful in this case, this amendment will remove the opportunity for
other challenges on this point.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 4A1.2 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended by deleting Note 7 and inserting in lieu
thereof:

  "7. Offenses Committed Prior to Age Eighteen. Section 4A1.2(d) covers
sentences resulting from all offenses committed prior to age eighteen and
is designed to minimize the impact of differences among jurisdictions in
the age at which a defendant is considered a "juvenile" and in the
availability of juvenile records. Section 4A1.2(d)(1) applies to adult
convictions resulting in sentences of imprisonment of more than one year.
Section 4A1.2(d)(2) applies to lesser sentences resulting from adult
convictions and all sentences resulting from juvenile delinquency
adjudications.".

  (O). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds an additional
paragraph to the Commentary to Section 5G1.1 (Sentencing on a Single Count
of Conviction) to clarify that where the guideline sentence is determined
by the statutorily authorized maximum sentence under Section 5G1.1(a) or
the statutorily required minimum sentence under Section 5G1.1(b), the
guideline range from Chapter Five, Part A, remains the applicable guideline
range for other purposes (e.g., determining eligibility for retroactive
application of an amended guideline range under Section 1B1.10, determining
whether alternatives to imprisonment are authorized under Section 5B1.1 or
Section 5C1.1, or determining the appropriateness of a departure from the
guideline range under Section 4A1.3).

  In addition, this amendment revises the Commentary to Section 5G1.2
(Sentencing on Multiple Counts of Conviction) cited by two courts of
appeals as supporting the view that, notwithstanding the language in 18
U.S.C. 3624(e) stating that terms of supervised release run concurrently, a
court nevertheless may order that supervised release terms be served
consecutively under certain circumstances. See United States v. Maxwell,
966 F.2d 545, 551 (10th Cir. 1992) and United States v. Shorthouse, No.
92-30334 (9th Cir. Oct. 5, 1993). This amendment is in accord with the
position taken by the Eighth Circuit that 18 U.S.C. 3624(e) provides, in
all cases, that multiple terms of supervised release run concurrently
(United States v. Gullickson, 982 F.2d 1231, 1236 (8th Cir. 1993)).

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 5G1.1 is amended by
inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  "In a case in which the guideline sentence is determined by the
statutorily authorized maximum sentence (under subsection (a)) or the
statutorily required minimum sentence (under subsection (b)), the guideline
range from Chapter Five, Part A (Sentencing Table) remains applicable for
other purposes (e.g., determining whether alternatives to imprisonment are
authorized under Section 5B1.1 (Imposition of a Term of Probation) or
[*67541]   Section 5C1.1 (Imposition of a Term of Imprisonment);
determining the appropriateness of a departure from the guideline range
under Section 4A1.3 (Adequacy of Criminal History Category); and
determining eligibility for the retroactive application of an amended
guideline range under Section 1B1.10 (Retroactive Application of Amended
Guideline Range)).".

  The Commentary to Section 5G1.2 is amended in the fourth paragraph by
inserting the following additional sentence at the end:

  "Note, however, that even in the case of a consecutive term of
imprisonment imposed under subsection (a), any term of supervised release
imposed is to run concurrently with any other term of supervised release
imposed. See 18 U.S.C. 3624(e).".

  (P). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment adds a policy
statement to Chapter Five, Part K (Departures) providing expressly that a
downward departure may be warranted where the defendant made complete, or
substantially complete, restitution prior to the discovery of the offense
or the defendant's participation of the offense, except in the case of a
crime of violence. This amendment distinguishes this circumstance from the
more typical situation in which the defendant makes restitution prior to
sentencing but after the defendant's participation in the offense is
discovered, a situation addressed by Section 3E1.1 (Acceptance of
Responsibility).

  Proposed Amendment: Chapter Five, part K, subpart 2 is amended by
inserting the following additional section:

"Section 5K2.17. Restitution Prior to Discovery (Policy Statement)

  If the defendant made complete, or substantially complete, restitution
prior to the discovery of the offense or the defendant's participation in
the offense, a downward departure may be warranted. This provision does not
apply, however, where (1) the offense was a crime of violence as defined in
Section 4B1.2 (Definition of Terms Used in Section 4B1.1), or (2) such
restitution was made after the discovery of the defendant's participation
in the offense became likely or imminent.".

  (Q). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment provides expressly
how Section 7B1.1 (Classification of Violations) is to be applied in the
case of false statements made to probation officers by probationers and
supervised releasees. A variety of false statements made to probation
officers by probationers or supervised releasees during the period of
supervision could be, but rarely if ever are, prosecuted under 18 U.S.C.
1001 (a felony). The question has arisen as to whether such violations are
to be treated as Grade B (felony) or Grade C (misdemeanor/technical)
violations. Option 1 of this amendment provides that a false statement made
to a probation officer during supervision is treated as a Grade C violation
(absent a felony conviction for such false statement). Option 2 treats any
such violation as a Grade B (felony) violation. In addition, this amendment
simplifies the commentary of Section 7B1.1 and conforms it to the drafting
principle adopted by the Commission of consolidating definitions in one
section.

  Proposed Amendment: [Option 1: Section 7B1.1 is amended by inserting the
following additional subsection:

"(c) Special Instruction

  (1) Absent a new conviction for a violation of 18 U.S.C. 1001 (or
another felony statute), a false statement to a probation officer by a
probationer or supervised releasee (e.g., a false statement on a monthly
report) is to be treated as a Grade C violation.".]

  [Option 2: The Commentary to Section 7B1.2 captioned "Application Notes"
is amended by inserting the following additional note:

  "6. Any false statement made by a probationer or supervised releasee to
a probation officer that could be charged as a violation of 18 U.S.C.
Section 1001 shall be treated as a Grade B violation.".]

  [Both Options: The Commentary to Section 7B1.1 captioned "Application
Notes" is amended in Note 2 by inserting the following additional paragraph
as the first paragraph:

  ""Controlled substance offense" is defined in Section 4B1.2 (Definitions
of Terms Used in Section 4B1.1). See Section 4B1.2(2) and Application Note
1 of the Commentary to Section 4B1.2.";

and by inserting the following additional paragraph at the end:

  ""Firearm or destructive device of a type described in 26 U.S.C.
5845(a)" is defined in the Commentary to Section 2K2.1 (Unlawful Receipt,
Possession, or Transportation of Firearms or Ammunition; Prohibited
Transactions Involving Firearms or Ammunition).".

  The Commentary to Section 7B1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Notes 3 and 4; and by redesignating Note 5 as Note 3.]

Proposed Amendments and Issues for Comment Recommended by the
Practitioners' Advisory Committee

  18. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment provides that conduct
of which the defendant has been acquitted after trial may not be used in
determining the guideline range but may, if found by a preponderance of the
evidence, provide the basis for an upward departure.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 1B1.3 is amended by inserting the following
additional subsection:

  "(c) Conduct of which the defendant has been acquitted after a court or
jury trial shall not be considered under this section. However, such
conduct, if proven by a preponderance of the evidence, may provide the
basis for an upward departure."

  19. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment makes a number of
minor revisions to clarify the operation of Section 1B1.10 (Retroactivity
of Amended Guideline Range). In addition, this amendment deletes current
Section 1B1.10(c), a rather complex subsection, as an unnecessary
restriction on the court's consideration of a revised sentence in response
to an amended guideline range. The simpler restriction in subsection (b)
would remain a limitation on the court's discretion.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 1B1.10(a) is amended by deleting
"guidelines" and inserting in lieu thereof "Guidelines Manual"; by deleting
"may be considered" and inserting in lieu thereof "is authorized"; and by
inserting "and thus is not authorized" immediately following "policy
statement".

  Section 1B1.10(b) is amended by inserting ", and to what extent,"
immediately before "a reduction"; and by deleting "consider the sentence
that it would have originally imposed had the guidelines, as amended, been
in effect at that time" and inserting in lieu thereof "apply the Guidelines
Manual currently in effect to determine the amended guideline range and the
appropriateness of any departure".

  Section 1B1.10 is amended by deleting subsection (c); and by
redesignating subsection (d) as subsection (c).

  The Commentary to Section 1B1.10 captioned "Application Notes" is
amended by deleting the text of Note 1 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "Eligibility for consideration under 18 U.S.C. 3582(c)(2) is triggered
only by an amendment listed in subsection (c) of this section that lowers
the applicable guideline range. The amended guideline range is determined
by applying all amendments to the Guidelines Manual (i.e., by applying the
Guidelines Manual currently in effect).

  This policy statement specifies the circumstances under which a
defendant may be considered for a reduced sentence under 18 U.S.C. Section
3582(c)(2). The decision whether or not to grant a reduction in a
particular case is discretionary with the court.".

  The Commentary to Section 1B1.10 captioned "Background" is amended in
the last paragraph by deleting "(d)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(c)".
[*67542]

  20(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
Commentary to Section 2F1.1 to provide greater consistency between the
definitions of loss in SectionSection 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and
Other Forms of Theft; Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting,
or Possessing Stolen Property) and 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit; Forgery;
Offenses Involving Altered or Counterfeit Instruments Other than
Counterfeit Bearer Obligations of the United States).

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2F1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 7 by deleting the last three
sentences of the first paragraph and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "Frequently, loss in a fraud case will be the same as in a theft case.
Examples: (1) In the case of a forged check that was represented to be
genuine, the loss is the loss that would have occurred if the check had
been cashed. (2) In a case where worthless stock was represented to be
worth $ 40,000, the loss would be $ 40,000. Where the loss that the
defendant attempted to inflict is greater than the actual loss, the
provisions of Section 2X1.1 (Attempt, Solicitation, or Conspiracy) will
apply.";

and by deleting the first two lines of the second paragraph and inserting
in lieu thereof:

  "In some fraud cases, additional factors are to be considered in
determining loss:".

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether the
Commentary to Section 2B1.1 (Larceny, Embezzlement, and Other Forms of
Theft; Receiving, Transporting, Transferring, Transmitting, or Possessing
Stolen Property) should be conformed to the Commentary to Section 2F1.1
(Fraud and Deceit; Forgery; Offenses Involving Altered or Counterfeit
Instruments Other than Counterfeit Bearer Obligations of the United States)
by stating that:

  (1) The loss should be reduced to reflect the amount the victim has
recovered prior to discovery of the offense or which the victim expects to
recover from any assets originally pledged by the defendant; and

  (2) The actual loss may in some cases significantly overstate or
understate the seriousness of the defendant's conduct; in such cases, a
departure from the guidelines may be warranted.

  (C). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether or not
the provisions concerning loss in Chapter Two, Parts B (Offenses Involving
Property) and F (Offenses Involving Fraud or Deceit), should be revised to
make clear that interest is not to be counted under any circumstances.
There appears to be a conflict between the Commission's intent with respect
to the inclusion of interest in the calculation of loss and two recent
appellate decisions. Although Application Note 7 in the Commentary to
Section 2F1.1 (Fraud and Deceit; Forgery; Offenses Involving Altered or
Counterfeit Instruments Other than Counterfeit Bearer Obligations
of the United States) states that loss does not, for example, include
interest the victim could have earned on such funds had the offense not
occurred, two appellate court decisions have permitted the inclusion of
lost interest in the calculation of loss. See United States v. Lowder, No.
92-6378, 1993 WL 356898 (10th Cir. 1993) and United States v. Jones, 933
F.2d 353 (6th Cir. 1991). In contrast, the Fourth Circuit has held that
interest should not be counted in the determination of loss where it
amounts to lost profit. United States v. Bailey, 975 F.2d 1028 (4th Cir.
1992).

  21. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment clarifies the
intended coverage of Section 2X1.1 (Attempt, Solicitation, or Conspiracy).
Several appellate courts have read this guideline as not applying in the
case of an attempt if the statute covering the substantive offense also
covers an attempt to commit the offense. See, e.g., United States v. Van
Bloom, 961 F.2d 145 (9th Cir. 1992); United States v. Koenig, 952 F.2d 267
(9th Cir. 1991); United States v. Williams, 891 F.2d 962 (1st Cir. 1989);
United States v. Toles, 867 F.2d 222 (5th Cir. 1989) and United States v.
Vasquez, 791 F.Supp. 348 (E.D.N.Y. 1992)). This amendment clarifies the
Commission's intent that the determining factor in whether Section 2X1.1
applies is whether the title of the offense guideline for the substantive
offense expressly covers the inchoate form of the offense.

  In addition, this amendment simplifies the currently complex structure
of this guideline by merging subsections (b) (1), (2), and (3). The titles
of the offense guidelines covered by subsection (b)(3)(B) are amended to
conform.

  Proposed Amendment: The title of Section 2X1.1 is amended by deleting
"(Not Covered by a Specific Offense Guideline)".

  Section 2X1.1(b) is amended by deleting:

  "(1) If an attempt, decrease by 3 levels, unless the defendant completed
all the acts the defendant believed necessary for successful completion of
the substantive offense or the circumstances demonstrate that the defendant
was about to complete all such acts but for apprehension or interruption by
some similar event beyond the defendant's control.

  (2) If a conspiracy, decrease by 3 levels, unless the defendant or a
co-conspirator completed all the acts the conspirators believed necessary
on their part for the successful completion of the substantive offense or
the circumstances demonstrate that the conspirators were about to complete
all such acts but for apprehension or interruption by some similar event
beyond their control.

  (3) (A) If a solicitation, decrease by 3 levels unless the person
solicited to commit or aid the substantive offense completed all the acts
he believed necessary for successful completion of the substantive offense
or the circumstances demonstrate that the person was about to complete all
such acts but for apprehension or interruption by some similar event beyond
such person's control.

  (B) If the statute treats solicitation of the substantive offense
identically with the substantive offense, do not apply subdivision (A)
above; i.e., the offense level for solicitation is the same as that for the
substantive offense.",

and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "(1) Decrease by 3 levels unless (A) the defendant, a co-conspirator,
or, in the case of a solicitation, the person solicited to commit the
offense committed all of the acts he believed necessary for the successful
completion of the substantive offense; or (B) the circumstances demonstrate
that such person was about to complete all such acts but for apprehension
or interruption by some similar event beyond his control.".

  The Commentary to Section 2X1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting the first sentence of Note 1 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  ""Expressly covered by another offense guideline section," as used in
subsection (c), means that the title of the offense guideline section
applicable to the substantive offense expressly covers an attempt,
conspiracy, or solicitation. For example, Section 2A2.1 (Assault With
Intent to Commit Murder; Attempted Murder) expressly covers attempted
murder; Section 2A1.5 (Conspiracy or Solicitation to Commit Murder)
expressly covers conspiracy and solicitation to commit murder. In contrast,
Section 2B3.1 (Robbery) does not expressly cover attempt, conspiracy, or
solicitation to commit robbery.".

  The Commentary to Section 2X1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in the last paragraph of Note 1 by inserting "Section 2B4.1;" on an
additional line immediately below "Section 2A1.5"; and by inserting ",
2C1.6" immediately following "2C1.2".

  The Commentary to Section 2X1.1 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
in Note 4 by deleting "Section 2X1.1(b)(1), (b)(2), or (b)(3)(A)" wherever
it appears and inserting in lieu thereof in each instance "Section
2X1.1(b)(1)".

  The Commentary to Section 2X1.1 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting [*67543]   "Section 2X1.1(b) (1) or (2)" and inserting in lieu
thereof "2X1.1(b)(1)".

  Section 2B4.1 is amended in the title by inserting at the end ";
Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving".

  Section 2C1.6 is amended in the title by inserting at the end ";
Offering, Giving, Soliciting, or Receiving".

  22. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment addresses the meaning
of the term "non-violent offense" in Section 5K2.13 (i.e., whether a
"violent offense" is synonymous with a "crime of violence" as used in
Section 4B1.2 (Definitions of Terms Used in section 4B1.1); and, if so,
whether a departure under this policy statement is prohibited in all such
cases). There is a split among the appellate courts with regard to this
issue. Of the seven circuits that have addressed the question, all except
the DC Circuit follow the holding of United States v. Poff, 926 F.2d 588
(7th Cir. 1991) (en banc) that the terms are synonymous. Hence, departure
for diminished capacity would be precluded for any offense that is a crime
of violence under the guidelines. The DC Circuit, in United States v.
Chatman, 986 F.2d 1446 (DC Cir. 1993), came to a different conclusion,
permitting a downward departure in an unarmed, "idle threat" bank robbery
case.

  As generally illustrated by instances in the relevant appellate cases,
the issue arises in cases that fall within the definition of crime of
violence as used in Section 4B1.2 but may not pose any significant risk of
physical injury (e.g., a person with psychological problems who writes a
threatening letter but evidences no intent or capacity to carry out the
threat). As the underlying purpose of this provision seems best expressed
in the clause "provided that the defendant's criminal history does not
indicate a need for incarceration to protect the public," this amendment
revises the language of this policy statement to express its intent more
directly. The option of an additional sentence setting forth, for emphasis,
a strong presumption against the applicability of this provision in the
case of a crime of violence is included.

  Proposed Amendment: [Options 1 and 2: Section 5K2.13 is amended by
deleting "a non-violent" and inserting in lieu thereof "an"; and by
deleting "the defendant's criminal history" and inserting in lieu thereof
"consideration of the nature and circumstances of the offense and the
history and characteristics of the defendant".]

  [Option 2 only: Section 5K2.13 is amended by inserting the following
additional sentence at the end:

  "Absent extraordinary circumstances, a downward departure under this
provision is not authorized for an offense that is a crime of violence as
defined in Section 4B1.2 (Definitions of Terms Used in Section 4B1.1).".]

Proposed Amendment Recommended by the Probation Officers' Advisory Group

  23. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Section 5G1.3
(Imposition of a Sentence on a Defendant Subject to an Undischarged Term of
Imprisonment) by deleting subsection (c), which currently requires the
court to employ a methodology that parallels the multiple count rules of
Chapter Three, and substituting a provision that allows the court to impose
the sentence either concurrently or consecutively, with an application note
suggesting use of the multiple count methodology only if accurate, factual,
and reliable information concerning the prior sentence is readily
available. This amendment is designed to respond to the difficulty in
obtaining state and local offense information regarding prior unexpired
sentences and accurately applying such information to federal guidelines.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 5G1.3 is amended by deleting subsection (c)
and by inserting in lieu thereof:

  "(c) In any other case, the sentence for the instant offense may run
concurrently or consecutively to the prior undischarged term of
imprisonment, except to the extent otherwise required by law.".

  The Commentary to Section 5G1.3 captioned "Application Notes" is amended
by deleting Note 3 and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "3. Where the defendant is subject to an undischarged term of
imprisonment in circumstances other than those set forth in subsection (a)
or (b), subsection (c) applies. The sentence for the instant offense may
run concurrently or consecutively to the prior undischarged term of
imprisonment. If accurate, factual, and reliable information concerning the
prior conviction and sentence for which the defendant is serving the
undischarged term of imprisonment is readily available, the court may
combine the instant offense and the prior offense by applying the grouping
rules at Section 3D1.2 to arrive at an approximate total punishment that
would have been imposed had all the offenses been federal offenses for
which sentences were being imposed at the same time. To the extent
practicable, the court should consider imposing a sentence of imprisonment
that results in incremental punishment as envisioned in Chapter 3, Part D,
and Section 5G1.2.

  It is not intended that the above suggested methodology be applied when
it either prolongs or complicates the sentencing process or produces
inaccurate or unreliable results.".

Proposed Amendments Recommended by the Federal and Community Defenders

  24. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises the
Commentary to Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting,
or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy) to provide that in a case involving
negotiation for a quantity of a controlled substance, the negotiated
quantity is used to determine the offense level unless the completed
transaction establishes a larger quantity, or the defendant establishes
that he was not reasonably capable of producing the negotiated amount or
otherwise did not intend to produce that amount. Under the wording of the
current provision, if the defendant establishes that he was not reasonably
capable of producing the quantity of controlled substances but is unable to
establish that he did not intend to produce the quantity of controlled
substances, or if the defendant establishes that he did not intend to
produce the quantity of controlled substance but is unable to establish
that he was not reasonably capable of producing that quantity, he is denied
the benefit of this provision.

  Proposed Amendment: The Commentary to Section 2D1.1 captioned
"Application Notes" is amended in Note 12 by deleting the third paragraph
and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "In an offense involving negotiation for a quantity of a controlled
substance, the negotiated quantity shall be used in determining the offense
level unless the completed transaction establishes a larger quantity.
However, where the court finds that the defendant was not reasonably
capable of producing, or otherwise did not intend to produce, the
negotiated quantity of controlled substance, the court shall exclude the
amount that it finds the defendant was not reasonably capable of producing
or otherwise did not intend to produce.".

  25. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises Section 2P1.1
(Escape, Instigating or Assisting Escape) to conform the definition of
non-secure custody in subsection (b)(3) to that used in subsection (b)(2),
thus providing more consistent treatment of escapes from non-secure
custody. The definition of non-secure custody in subsection (b)(2) is
consistent with the definition of non-secure custody used by the Bureau of
Prisons. Two options are provided. The difference between Options 1 and 2
is that Option 2 would exclude a prisoner who fails to return from a
furlough from a secure institution from the operation of subsection (b)(3).

  Proposed Amendment: [Option 1: Section 2P1.1(b)(3) is amended by
[*67544] deleting "the non-secure custody of a community corrections
center, community treatment center, "halfway house," or similar facility"
and inserting in lieu thereof "non-secure custody".]

  [Option 2: Section 2P1.1(b)(3) is amended by deleting "the non-secure
custody of a community corrections center, community treatment center,
"halfway house," or similar facility" and inserting in lieu thereof
"non-secure custody".

  Section 2P1.1(b)(3) is amended by inserting "(A) the offense involved a
failure to return from a furlough from secure custody; or (B)" immediately
following "shall not apply if".]

  [Both Options: The Commentary to Section 2P1.1 captioned "Application
Notes" is amended in Note 2 by deleting "(not in connection with an arrest
or other charges)" and by inserting in lieu thereof:

"; it does not include notifying authorities of one's status as an escapee
upon being arrested on another charge".]

Proposed Amendments and Issues for Comment Recommended by the Department of
Justice

  26. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment provides that the
base offense level of 12 in Section 2H2.1 (Obstructing an Election or
Registration) applies in all cases where the defendant corrupts the
registration or votes of others, while the alternative base offense level
of 6 applies where the defendant corrupts only his or her own registration
or ballot. Sections 2H2.1(a) (2) and (3) currently do not clearly
distinguish such cases.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2H2.1(a) is amended by deleting subdivisions
(2) and (3) and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "(2) 12, if the obstruction involved corruption of the registration or
votes of others by forgery, fraud, theft, bribery, deceit, or other means;
or

  (3) 6, if the defendant corrupted only his own registration or vote.".

  The Commentary to Section 2H2.1 captioned "Background" is amended by
deleting the first sentence and inserting in lieu thereof:

  "Alternative base offense levels cover three different ways of
obstructing an election:

  (1) By the use of force or the threat of force;

  (2) By schemes involving deceptive or dishonest conduct with regard to
the registration or votes of others; or

  (3) By an individual's selling or otherwise acting fraudulently with
regard only to his own registration or vote.".

  27. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment revises
SectionSection 2K2.1 (Unlawful Receipt, Possession, or Transportation of
Firearms or Ammunition; Prohibited Transactions Involving Firearms or
Ammunition) and 2K2.5 (Possession of Firearm or Dangerous Weapon in Federal
Facility; Possession or Discharge of Firearm in School Zone) to provide a
4-level increase if the defendant committed the offense as a member of, on
behalf of, or in association with a criminal gang, and defines a "criminal
gang" as a group, club, organization, or association of five or more
persons whose members engage, or have engaged within the past five years,
in a continuing series of crimes of violence and/or controlled substance
offenses as defined in Section 4B1.2.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2K2.1(b) is amended by inserting the
following additional subdivision:

  "7. If the defendant committed an offense as a member of, on behalf of,
or in association with a criminal gang, increase by 4 levels. A "criminal
gang" is defined as a group, club, organization, or association of five or
more persons whose members engage, or have engaged within the past five
years, in a continuing series of crimes of violence and/or controlled
substance offenses as defined in Section 4B1.2.".

  Section 2K2.5(b) is amended by inserting the following additional
subdivision:

  "2. If the defendant committed an offense as a member of, on behalf of,
or in association with a criminal gang, increase by 4 levels. A "criminal
gang" is defined as a group, club, organization, or association of five or
more persons whose members engage, or have engaged within the past five
years, in a continuing series of crimes of violence and/or controlled
substance offenses as defined in Section 4B1.2.";

and in the caption by deleting "Characteristic" and inserting in lieu
thereof "Characteristics".

  28. Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether Section
2K2.5 (Possession of Firearm or Dangerous Weapon in Federal Facility;
Possession or Discharge of Firearm in School Zone) should be amended to
include enhancements if the firearm was discharged or loaded or if the
defendant possessed both a firearm and ammunition in a school zone, and
whether enhancements currently found in Section 2K2.1 (Unlawful Receipt,
Possession, or Transportation of Firearms or Ammunition; Prohibited
Transactions Involving Firearms or Ammunition) should be included in
Section 2K2.5 (e.g., an enhancement for possessing multiple weapons in a
school zone).

  The Commission also invites comment on whether Section 2K2.1 (Unlawful
Receipt, Possession, or Transportation of Firearms or Ammunition;
Prohibited Transactions Involving Firearms or Ammunition) should be amended
to increase the base offense level from 12 to 14 for persons who sell
firearms with knowledge or reason to believe that the recipient is a felon
or other prohibited person or an underage person.

  29. Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether to add
an enhancement in Chapter Three (Adjustments) applicable to members of
criminal organizations who expressly agree, or require others to agree, to
commit a crime of violence as a formal condition of membership in that
organization (such act of violence may be required to be committed prior to
approval of membership in the organization or the promise of such act in
the future may be required). The Commission also invites comment on the
number of levels to be given to such an enhancement. Comment is further
invited on whether this circumstance is likely to arise often enough to
warrant a new Chapter Three adjustment or whether it instead should be
addressed as an upward departure consideration in Chapter Five, Part K
(Departures).

  30. Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether Section
4A1.1 (Criminal History Category) and Chapter Five, Part A (Sentencing
Table) should be amended to add additional distinctions. For example,
should all prior sentences of imprisonment of more than one year and one
month continue to receive three criminal history points or should
distinctions be made for longer periods of imprisonment or specific types
of offenses; should distinctions be made where the prior offense and
instant offense are similar; should a separate criminal history category be
created for defendants with a clean record (no arrests or convictions); and
should an additional criminal history category be created for defendants
with substantially more than thirteen criminal history points?

Issue for Comment Recommended by the Judicial Conference Committee on
Criminal Law

  31. Issue for Comment: Under Section 1B1.10 (Retroactivity of Amended
Guideline Range), if a defendant is serving a sentence of imprisonment, and
the guideline range applicable to the defendant has subsequently been
lowered as a result of an amendment to the guidelines expressly listed in
Section 1B1.10(d), the court may consider a reduction in the defendant's
term of imprisonment. In determining whether a reduction is warranted and
the extent of any reduction, the court is directed to consider the amended
guideline range. Under Section 1B1.10(b), the amended [*67545]   guideline
range is determined by applying the revised Guidelines Manual in its
entirety, thereby making all other amendments retroactive as well. The
Commission invites comment on whether Section 1B1.1(b) should be retained
as written or whether it should be modified so that the amended guideline
range is determined by using only those amendments that have been expressly
designated for retroactive application; such amendments would be applied in
conjunction with the Guidelines Manual used at the defendant's original
sentencing.

Proposed Amendment Recommended by a District Court Judge

  32. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment creates an additional
guideline in Chapter Three, Part E (Acceptance of Responsibility), to
provide an additional one-level decrease for a defendant who goes to trial
but avoids actions that unreasonably delay or burden the proceedings or
place an undue burden on the government.

  Proposed Amendment: Chapter Three, Part E, is amended by inserting the
following additional section:

"Section 3E1.2. Assisting in the Fair and Expeditious Administration of
Justice

  If a defendant who goes to trial demonstrates a willingness to assist in
the fair and expeditious administration of justice by avoiding actions
which would unreasonably delay or burden the proceedings or place an undue
burden on the Government, decrease the offense level by one level.

Commentary

  Application Note:

  1. In determining whether a defendant qualifies under this section,
appropriate considerations include, but are not limited to, the following:

  (a) whether the defendant refrained from making frivolous motions;

  (b) whether the defendant agreed to reasonable stipulations concerning
issues as to which there was no genuine dispute, for example, stipulated to
business records to avoid prolonging the trial by calling records
custodians.

  Background: The reduction of offense level provided by this section
recognizes the legitimate interest in rewarding those defendants who go to
trial but who nonetheless assist in the fair and expeditious administration
of justice by avoiding conduct which unreasonably delays or burdens the
process. Like the extra one-level reduction provided with respect to
certain defendants for timely notification of an intent to plead guilty
(Section 3E1.1(b)(2)), this section seeks to reward conduct that assists
the court and the Government in allocating their resources efficiently.".

Issues for Comment Recommended by Families Against Mandatory Minimums

  33(A). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on whether it
should modify the provisions in Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing,
Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy) that
distinguish between cocaine and crack cocaine at the ratio of 100 to 1
(i.e., 100 grams of cocaine is equivalent to 1 gram of crack cocaine). This
ratio is based upon the ratio of crack cocaine to other cocaine contained
in the mandatory minimum sentencing provisions of 21 U.S.C. 841(b)(1)(A)
and (B). The Commission invites comment on whether the 100 to 1 ratio
should continue to be used for guideline purposes, or whether another
ratio, such as 1 to 1, 2 to 1, 5 to 1, or 10 to 1, would better reflect the
relative seriousness of these offenses for guideline purposes.

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on the
appropriate equivalency between a marihuana plant and marihuana for
guideline purposes. Currently, Section 2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing,
Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking; Attempt or Conspiracy) equates each
marihuana plant with one kilogram of marihuana for offenses involving fifty
or more plants, and each plant with 100 grams of marihuana for offenses
involving fewer than fifty plants. The one kilogram per plant ratio is
based on the ratio found in the mandatory minimum sentencing provisions of
21 U.S.C. 841(b)(1)(A) and (B). The relevant legislative history, see 134
Cong. Rec. S17368 (daily ed. Nov. 10, 1988)(statement of Sen. Biden),
indicates that the purpose of using 1,000 kilograms as the equivalent of
1,000 plants was to curtail the debate between defendants charged with
possessing large quantities of marihuana plants and the government over
whether the statutory definition of marihuana included weighing the stems
and seeds as part of the marihuana mixture. Commentators have argued that
the 1 kilogram per plant equivalency is unrealistically high in relation to
the amount of marihuana that a marihuana plant will yield. The equivalency
of 100 grams of marihuana per plant used in offenses involving fewer than
fifty plants was developed after a review by the Commission of information
relating to the actual yield of marihuana plants under a variety of
conditions. The Commission invites comment on whether the current marihuana
plant to marihuana ratio should be maintained, whether an equivalency of
100 grams of marihuana per plant should be adopted for guideline purposes
for all cases, or whether some other equivalency should be adopted.

  The Commission also invites comment on any other issue relating to
marihuana plants; e.g., whether male plants should be treated differently
or excluded (because male plants have a comparatively low THC content and
are frequently culled out by growers) or whether a definition of a
marihuana plant should be adopted that would distinguish among plants at
different levels of maturity or would exclude plants below a certain level
of maturity.

Proposed Amendments and Issue for Comment Recommended by the United States
Postal Service

  34(A). Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment creates a new
adjustment in Chapter Three, Part A, to address the harm caused w there is
more than one victim.

  Proposed Amendment: Chapter Three, Part A, is amended by inserting the
following additional section:

"Section 3A1.4. Multiple Victims

  If the offense affected more than one victim, increase the offense level
as follows:

 Number of victims                       Increase in level

         2-99                                  2
       100-349                                 4
       350-649                                 6
       650 or more                             8.".

  (B). Issue for Comment: The Commission invites comment on methods other
than the use of a victim table to reflect the harm when there is more than
one victim of the offense.

  35. Synopsis of Proposed Amendment: This amendment provides a minimum
offense level of 14 for an organized scheme to steal mail.

  Proposed Amendment: Section 2B1.1(b) is amended by inserting the
following additional subdivision:

  "8. If the offense involved an organized scheme to steal undelivered
United States mail, and the offense level as determined above is less than
level 14, increase to level 14.".


                                                       March 15, 1993

United States Sentencing Commission
One Columbus Circle, NE
Suite 2-500, South Lobby
Washington, DC  20002-9002
Attention:  Public Information

Re:     Proposed Amendent #59 to the Sentencing Guidelines for
       United States Courts, which creates a new guideline applicable
       to violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1988 (18
       U.S.C.   1030)


Dear Commissioners:

The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) writes to state our opposition
to the new proposed sentencing guideline applicable to violations of the
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1988, 18 U.S.C.   1030 (CFAA).  We
believe that, while the proposed guideline promotes the Justice
Department's interest in punishing those who engage in computer fraud
and abuse, the guideline is much too harsh for first time offenders and
those who perpetrate offenses under the statute without malice
aforethought.  In addition, promulgation of a sentencing guideline at
the present time is premature, as there have been very few published
opinions where judges have issued sentences for violations of the CFAA.
Finally, in this developing area of the law, judges should be permitted
to craft sentences that are just in relation to the facts of the
specific cases before them.



The Proposed Guideline Is Too Harsh.

The proposed CFAA sentencing guideline, with a base offense level of six
and innumerable enhancements, would impose strict felony liability for
harms that computer users cause through sheer inadvertence.  This
guideline would require imprisonment for first time offenders who caused
no real harm and meant none.  EFF is opposed to computer trespass and
theft, and we do not condone any unauthorized tampering with computers -
- indeed, EFF's unequivocal belief is that the security of private
computer systems and networks is both desirable and necessary to the
maintenance of a free society.  However, it is entirely contrary to our
notions of justice to brand a computer user who did not intend to do
harm as a felon.  Under the proposed guideline, even a user who
painstakingly attempts to avoid causing harm, but who causes harm
nonetheless, will almost assuredly be required to serve some time in
prison.

The proposed guideline, where the sentencing judge is given no
discretion for crafting a just sentence based on the facts of the case,
is too harsh on less culpable defendants, particularly first time
offenders.  As the Supreme Court has stated, the notion that a culpable
mind is a necessary component of criminal guilt is "as universal and
persistent in mature systems of law as belief in freedom of the human
will and a consequent ability and duty of the normal individual to
choose between good and evil."  Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S.
246, 250 (1952).  In the words of another court, "[u]sually the stigma
of criminal conviction is not visited upon citizens who are not morally
to blame because they did not know they were doing wrong."  United
States v. Marvin, 687 F.2d 1221, 1226 (8th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 460
U.S. 1081 (1983).


There Is Not Yet Enough Caselaw to Warrant a Guideline.

The Sentencing Commission itself has recognized the importance of
drafting guidelines based on a large number of reported decisions.  In
the introduction to the Sentencing Commission's Guidelines Manual, the
Commission states:

The Commission emphasizes that it drafted the initial guidelines with
considerable caution.  It examined the many hundreds of criminal
statutes in the United States Code.  It began with those that were the
basis for a significant number of prosecutions and sought to place them
in a rational order.  It developed additional distinctions relevant to
the application of these provisions, and it applied sentencing ranges to
each resulting category.  In doing so, it relied upon pre-guidelines
sentencing practice as revealed by its own statistical analyses based on
summary reports of some 40,000 convictions, a sample of 10,000 augmented
pre-sentence reports, the parole guidelines, and policy judgments.

United States Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual, Chap. 1, Part A
(1991).

At the present time, there are only five reported decisions that mention
the court's sentencing for violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse
Act.  See, United States v. Lewis, 872 F.2d 1030 (6th Cir. 1989); United
States v. Morris, 928 F.2d 504 (2d Cir. 1991), cert. denied, 112 S. Ct.
72 (1991); United States v. Carron, 1991 U.S. App. LEXIS 4838 (9th Cir.
1991); United States v. Rice, 1992 U.S. App. LEXIS 9562 (1992); and
United States v. DeMonte, 1992 U.S. App. LEXIS 11392 (6th Cir. 1992).
New communications technologies, in their earliest infancy, are becoming
the subject of precedent-setting litigation.  Overly strict sentences
imposed for computer-related fraud and abuse may have the effect of
chilling these technologies even as they develop.  Five decisions are
not enough on which to base a guideline to be used in such an important
and growing area of the law.

The Commission itself has recognized that certain areas of federal
criminal law and procedure are so new that policy statements, rather
than inflexible guidelines, are preferable.  See, e.g., United States
Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual, Chap. 7, Part A (1990)
(stating the Commission's choice to promulgate policy statements, rather
than guidelines, for revocation of probation and supervised release
"until federal judges, probation officers, practitioners, and others
have the opportunity to evaluate and comment. . . .").  A flexible
policy statement, rather than a specific sentencing guideline, is a more
appropriate way to handle sentencing under the Computer Fraud and Abuse
Act until there has been enough litigation on which to base a guideline.


Judges Must Be Permitted to Craft Their Own Sentences for Cases
Involving Special Circumstances.

Individual sentencing decisions are best left to the discretion of the
sentencing judge, who presumably is most familiar with the facts unique
to each case.  To promulgate an inflexible sentencing guideline, which
would cover all crimes that could conceivably be prosecuted under the
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, is premature at this time.

As discussed above, there have only been five reported decisions where
the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act has been applied.  In three of these
reported CFAA cases, the judges involved used their discretion and
fashioned unique sentences for the defendants based on the special facts
of the case.  See, Morris, 928 F.2d at 506 (where the judge placed
Defendant Morris on probation for three years to perform 400 hours of
community service, ordered him to pay fines of $10,050, and ordered him
to pay for the cost of his supervision at a rate of $91 a month); Carron
at 3 (where the judge found that Defendant Carron's criminal history
justified a sentence of 12 months incarceration followed by 12 months of
supervised release and restitution to the two injured credit card
companies); and DeMonte at 4 (where the trial court judge held that
Defendant DeMonte's "extraordinary and unusual level of cooperation"
warranted a sentence of three years probation with no incarceration).
Judges must be permitted to continue fashioning sentences that are just,
based on the facts of a specific case.

Computer communications are still in their infancy.  Legal precedents,
particularly the application of a sentencing guideline to violations of
the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, can radically affect the course of the
computer technology's future, and with it the fate of an important tool
for the exchange of ideas in a democratic society.  When the law limits
or inhibits the use of new technologies, a grave injustice is being
perpetrated.  The Electronic Frontier Foundation respectfully asks the
Commission to hold off promulgating a sentencing guideline for the
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act until there are enough prosecutions on
which to base a guideline.



Thank you in advance for your thoughtful consideration of our concerns.
We would be pleased to provide the Commission with any further
information that may be needed.

Sincerely yours,



Shari Steele
Staff Attorney



The Electronic Frontier Foundation is a privately funded, tax-exempt,
nonprofit organization concerned with the civil liberties, technical and
social problems posed by the applications of new computing and
telecommunications technology.  Its founders include Mitchell Kapor, a
leading pioneer in computer software development who founded the Lotus
Development Corporation and developed the Lotus 1-2-3 Spreadsheet
software.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

LEGAL OVERVIEW

THE ELECTRONIC FRONTIER AND THE BILL OF RIGHTS

Advances in computer technology have brought us to a new frontier in
communications, where the law is largely unsettled and woefully
inadequate to deal with the problems and challenges posed by electronic
technology.  How the law develops in this area will have a direct impact
on the electronic communications experiments and innovations being
devised day in and day out by millions of citizens on both a large and
small scale from coast to coast. Reasonable balances have to be struck
among:

*       traditional civil liberties
*       protection of intellectual property
*       freedom to experiment and innovate
*       protection of the security and integrity of computer
       systems from improper governmental and private
       interference.

Striking these balances properly will not be easy, but if they are
struck too far in one direction or the other, important social and legal
values surely will be sacrificed.

Helping to see to it that this important and difficult task is done
properly is a major goal of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.  It is
critical to assure that these lines are drawn in accordance with the
fundamental constitutional rights that have protected individuals from
government excesses since our nation was founded -- freedom of speech,
press, and association, the right to privacy and protection from
unwarranted governmental intrusion, as well as the right to procedural
fairness and due process of law.

The First Amendment

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the
government from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press," and
guarantees freedom of association as well.  It is widely considered to
be the single most important of the guarantees contained in the Bill of
Rights, since free speech and association are fundamental in securing
all other rights.

The First Amendment throughout history has been challenged by every
important technological development.  It has enjoyed only a mixed record
of success.  Traditional forms of speech -- the  print media and public
speaking -- have enjoyed a long and rich history of freedom from
governmental interference.  The United States Supreme Court has not
afforded the same degree of freedom to electronic broadcasting,
however.

Radio and television communications, for example, have been subjected to
regulation and censorship by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC), and by the Congress.  The Supreme Court initially justified
regulation of the broadcast media on technological grounds -- since
there were assumed to be a finite number of radio and television
frequencies, the Court believed that regulation was necessary to prevent
interference among frequencies and to make sure that scarce resources
were allocated fairly.  The multiplicity of cable TV networks has
demonstrated the falsity of this "scarce resource" rationale, but the
Court has expressed a reluctance to abandon its outmoded approach
without some signal from Congress or the FCC.

Congress has not seemed overly eager to relinquish even
counterproductive control over the airwaves.  Witness, for example,
legislation and rule-making in recent years that have kept even
important literature, such as the poetry of Allen Ginsberg, from being
broadcast on radio because of language deemed "offensive" to regulators.
Diversity and experimentation have been sorely hampered by these rules.

The development of computer technology provides the perfect opportunity
for lawmakers and courts to abandon much of the distinction between the
print and electronic media and to extend First Amendment protections to
all communications regardless of the medium.  Just as the multiplicity
of cable lines has rendered obsolete the argument that television has to
be regulated because of a scarcity of airwave frequencies, so has the
ready availability of virtually unlimited computer communication
modalities made obsolete a similar argument for harsh controls in this
area.  With the computer taking over the role previously played by the
typewriter and the printing press, it would be a constitutional disaster
of major proportions if the treatment of computers were to follow the
history of regulation of radio and television, rather than the history
of freedom of the press.

To the extent that regulation is seen as necessary and proper, it should
foster the goal of allowing maximum freedom, innovation and
experimentation in an atmosphere where no one's efforts are sabotaged by
either government or private parties.  Regulation should be limited by
the adage that quite aptly describes the line that separates reasonable
from unreasonable regulation in the First Amendment area:  "Your liberty
ends at the tip of my nose."

As usual, the law lags well behind the development of technology.  It is
important to educate  lawmakers and judges about new technologies, lest
fear and ignorance of the new and unfamiliar, create barriers to free
communication, expression, experimentation, innovation, and other such
values that help keep a nation both free and vigorous.

The Fourth Amendment

The Fourth Amendment guarantees that "the right of the people to
be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath
or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

In short, the scope of the search has to be as narrow as
possible, and there has to be good reason to believe that the
search will turn up evidence of illegal activity.

The meaning of the Fourth Amendment's guarantee has evolved over time in
response to changing technologies.  For example, while the Fourth
Amendment was first applied to prevent the government from trespassing
onto private property and seizing tangible objects, the physical
trespass rationale was made obsolete by the development of electronic
eavesdropping devices which permitted the government to "seize" an
individual's words without ever treading onto that person's private
property.  To put the matter more concretely, while the drafters of the
First Amendment surely knew nothing about electronic databases, surely
they would have considered one's database to be as sacrosanct as, for
example, the contents of one's private desk or filing cabinet.

The Supreme Court responded decades ago to these types of technological
challenges by interpreting the Fourth Amendment more broadly to prevent
governmental violation of an individual's reasonable expectation of
privacy, a concept that transcended the narrow definition of one's
private physical space.  It is now well established that an individual
has a reasonable expectation of  privacy, not only in his or her home
and business, but also in private  communications.  Thus, for example:

*  Government wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping are   now limited
by state and federal statutes enacted to  effectuate and even to expand
upon Fourth Amendment protections.

*  More recently, the Fourth Amendment has been used, albeit with
limited success, to protect individuals from undergoing   certain random
mandatory drug testing imposed by  governmental authorities.

Advancements in technology have also worked in the opposite direction,
to diminish expectations of privacy that society once considered
reasonable, and thus have helped limit the scope of Fourth Amendment
protections.  Thus, while one might once have reasonably expected
privacy in a fenced-in field, the Supreme Court has recently told us
that such an expectation is not reasonable in an age of surveillance
facilitated by airplanes and zoom lenses.

Applicability of Fourth Amendment to computer media

Just as the Fourth Amendment has evolved in response to changing
technologies, so it must now be interpreted to protect the reasonable
expectation of privacy of computer users in, for example, their
electronic mail or electronically stored secrets.  The extent to which
government intrusion into these private areas should be allowed, ought
to be debated openly, fully, and intelligently, as the Congress seeks to
legislate in the area, as courts decide cases, and as administrative,
regulatory, and prosecutorial agencies seek to establish their turf.

One point that must be made, but which is commonly misunderstood, is
that the Bill of Rights seeks to protect citizens from privacy invasions
committed by the government, but, with very few narrow exceptions, these
protections do not serve to deter private citizens from doing what the
government is prohibited from doing.  In short, while the Fourth
Amendment limits the government's ability to invade and spy upon private
databanks, it does not protect against similar invasions by private
parties.  Protection of citizens from the depredations of other citizens
requires the passage of privacy legislation.

The Fifth Amendment

The Fifth Amendment assures citizens that they will not "be deprived of
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law" and that private
property shall not "be taken for public use without just compensation."
This Amendment thus protects both the sanctity of private property and
the right of citizens to be proceeded against by fair means before they
may be punished for alleged infractions of the law.

One aspect of due process of law is that citizens not be prosecuted for
alleged violations of laws that are so vague that persons of reasonable
intelligence cannot be expected to assume that some prosecutor will
charge that his or her conduct is criminal.  A hypothetical law, for
example, that makes it a crime to do "that which should not be done",
would obviously not pass constitutional muster under the Fifth
Amendment.  Yet the application of some existing laws to new situations
that arise in the electronic age is only slightly less problematic than
the hypothetical, and the Electronic Frontier Foundation plans to
monitor the process by which old laws are modified, and new laws are
crafted, to meet modern situations.

One area in which old laws and new technologies have already clashed and
are bound to continue to clash, is the application of federal criminal
laws against the interstate transportation of stolen property.  The
placement on an electronic bulletin board of arguably propriety computer
files, and the "re-publication" of such material by those with access to
the bulletin board, might well expose the sponsor of the bulletin board
as well as all participants to federal felony charges, if the U.S.
Department of Justice can convince the courts to give these federal laws
a broad enough reading.  Similarly, federal laws protecting against
wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping clearly have to be updated to
take into account electronic bulletin board technology, lest those who
utilize such means of communication should be assured of reasonable
privacy from unwanted government surveillance.

Summary

The problem of melding old but still valid concepts of constitutional
rights, with new and rapidly evolving technologies, is perhaps best
summed up by the following observation.  Twenty-five years ago there was
not much question but that the First Amendment prohibited the government
from seizing a newspaper's printing press, or a writer's typewriter, in
order to prevent the publication of protected speech.  Similarly, the
government would not have been allowed to search through, and seize,
one's private papers stored in a filing cabinet, without first
convincing a judge that probable cause existed to believe that evidence
of crime would be found.

Today, a single computer is in reality a printing press, typewriter, and
filing cabinet (and more) all wrapped up in one.  How the use and output
of this device is treated in a nation governed by a Constitution that
protects liberty as well as private property, is a major challenge we
face.  How well we allow this marvelous invention to continue to be
developed by creative minds, while we seek to prohibit or discourage
truly abusive practices, will depend upon the degree of wisdom that
guides our courts, our legislatures, and governmental agencies entrusted
with authority in this area of our national life.

For further information regarding The Bill of Rights please contact:

Harvey Silverglate
Silverglate & Good
89 Broad Street, 14th Floor
Boston, MA  02110
617/542-6663

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Date: Fri, 19 Jan 90 19:13:44 -0500
From: cjs%[email protected] (Christopher J. Seline ([email protected]))

The following is a prepublication draft of an article on TEMPEST.  I am posting
it to this news group in the hope that it will:
       (1) stimulate discussion of this issue;
       (2) expose any technical errors in the document;
       (3) solicit new sources of information;
       (4) uncover anything I have forgotten to cover.

I will be unable to monitor the discussions of the article.  Therefore, PLEASE
post your comments to the news group BUT SEND ME A COPY AT THE ADDRESS LISTED
BELOW.

I have gotten a number of mail messages about the format of this
article.  Some explanation is in order:  The numbered paragraphs
following "____________________" on each page are footnotes.  I suggest
printing out the document rather than reading it on your CRT.

Thanks you in advance.

Christopher Seline
[email protected]
[email protected]

(c) 1990 Christopher J. Seline
=============================================================================
<Start Print Job>
<New Page>
                               Eavesdropping On
                        the Electromagnetic Emanations
                             of Digital Equipment:
                              The Laws of Canada,
                         England and the United States

                          This  document is  a rough
                          draft.        The    Legal
                          Sections  are   overviews.
                          T h e y    w i l l     b e
                          significantly expanded  in
                          the next version.

              We in this country, in this generation, are -- by
              destiny rather than choice -- the watchmen on the
              walls of world freedom.[1]
                                            -President John F.
         Kennedy

         _____________________

         1.  Undelivered  speech  of  President  John  F.  Kennedy, Dallas
         Citizens Council (Nov. 22, 1963) 35-36.

<New Page>
                   In the novel 1984, George Orwell foretold a future
         where individuals had no expectation  of privacy because the
         state monopolized the technology of  spying.  The government
         watched the actions of its subjects from birth to death.  No
         one could protect himself because  surveillance and counter-
         surveillance technology was controlled by the government.
              This note explores  the legal status of  a surveillance
         technology  ruefully  known  as  TEMPEST[2].    Using  TEMPEST
         technology  the  information in  any  digital device  may be
         intercepted  and  reconstructed  into   useful  intelligence
         without the  operative ever having to come  near his target.
         The technology is  especially useful in the  interception of
         information  stored  in  digital computers  or  displayed on
         computer terminals.
              The use of TEMPEST is not illegal under the laws of the
         United  States[3],  or  England.    Canada has  specific  laws
         criminalizing TEMPEST eavesdropping but the  laws do more to
         hinder surveillance countermeasures than to prevent  TEMPEST
         surveillance.  In  the United  States it is  illegal for  an
         individual  to  take   effective  counter-measures   against
         TEMPEST surveillance.  This  leads to the conundrum that  it
         is legal  for individuals and  the government to  invade the
         privacy of others but illegal for  individuals to take steps
         to protect their privacy.
              The author would  like to suggest that the  solution to
         this   conundrum   is  straightforward.      Information  on
         _____________________

         2.  TEMPEST  is an  acronym for  Transient Electromagnetic  Pulse
         Emanation Standard.   This standard sets forth the official views
         of the United  States on the amount  of electromagnetic radiation
         that a device may emit without compromising the information it is
         processing.   TEMPEST  is  a defensive  standard; a  device which
         conforms to this standard is referred to as TEMPEST Certified.
              The United States  government has refused to  declassify the
         acronym  for  devices  used   to  intercept  the  electromagnetic
         information of  non-TEMPEST Certified  devices.   For this  note,
         these  devices  and  the  technology  behind  them  will  also be
         referred  to as  TEMPEST;  in  which  case,  TEMPEST  stands  for
         Transient Electromagnetic Pulse Surveillance Technology.
              The  United  States  government refuses  to  release details
         regarding TEMPEST and continues an organized effort to censor the
         dissemination of  information  about it.    For example  the  NSA
         succeeded in shutting  down a  Wang Laboratories presentation  on
         TEMPEST Certified equipment  by classifying  the contents of  the
         speech and threatening  to prosecute  the speaker with  revealing
         classified information.  [cite coming].

         3.  This  Note  will not  discuses  how  TEMPEST relates  to  the
         Warrant Requirement under  the United  States Constitution.   Nor
         will it discuss the Constitutional exclusion of foreign nationals
         from the Warrant Requirement.

<New Page>
         protecting  privacy  under  TEMPEST should  be  made  freely
         available;  TEMPEST  Certified equipment  should  be legally
         available; and organizations possessing  private information
         should  be  required  by  law  to protect  that  information
         through  good  computer security  practices  and the  use of
         TEMPEST Certified equipment.

                           I. INTELLIGENCE GATHERING
              Spying is divided by professionals into two main types:
         human   intelligence   gathering  (HUMINT)   and  electronic
         intelligence gathering (ELINT).  As  the names imply, HUMINT
         relies   on   human   operatives,   and  ELINT   relies   on
         technological operatives.   In the past HUMINT  was the sole
         method  for collecting intelligence.[4]   The HUMINT operative
         would  steal  important  papers, observe  troop  and  weapon
         movements[5],  lure people  into  his confidences  to  extract
         secrets,  and   stand  under   the  eavesdrip[6]   of  houses,
         eavesdropping on the occupants.
              As  technology  has progressed,  tasks that  once could
         only  be  performed  by  humans  have  been  taken  over  by
         machines.  So  it has  been with spying.   Modern  satellite
         technology allows troop and weapons movements to be observed
         with greater  precision and  from greater  distances than  a
         human  spy  could ever  hope to  accomplish.   The  theft of
         documents  and  eavesdropping on  conversations  may now  be
         performed electronically.  This means greater safety for the
         human operative, whose  only involvement may be  the placing
         of  the  initial  ELINT  devices.    This  has  led  to  the
         ascendancy of ELINT  over HUMINT  because the placement  and
         _____________________

         4.  HUMINT  has  been  used  by  the   United  States  since  the
         Revolution.   "The necessity  of procuring  good intelligence  is
         apparent &  need not be further urged --  All that remains for me
         to add is, that you keep the  whole matter as secret as possible.
         For  upon Secrecy,  Success depends  in Most  Enterprises of  the
         kind, and for  want of it,  they are generally defeated,  however
         well planned &  promising a favorable  issue."  Letter of  George
         Washington (Jul. 26, 1777).

         5.  "... I wish  you to take every possible pains in your powers,
         by  sending  trusty persons  to  Staten  Island in  whom  you can
         confide,  to  obtain  Intelligence  of  the Enemy's  situation  &
         numbers --  what kind of  Troops they are,  and what  Guards they
         have -- their strength & where posted."  Id.

         6.  Eavesdrip is  an Anglo-Saxon  word,  and refers  to the  wide
         overhanging eaves used  to prevent rain  from falling close to  a
         house's foundation.   The eavesdrip  provided "a sheltered  place
         where  one  could hide  to  listen clandestinely  to conversation
         within the house."   W. MORRIS & M. MORRIS,  MORRIS DICTIONARY OF
         WORD AND PHRASE ORIGINS, 198 (1977).

<New Page>
         monitoring of ELINT devices may be performed by a technician
         who has  no training  in the  art of spying.   The  gathered
         intelligence  may be  processed by  an intelligence  expert,
         perhaps  thousands of  miles  away, with  no  need of  field
         experience.
              ELINT has a number of other advantages over HUMINT.  If
         a  spy is caught his existence could embarrass his employing
         state and he could  be forced into giving up  the identities
         of his compatriots  or other important information.   By its
         very nature, a discovered ELINT device (bug)  cannot give up
         any information; and the ubiquitous  nature of bugs provides
         the  principle  state  with the  ability  to  plausibly deny
         ownership or involvement.
              ELINT   devices   fall  into   two   broad  categories:
         trespassatory  and  non-trespassatory.   Trespassatory  bugs
         require some type of trespass in order for them to function.
         A transmitter  might require  the physical  invasion of  the
         target  premises  for placement,  or  a microphone  might be
         surreptitiously attached  to  the outside  of a  window.   A
         telephone transmitter can  be placed  anywhere on the  phone
         line, including at the  central switch.  The trespass  comes
         either when it is physically attached  to the phone line, or
         if it is  inductive, when placed  in close proximity to  the
         phone line.   Even microwave  bugs require the  placement of
         the resonator cone within the target premises.[7]
              Non-trespassatory  ELINT  devices  work   by  receiving
         electromagnetic radiation (EMR) as  it radiates through  the
         aether, and do not  require the placement of bugs.   Methods
         include intercepting[8] information transmitted  by satellite,
         microwave, and  radio, including mobile  and cellular  phone
         transmissions.   This information was  purposely transmitted
         with the intent that  some intended person or  persons would
         receive it.
              Non-trespassatory ELINT also includes  the interception
         of information that  was never  intended to be  transmitted.
         All electronic devices emit electromagnetic radiation.  Some
         of  the  radiation,  as  with radio  waves,  is  intended to
         transmit  information.    Much  of  this  radiation  is  not
         intended to transmit information and is merely incidental to

         _____________________

         7.  Pursglove, How  Russian Spy  Radios Work,  RADIO ELECTRONICS,
         89-91 (Jan 1962).

         8.  Interception  is  an  espionage  term of  art  and  should be
         differentiated from  its more common usage.   When information is
         intercepted, the interceptor  as well  as the intended  recipient
         receive the information.  Interception when not used as a term of
         art refers to one person receiving something intended for someone
         else; the intended recipient never receives what he  was intended
         to receive.

<New Page>
         whatever  work  the  target  device  is performing.[9]    This
         information  can be  intercepted  and reconstructed  into  a
         coherent  form.    With  current  TEMPEST technology  it  is
         possible to  reconstruct  the  contents  of  computer  video
         display  terminal  (VDU)  screens  from  up to  a  kilometer
         distant[10];  reconstructing  the  contents  of  a  computer's
         _____________________

         9.  There are  two types  of emissions,  conducted and  radiated.
         Radiated  emissions are formed  when components or  cables act as
         antennas for transmit the EMR; when radiation is conducted  along
         cables or other connections but not radiated it is referred to as
         "conducted".  Sources  include cables,  the ground loop,  printed
         circuit boards, internal  wires, the power  supply to power  line
         coupling, the cable to cable coupling, switching transistors, and
         high-power  amplifiers.    WHITE  &  M. MARDIGUIAN,  EMI  CONTROL
         METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES,   10.1 (1985).
              "[C]ables  may act  as an  antenna to  transmit the  signals
         directly  or  even  both  receive the  signals  and  re-emit them
         further away  from the  source equipment.   It  is possible  that
         cables acting as an  antenna in such a manner could  transmit the
         signals  much  more  efficiently than  the  equipment  itself...A
         similar  effect  may occur  with metal  pipes  such as  those for
         domestic water supplies. ...  If an earthing [(grounding)] system
         is  not installed  correctly such  that there  is a  path  in the
         circuit  with a  very high  resistance (for  example  where paint
         prevents  conduction and  is acting  as an  insulator), then  the
         whole earthing  system could well act in  a similar fashion to an
         antenna. ...   [For a  VDU] the strongest  signals, or  harmonics
         thereof, are  usually between  60-250 MHz  approximately.   There
         have  however  been  noticeable  exception  of  extremely  strong
         emissions  in  the  television bands  and  at  higher frequencies
         between 450-800  MHz.  Potts,  Emission Security, 3  COMPUTER LAW
         AND SECURITY REPORT 27 (1988).

         10.  The TEMPEST ELINT operator can distinguish between different
         VDUs  in   the   same  room   because   of  the   different   EMR
         characteristics of both  homo and heterogeneous units.   "[T]here
         is little comparison  between EMR characteristics  from otherwise
         comparable equipment.   Only if the  [VDU] was made with  exactly
         the  same components  is there  any similarity.   If some  of the
         components have come from a different batch, have been updated in
         some   way,  and  especially   if  they  are   from  a  different
         manufacturer, then completely different results are obtained.  In
         this way a  different mark or version of the same [VDU] will emit
         different  signals.   Additionally  because  of the  variation of
         manufacturing standards between counties, two  [VDUs] made by the
         same  company  but  sourced  from  different counties  will  have
         entirely different EMR signal characteristics...From this  it way
         be thought that there is such a jumble of emissions  around, that
         it would not be possible to isolate those from any one particular
         source.  Again, this is not the case.  Most received signals have

<New Page>
         memory or the contents  of its mass storage devices  is more
         complicated and must be performed  from a closer distance.[11]
         The reconstruction  of information  via EMR,  a process  for
         which the  United States  government  refuses to  declassify
         either  the  exact  technique or  even  its  name[12], is  not
         limited to computers  and digital devices but  is applicable
         to  all devices  that generate  electromagnetic radiation.[13]
         TEMPEST is  especially effective  against VDUs  because they
         produce a very high level of EMR.[14]
         _____________________

         a  different  line synchronization,  due  to  design, reflection,
         interference or  variation of component  tolerances.  So  that if
         for  instance  there  are three  different  signals  on the  same
         frequency  ...  by  fine  tuning  of  the  RF  receiver,  antenna
         manipulation  and modification  of  line synchronization,  it  is
         possible to lock onto each of the three signals separately and so
         read  the  screen information.    By  similar techniques,  it  is
         entirely  possible  to discriminate  between individual  items of
         equipment in the same room."  Potts, supra note 9.
              For  a discussion  of  the TEMPEST  ELINT  threat See  e.g.,
         Memory Bank, AMERICAN BANKER 20 (Apr 1 1985); Emissions from Bank
         Computer Systems  Make Eavesdropping Easy,  Expert Says, AMERICAN
         BANKER  1  (Mar  26 1985);  CRT  spying:  a  threat to  corporate
         security, PC WEEK (Mar 10 1987).

         11.  TEMPEST is  concerned  with  the  transient  electromagnetic
         pulses formed  by digital  equipment.   All electronic  equipment
         radiates  EMR  which  may be  reconstructed.    Digital equipment
         processes information as 1's and 0's--on's  or off's.  Because of
         this, digital equipment  gives off pulses  of EMR.  These  pulses
         are easier to  reconstruct at a  distance than the non-pulse  EMR
         given off by  analog equipment.   For a  thorough discussion  the
         radiation  problems  of  broadband digital  information  see e.g.
         military standard MIL-STD-461   REO2; White supra note 9,   10.2.

         12.  See supra note 2.

         13.       Of special interest  to ELINT  collectors are EMR  from
         computers,  communications   centers  and  avionics.     Schultz,
         Defeating Ivan with TEMPEST, DEFENSE ELECTRONICS 64 (June 1983).

         14.     The  picture on  a  CRT screen  is  built up  of  picture
         elements  (pixels) organized  in lines  across the  screen.   The
         pixels  are made  of material  that fluoresces  when struck  with
         energy.  The energy is produced by a beam of electrons fired from
         an electron gun  in the back of  the picture tube.   The electron
         beam scans the screen of the  CRT in a regular repetitive manner.
         When the voltage of the beam is high then the pixel it is focused
         upon  emits  photons and  appears as  a  dot on  the screen.   By
         selectively firing  the gun as  it scans across  the face of  the
         CRT, the pixels form characters on the CRT screen.

<New Page>
              ELINT is not limited to  governments.  It is  routinely
         used by  individuals for  their  own purposes.   Almost  all
         forms of ELINT are  available to the individual with  either
         the technological  expertise or  the money  to hire  someone
         with  the  expertise.     Governments   have  attempted   to
         criminalize all use  of ELINT by their  subjects--to protect
         the privacy of both the government and the population.

                             II. UNITED STATES LAW
              In the United States, Title III of  the Omnibus Streets
         and Crimes Act of 1968[15] criminalizes trespassatory ELINT as
         the intentional interception  of wire communications.[16]   As
         originally  passed,   Title  III   did  not  prohibit   non-

         _____________________

              The pixels  glow for  only a  very  short time  and must  be
         routinely struck by the electron beam  to stay lit.  To  maintain
         the light output of  all the pixels that are supposed  to be lit,
         the electron beam traverses  the entire CRT screen sixty  times a
         second.   Every time the beam fires it  causes a high voltage EMR
         emission.  This EMR  can be used  to reconstruct the contents  of
         the  target CRT  screen.   TEMPEST  ELINT  equipment designed  to
         reconstruct the information synchronizes its  CRT with the target
         CRT.  First, it uses the EMR to synchronize its electron gun with
         the electron gun in the target CRT.  Then, when the TEMPEST ELINT
         unit detects EMR indicating that the target CRT fired on a pixel,
         the TEMPEST ELINT  unit fires the electron  gun of its CRT.   The
         ELINT CRT is in perfect synchronism with the target CRT; when the
         target lights a pixel, a corresponding pixel on the TEMPEST ELINT
         CRT  is lit.  The exact picture on  the target CRT will appear on
         the TEMPEST ELINT  CRT.  Any changes on the target screen will be
         instantly reflected in the TEMPEST ELINT screen.
              TEMPEST Certified equipment gives off emissions  levels that
         are too faint to  be readily detected.  Certification  levels are
         set   out  in   National   Communications  Security   Information
         Memorandum  5100A   (NACSIM  5100A).    "[E]mission   levels  are
         expressed in the time  and frequency domain, broadband or  narrow
         band  in terms of the frequency domain, and in terms of conducted
         or radiated emissions."  White, supra, note 9,   10.1.
              For a  thorough  though purposely  misleading discussion  of
         TEMPEST ELINT see  Van Eck, Electromagnetic Radiation  from Video
         Display units: An Eavesdropping Risk?, 4 Computers & Security 269
         (1985).

         15.   Pub. L.  No. 90-351,  82 Stat. 197.   The Act  criminalizes
         trespassatory  ELINT  by  individuals  as  well  as  governmental
         agents.  cf.  Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347  (1967) (Fourth
         Amendment prohibits surveillance by government not individuals.)

         16.  18 U.S.C.   2511(1)(a).

<New Page>
         trespassatory  ELINT,[17] because  courts found  that non-wire
         communication lacked any expectation of p2IIIrivacy.[18]   The
         Electronic Communications  Privacy  Act  of  1986[19]  amended
         Title  III  to  include non-wire  communication.    ECPA was
         specifically  designed  to include  electronic  mail, inter-
         computer  communications,  and  cellular  telephones.     To
         accomplish  this,  the  expectation  of  privacy   test  was
         eliminated.[20]
              As  amended, Title  III  still outlaws  the  electronic
         interception of  communications.  The  word "communications"
         indicates  that   someone  is   attempting  to   communicate
         something to someone; it  does not refer to the  inadvertent
         transmission   of   information.       The   reception   and
         reconstruction of emanated transient  electromagnetic pulses
         (ETEP), however, is based on  obtaining information that the
         target does  not  mean to  transmit.   If  the ETEP  is  not
         intended as communication, and  is therefore not transmitted
         in a form approaching current communications protocols, then
         it can not  be considered communications as  contemplated by
         Congress  when  it   amended  Title  III.     Reception,  or
         interception, of emanated  transient electromagnetic  pulses
         is not criminalized by Title III as amended.

                               III. ENGLISH LAW
              In  England  the  Interception  of  Communications  Act
         1985[21] criminalizes the tapping of  communications sent over

         _____________________

         17.  United States v. Hall,  488 F.2d 193 (9th Cir.  1973) (found
         no legislative history  indicating Congress  intended the act  to
         include radio-telephone conversations).  Further,  Title III only
         criminalized  the interception  of  "aural" communications  which
         excluded all forms of computer communications.

         18.  Willamette  Subscription Television  v.  Cawood, 580  F.Supp
         1164 (D. Or. 1984) (non-wire communications lacks any expectation
         of privacy).

         19.  Pub. L. No. 99-508, 100 Stat. 1848 (codified at 18 U.S.C.
         2510-710) [hereinafter ECPA].

         20.  18 U.S.C.   2511(1)(a) criminalizes the interception of "any
         wire,  oral  or electronic  communication"  without regard  to an
         expectation of privacy.

         21.  Interception of Communications Act 1985,  Long Title, An Act
         to make new provision for and in connection with the interception
         of  communications  sent   by  post   or  by   means  of   public
         telecommunications  systems  and  to  amend  section  45  of  the
         Telecommunications Act 1984.

<New Page>
         public  telecommunications  lines.[22]   The  interception  of
         communications on  a telecommunication line  can take  place
         with a physical tap on the line, or the passive interception
         of microwave or  satellite links.[23]  These  forms of passive
         interception  differ  from TEMPEST  ELINT  because  they are
         intercepting   intended    communication;   TEMPEST    ELINT
         intercepts unintended  communication.  Eavesdropping  on the
         emanations  of  computers does  not  in any  way  comport to
         tapping a telecommunication line and therefore falls outside
         the scope of the statute.[24]

                               IV. CANADIAN LAW
              Canada has taken direct steps to limit eavesdropping on
         computers.    The Canadian  Criminal  Amendment Act  of 1985

         _____________________

         22.  Interception of Communications Act 1985    1, Prohibition on
         Interception:
              (1) Subject to the  following provisions of this section,  a
              person who  intentionally intercepts a communication  in the
              course of its  transmission by post or by  means of a public
              telecommunications system shall be guilty  of an offence and
              liable--
                   (a) on summary  conviction, to a fine not exceeding the
                   statutory maximum;
                   (b) on conviction on indictment,  to imprisonment for a
                   term not exceeding two years or to a fine or to both.
              ***

         23.  Tapping  (aka  trespassatory eavesdropping)  is  patently in
         violation  of the statute.  "The  offense created by section 1 of
         the Interception of Communications Act 1985 covers those forms of
         eavesdropping on computer communications  which involve "tapping"
         the wires along  which messages  are being passed.   One  problem
         which  may  arise,  however,  is  the  question  of  whether  the
         communication in question  was intercepted in  the course of  its
         transmission by  means of a public telecommunications system.  It
         is technically possible  to intercept a communication  at several
         stages in its transmission,  and it may be a question  of fact to
         decide the stage  at which it enters the "public" realm.  THE LAW
         COMMISSION,WORKING PAPER NO. 110: COMPUTER MISUSE,  3.30 (1988).

         24.  "There are  also forms of  eavesdropping which the  Act does
         not cover.  For  example. eavesdropping on a V.D.U.  [referred to
         in  this text as a CRT] screen  by monitoring the radiation field
         which surrounds it  in order to  display whatever appears on  the
         legitimate  user's  screen on  the  eavesdropper's screen.   This
         activity would not  seem to  constitute any criminal  offence..."
         THE LAW COMMISSION, WORKING PAPER NO. 110: COMPUTER MISUSE,  3.31
         (1988).

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         criminalized indirect access  to a computer service.[25]   The
         specific reference  to an  "electromagnetic device"  clearly
         shows the intent  of the legislature  to include the use  of
         TEMPEST ELINT equipment within the ambit of the legislation.
              The limitation of obtaining "any computer service" does
         lead to  some confusion.   The Canadian legislature  has not
         made  it  clear  whether  "computer  service"  refers  to  a
         computer  service  bureau  or  merely   the  services  of  a
         computer.    If  the  Canadians  had  meant  access  to  any
         computer,  why  did they  refer  to any  "computer service".
         This   is   especially   confusing   considering   the   al-
         encompassing language  of (b)  'any function  of a  computer
         system'.
              Even   if   the   Canadian   legislation   criminalizes
         eavesdropping  on  all  computers,  it  does not  solve  the
         problem  of  protecting  the privacy  of  information.   The
         purpose  of  criminal law  is  to control  crime.[26]   Merely
         making  TEMPEST  ELINT  illegal will  not  control  its use.
         First, because  it  is an  inherently  passive crime  it  is
         impossible to detect and hence punish.  Second, making  this
         form of  eavesdropping  illegal without  taking a  proactive
         stance  in  controlling  compromising emanations  gives  the
         public a false sense of security.   Third, criminalizing the
         possession of a TEMPEST ELINT  device prevents public sector
         research into countermeasures.   Finally,  the law will  not
         prevent eavesdropping on private information held in company
         computers unless  disincentives are given for companies that
         do not take sufficient precautions against eavesdropping and
         simple, more common, information crimes.[27]
         _____________________

         25.   301.2(1) of the  Canadian criminal code states  that anyone
         who:

         ... without color of right,
         (a) obtains, directly or indirectly, any computer service,
         (b)  by  means  of  an  electromagnetic  ...   or  other  device,
         intercepts  or  causes  to  be  intercepted, either  directly  or
         indirectly, any function of  a computer system ... [is  guilty of
         an indictable offence].

         26.  UNITED   STATES   SENTENCING   COMM'N,  FEDERAL   SENTENCING
         GUIDELINES MANUAL (1988) (Principles  Governing the Redrafting of
         the Preliminary Guidelines "g." (at an unknown page))

         27.  There has been great debate over  what exactly is a computer
         crime.    There  are  several  schools  of  thought.    The  more
         articulate school, and the one to  which the author adheres holds
         that  the category  computer crime  should be  limited to  crimes
         directed against computers; for example, a terrorist destroying a
         computer  with explosives would fall into  this category.  Crimes
         such as  putting  ghost  employees  on  a  payroll  computer  and

<New Page>

                                 V. SOLUTIONS
              TEMPEST ELINT  is passive.   The  computer or  terminal
         emanates  compromising radiation which is intercepted by the
         TEMPEST device  and reconstructed  into useful  information.
         Unlike conventional  ELINT there  is no  need to  physically
         trespass or even come near the target.  Eavesdropping can be
         performed from a nearby office or even a van parked within a
         reasonable distance.   This means  that there is  no classic
         scene of the crime; and little or  no chance of the criminal
         being discovered in the act.[28]
              If the crime is discovered it will be ancillary to some
         other  investigation.    For example,  if  an  individual is
         investigated for insider  trading a search of  his residence
         may yield a TEMPEST ELINT device.   The device would explain
         how the defendant was obtaining  insider information; but it
         was the insider trading, not the  device, that gave away the
         crime.
              This  is  especially  true  for illegal  TEMPEST  ELINT
         performed by the state.  Unless the perpetrators are  caught
         in the act  there is  little evidence  of their  spying.   A
         trespassatory bug can be detected and located; further, once
         found it provides tangible evidence that a crime took place.
         A TEMPEST ELINT device by its inherent passive nature leaves
         nothing to detect.   Since the government is less  likely to
         commit an ancillary crime which might be detected there is a
         very small chance  that the spying will  ever be discovered.
         The  only way to  prevent eavesdropping is  to encourage the
         use of  countermeasures: TEMPEST  Certified[29] computers  and
         _____________________

         collecting their pay are merely  age-old accounting frauds; today
         the  fraud involves a computer because  the records are kept on a
         computer.  The  computer is merely ancillary to  the crime.  This
         has been mislabeled  computer crime and should merely be referred
         to as a fraud perpetrated with  the aid of a computer.   Finally,
         there are information  crimes.  These  are crimes related to  the
         purloining or  alteration of information.  These  crimes are more
         common and more profitable due to  the computer's ability to hold
         and access great amounts of information.   TEMPEST ELINT can best
         be categorized as a information crime.

         28.  Compare, for  example, the  Watergate breakin  in which  the
         burglars  were discovered  when they  returned to  move  a poorly
         placed spread spectrum bug.

         29.  TEMPEST Certified refers  to the  equipment having passed  a
         testing and  emanations regime specified  in NACSIM 5100A.   This
         classified document sets forth the emanations levels that the NSA
         believes digital equipment can give  off without compromising the
         information it  is processing.   TEMPEST  Certified equipment  is
         theoretically secure against TEMPEST eavesdropping.

<New Page>
         terminals.
              In merely making  TEMPEST ELINT  illegal the public  is
         given the  false impression  of security;  they lulled  into
         believing  the  problem  has been  solved.    Making certain
         actions illegal does not prevent them  from occurring.  This
         is  especially  true  for  a  TEMPEST  ELINT  because it  is
         undetectable.  Punishment is an empty  threat if there is no
         chance of being  detected; without detection there can be no
         apprehension and conviction.   The only way  to prevent some
         entity  from eavesdropping  on  one's  computer or  computer
         terminal is  for the equipment not to  give off compromising
         emanation; it must be TEMPEST Certified.
              The United  States can solve  this problem by  taking a
         proactive  stance on compromising  emanations.  The National
         Institute of Standards and Technology  (NIST[30]) is in charge
         of  setting  forth standards  of  computer security  for the
         private  sector.   NIST  is  also charged  with  doing basic
         research to advance the art of computer security.  Currently
         NIST does not discuss TEMPEST with  the private sector.  For
         privacy's sake,  this policy must be changed  to a proactive
         one.  The NIST should publicize  the TEMPEST ELINT threat to
         computer  security and  should set  up a  rating system  for
         level  of  emanations  produced   by  computer  equipment.[31]
         Further,  legislation  should  be  enacted  to  require  the
         labeling  of  all computer  equipment    with  its level  of
         emanations and whether it is TEMPEST Certified.  Only if the
         public  knows of the  problem can it begin  to take steps to
         solve it.
              Title III makes  possession of a surveillance  device a
         crime,  unless  it   is  produced  under  contract   to  the
         government.  This means that  research into surveillance and
         counter-surveillance   equipment   is  monopolized   by  the
         government and a  few companies working under  contract with
         _____________________

              NACSIM 5100A is  classified, as are all  details of TEMPEST.
         To  obtain  access to  it, contractor  must  prove that  there is
         demand within  the government for the specific  type of equipment
         that intend to  certify.  Since  the standard is classified,  the
         contractors can not sell the equipment to non-secure governmental
         agencies or the public.  This prevents reverse engineering of the
         standard  for its physical  embodiment, the  Certified equipment.
         By  preventing  the   private  sector  from  owning   this  anti-
         eavesdropping equipment,  the NSA has  effectively prevented  the
         them from protecting the information in their computers.

         30.  Previously the Bureau of Standards.   The NIST is a division
         of the Commerce Department.

         31.  In this case computer equipment would include all peripheral
         computer equipment.  There is no use is using a TEMPEST Certified
         computer if the printer or the modem are not Certified.

<New Page>
         the government.   If TEMPEST eavesdropping  is criminalized,
         then possession of TEMPEST ELINT equipment will be criminal.
         Unfortunately,this  does  not  solve the  problem.    Simple
         TEMPEST ELINT  equipment is easy  to make.   For just  a few
         dollars  many  older  television  sets  can be  modified  to
         receive and  reconstruct  EMR.    For less  than  a  hundred
         dollars a more  sophisticated TEMPEST ELINT receiver  can be
         produced[32].
              The  problem  with  criminalizing  the  possession   of
         TEMPEST ELINT equipment is  not just that the law  will have
         little effect on the use of such equipment, but that it will
         have a  negative effect  on counter-measures  research.   To
         successfully   design   counter-measures  to   a  particular
         surveillance  technique  it  is  vital  to have  a  complete
         empirical  understanding   of  how  that   technique  works.
         Without  the right  to  legally manufacture  a  surveillance
         device there is no possible way for a researcher to have the
         knowledge to  produce an effective  counter-measures device.
         It  is  axiomatic:  without  a  surveillance device,  it  is
         impossible to test a counter-measures device.
              A number of  companies produce  devices to measure  the
         emanations from electrical equipment.  Some of these devices
         are  specifically   designed  for   bench  marking   TEMPEST
         Certified equipment.  This does not  solve the problem.  The
         question  arises:  how   much  radiation  at   a  particular
         frequency  is compromising?  The  current answer is to refer
         _____________________

         32.  The  NSA  has tried  to  limit the  availability  of TEMPEST
         information to prevent the spread of the devices.
              For a discussion of the  First Amendment and prior restraint
         See, e.g. The United  States of America v. Progressive,  Inc. 467
         F.Supp 990 (1979, WD Wis.)(magazine intended to publish plans for
         nuclear  weapon; prior  restraint injunction  issued),  reh. den.
         United States v. Progressive  Inc. 486 F.Supp 5 (1979,  WD Wis.),
         motion  den  Morland  v. Sprecher  443  US  709 (1979)(mandamus),
         motion denied  United States  v. Progressive,  Inc. 5  Media L  R
         (1979, 7th Cir.), dismd. without op. U.S. v. Progressive, Inc 610
         F.2d 819 (1979, 7th Cir.); New York Times, Co. v.  United States,
         403  U.S.  713 (1971)(per  curium)(Pentagon Papers  case: setting
         forth prior  restraint standard  which government  was unable  to
         meet); T.  EMERSON, THE SYSTEM  OF FREEDOM OF  EXPRESSION (1970);
         Balance  Between Scientific  Freedom  and  NAtional Security,  23
         JURIMETRICS  J. 1  (1982)(current  laws and  regulations limiting
         scientific and  technical expression exceed the  legitimate needs
         of national security); Hon. M.  Feldman, Why the First  Amendment
         is not Incompatible  with National Security, HERITAGE  FOUNDATION
         REPORTS (Jan.  14, 1987).  Compare Bork,  Neutral Principles  and
         Some First Amendment Problems,  47 IND. L. J. 1  (First Amendment
         applies only to  political speech); G.  Lewy, Can Democracy  Keep
         Secrets, 26  POLICY REVIEW 17  (1983)(endorsing draconian secrecy
         laws mirroring the English system).

<New Page>
         to NACSIM  5100A.   This document  specifies the  emanations
         levels suitable  for Certification.   The  document is  only
         available  to United  States  contractors having  sufficient
         security  clearance  and  an  ongoing  contract  to  produce
         TEMPEST Certified computers  for the  government.   Further,
         the correct levels are specified by the NSA and there  is no
         assurance that, while these levels are sufficient to prevent
         eavesdropping by unfriendly operatives,  equipment certified
         under NACSIM  5100A will have  levels low enough  to prevent
         eavesdropping by the NSA itself.
              The  accessibility  of  supposedly  correct  emanations
         levels  does  not solve  the  problem of  preventing TEMPEST
         eavesdropping.     Access   to  NACSIM   5100A   limits  the
         manufacturer to selling the equipment  only to United States
         governmental  agencies  with  the  need  to  process  secret
         information.[33]  Without  the right to possess  TEMPEST ELINT
         equipment  manufacturers  who  wish to  sell  to  the public
         sector cannot determine what a  safe level of emanations is.
         Further  those  manufacturers with  access  to  NACSIM 5100A
         should  want  to  verify that  the  levels  set  out in  the
         document are, in  fact, low enough to  prevent interception.
         Without an actual  eavesdropping device with which  to test,
         no   manufacturer  will   be   able  to   produce  genuinely
         uncompromising equipment.

              Even if the  laws allow ownership of  TEMPEST Certified
         equipment by the public, and even  if the public is informed
         of  TEMPEST's   threat  to  privacy,   individuals'  private
         information will not necessarily  by protected.  Individuals
         may  choose to  protect their  own information on  their own
         computers.  Companies  may choose  whether to protect  their
         own  private  information.    But  companies that  hold  the
         private information of  individuals must  be forced to  take
         steps to protect that information.
              In  England  the  Data  Protection  Act 1984[34]  imposes
         sanctions   against   anyone   who   stores   the   personal
         information[35] on  a computer  and fails  to take  reasonable
         _____________________

         33.  For  example, the  NSA has  just recently  allowed the  Drug
         Enforcement Agency (DEA) to  purchase TEMPEST Certified  computer
         equipment.    The DEA  wanted  secure computer  equipment because
         wealthy  drug   lords  had   were  using   TEMPEST  eavesdropping
         equipment.

         34.  An  Act  to  regulate  the  use of  automatically  processed
         information relating to individuals and the provision of services
         in respect of such information.
              -Data Protection Act 1984, Long Title.

         35.  "Personal data"  means data consisting  of information which
         relates to a  living individual who  can be identified from  that

<New Page>
         measures to prevent disclosure of that information.  The act
         mandates  that  personal  data  may  not  be  stored  in any
         computer  unless  the  computer bureau  or  data  user[36] has
         registered under the  act.[37]    This provides for a  central
         registry  and  the tracking  of  which companies  or persons
         maintain databases of personal information.   Data users and
         bureaux must  demonstrate a  need and  purpose behind  their
         possession of personal data.
              The act  provides tort  remedies to  any person  who is
         damaged by disclosure  of the  personal data.[38]   Reasonable
         care to  prevent the  disclosure  is a  defense.[39]   English
         _____________________

         information (or from that and other information in the possession
         of the data user), including any  expression of opinion about the
         individual but not any  indication of the intentions of  the data
         user in respect of that individual.
              -Data Protection Act 1984   1(3)

         36.  "Data user" means  a person  who holds data,  and a  persons
         "Holds" data if --
              (a) the data form part of a collection of  data processed or
              intended to be  processed by or on behalf  of that person as
              mentioned in  subsection (2) above; [subsection  (2) defines
              "data"] and
              (b) that person (either  alone or jointly or in  common with
              other persons)  controls the  contents and  use of  the data
              comprised in the collection; and
              (c) the data are in the form in which  they have been or are
              intended to be processed as mentioned in paragraph (a) above
              or (though not  for the time being  in that form) in  a form
              into which they have been converted after being so processed
              and  with  a  view  to  being  further  so  processed  on  a
              subsequent occasion.
              - Data Protection Act   1(5).

         37.  Data Protection Act 1984,   4,5.

         38.  An individual who is the subject of personal data held  by a
         data user... and who  suffers damage by reason of  (1)(c) ... the
         disclosure of the  data, or  access having been  obtained to  the
         data without  such authority as  aforesaid shall  be entitled  to
         compensation from  the data  user... for any  distress which  the
         individual has  suffered  by  reason of  the  ...  disclosure  or
         access.
              - Data Protection Act 1984   23.

         39.  ... it shall  be a defense to  prove that ... the  data user
         ...  had  taken  such  care  as  in  all  the  circumstances  was
         reasonably required  to prevent  the... disclosure  or access  in
         question.
              Data Protection Act 1984   23(3)

<New Page>
         courts  have not yet  ruled what level  of computer security
         measures  constitute  reasonable  care.     Considering  the
         magnitude of invasion possible with  TEMPEST ELINT it should
         be  clear  by now  that  failure  to use  TEMPEST  Certified
         equipment is prima facie unreasonable care.
              The Remedies section of the  act provides incentive for
         these  entities to provide  successful protection  of person
         data from disclosure  or illicit access.  Failure to protect
         the data will  result in monetary loss.  This  may be looked
         at from the economic efficiency  viewpoint as allocating the
         cost  of  disclosure the  persons  most able  to  bear those
         costs, and also most able to prevent disclosure.  Data users
         that  store   personal  data  would  use  TEMPEST  Certified
         equipment as part of their computer security plan, thwarting
         would-be eavesdroppers.
              The Data Protection  Act 1984  allocates risk to  those
         who can  bear it best and provides  an incentive for them to
         keep other  individuals' data private.   This act  should be
         adopted by the United States as part of a full-spectrum plan
         to combat TEMPEST eavesdropping.  Data users are in the best
         position  to  prevent  disclosure  through  proper  computer
         security.    Only by  making  them  liable for  failures  in
         security can we begin to rein in TEMPEST ELINT.

                                      VII
                                Recommendations
                Do not  criminalize TEMPEST ELINT.   Most crimes that
         TEMPEST ELINT would aid, such a insider trading, are already
         illegal; the current laws are adequate.
                The  National Institute of  Standards and  Technology
         should immediately begin  a program  to educate the  private
         sector about TEMPEST.  Only if  individuals are aware of the
         threat  can  they  take  appropriate precautions  or  decide
         whether any precautions are necessary.
                  Legislation  should  be   enacted  to  require  all
         electronic  equipment to  prominently display  its level  of
         emanations  and  whether  it  is   TEMPEST  Certified.    If
         individuals are to choose to protect themselves they must be
         able  to  make  a  informed   decision  regarding  how  much
         protection is enough.
                TEMPEST  Certified equipment  should be available  to
         the private  sector.   The current  ban on  selling to  non-
         governmental  agencies  prevents  individuals  who  need  to
         protect information from having the technology to do so.
                Possession of  TEMPEST ELINT equipment should  not be
         made  illegal.   The  inherently  passive nature  and simple
         design  of  TEMPEST ELINT  equipment  means that  making its
         possession illegal  will not deter  crime; the units  can be
         easily manufactured and are impossible  to detect.  Limiting
         their   availability   serves   only   to   monopolize   the
         countermeasures research, information, and equipment for the
         government;   this   prevents   the  testing,   design   and

<New Page>
         manufacture of counter-measures by the private sector.
                Legislation mirroring  England's Data Protection  Act
         1984 should be  enacted.  Preventing disclosure  of personal
         data  can  only be  accomplished  by giving  those companies
         holding the data a reason to protect  it.  If data users are
         held liable for  their failure  to take reasonable  security
         precautions they  will  begin to  take  reasonable  security
         precautions,  including   the  use   of  TEMPEST   Certified
         equipment.

From: [email protected] (Adam Beberg)
Subject: ACM Computers Seized By IIT
Date: Wed, 18 Jan 1995 04:43:26 GMT

ACM COMPUTERS SEIZED BY ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Dateline January 17, 1995

Today sometime before noon today, the Illinois Institute of Technology seized
the computer systems of the Association for Computing Machinery student chapter
at IIT.

700 Student and Faculty users are not happy.

And are now without their Email and other private files. The locations of the
ACM systems is currently unknown, and the security of the system and the
accounts on it is highly questionable, as it was quite literally riped out of
the wall. ( a piece of the modem was found lying on the table ).

The reasons given by IIT where that members of ACM are suspected of hacking
into the computer of another IIT student group, and pulling several pranks.
The memo sent to the Dean of Students details the hacking attempt, but no
evidence points to ACM's systems or to any of their users, but the memo does
make several unbacked accusations. And at this time, we can see no reason ACM
would even be tied to the events. However because ACM members are suspect, the
systems where unlawfully seized by IIT.

IIT has no legal right to seize ACM's systems, nor anyone else, as they contain
private accounts, files, and Email.
Such rights are protected under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act
(ECPA), which extended most of the protections of the federal Wiretap Act
("Title III") to electronic mail.
Precidence was established in the case Secret Service vs. Steve Jackson Games
decided March 12, 1993

Needless to say, ACM members are not too happy about all of this.
And the other 700 people don't seem happy either.

----
The ongoing saga will appear at http://rci.ripco.com:8080/~bebeada/ACM.html



From: Richard S. Patterson ([email protected])
Subject: CIS Litigation Update

Update to CompuServe v. Patterson, Case No. C-2-94-0091,
United States District Court, Southern District of Ohio:

    CompuServe now claims that each of its two-million plus
    worldwide subscribers to its service has, by the use of
    its services, consented to being sued in its hometown
    of Columbus, Ohio.

-----------------

On August 22, 1994, CompuServe's attorneys, Steven D. Jones and Kevin J.
Osterkamp, of the law firm of Roetzel & Andress, in Columbus, Ohio, filed
a "Motion for Rehearing," in CompuServe Incorporated v. Richard S.
Patterson, et al., Case No. C2-94-91, United States District Court, for
the Southern District of Ohio.

In its "Memorandum in Support" of said motion CompuServe's counsel
state the apparent "official" position of their client, CompuServe
Incorporated:

    . . .  Plaintiff [CompuServe] respectfully reiterates that
    Defendants' status, not only as a CompuServe subscriber,
    but as a Shareware provider, gives rise to a direct and
    substantial connection with this jurisdiction [the State
    of Ohio].  This connection is significant and more than
    amply supports a valid basis for the exercise of
    in personam jurisdiction.

This is substantially the argument previously urged by CompuServe's
counsel, but rejected by the Court in its judgment of August 11,
1994, dismissing the aforementioned action for want of personal
jurisdiction.  In the seventeen (17) page "Opinion and Order"
of the court, Judge Joseph Kinneary stated:

    This declaratory judgment action presents an interesting
    question of personal jurisdiction arising out of the
    collision of the interests of two parties on the
    "information superhighway."  Plaintiff, CompuServe, Inc.,
    an Ohio-based provider of computer information services,
    has sued one of its customers, Richard S. Patterson, and his
    business entity, FlashPoint Development, in Ohio, seeking
    a declaratory judgment that it has not infringed upon the
    defendant's trade names or otherwise engaged in unfair
    competiton.  The defendants, residents of Texas, have
    moved to dismiss the complaint, raising as one ground
    the lack of personal jurisdiction over them in the State
    of Ohio. For the following reasons, the Court concludes
    that defendants' electronic links to the State of Ohio
    are too tenuous to support the exercise of personal
    jurisdiction over them, and therefore will grant the
    motion to dismiss.

This appears to be one of the first Federal cases, if not the first,
to make direct reference to the term "information superhighway," and
provides a detailed analysis of existing law, e.g., International
Shoe and the due process clause of the United States Constitution,
and its application to the information age.


--
<A HREF="http://www.eff.org/~mech/mech.html">       Stanton McCandlish
</A><HR><A HREF="mailto:[email protected]">              [email protected]
</A><P><A HREF="http://www.eff.org/">               Electronic Frontier Fndtn.
</A><P><A HREF="http://www.eff.org/~mech/a.html">   Online Activist       </A>


From: [email protected] (Adam Curry)
Subject: MTV SUES CURRY
Date: 10 May 1994 03:44:36 -0400



                            [IMAGE] MTV SUES CURRY
 ==========================================================================



Last update: May 10 1994

_New Jersey, May 10 1994_

I had planned to keep the following quiet until more information was available,
but since several journalists have already caught wind of it, I decided to get
it out into the open so my side of the story is heard as well.

The domain I maintain and operate on the Internet, mtv.com was founded
approximately one year ago. At that time I registered mtv.com with the
InterNIC, purely because it was a cool address to have, and it was available.
What a great "vanity plate"!

The site quickly became a frequently accessed "hangout" on the net, with an
average of 35000 accesses daily from Mosaic clients alone. During the start up
months I had many conversations with executives at MTV Networks about my
endeavours, which btw, were all financed out of my own pocket, and vps from MTV
Programming as well as Viacom New Media were aware of what I was doing on the
internet, and although they stated "MTV has no interest in the internet" they
gave me their blessing and supported my efforts.

This was enforced when I set up several email accounts on mtv.com for use in
MTV's on-air programming. Ever sionce the summer of '93, [email protected] was
used for trivia quiz questions, that were then aired on MTV's "Most Wanted" a
program I hosted at the time. Solicitations were made on the air, and the
address was shown on the screen. For MTV's annual Valentines video dedications,
viewers were offered the choice of calling in their dedications, or sending
them via email to [email protected].

I never charged MTV Networks for this service, I purely saw it as a cool
feature to introduce to MTV's programming, spreading the "gospel", so to speak.


Then I started to get a lot of press about mtv.com, and some people started to
wake up at 1515 Broadway (MTV's HQ in New York City). And I was served with a
"Cease and desist" on the use of mtv.com. MTV's attourneys claimed that there
could be "confusion" for users of the internet, when connecting to *anything*
that had the letters mtv in the adress, and then receiving music and
entertainment information. I was obviously hurt by this move, but did see what
point they were driving at, an asked if we could settle this matter amicably.

The situation cooled down for a couple of months, but when I resigned on-air
from my job as a VJ, which MTV chose not to air btw, things started to get
ugly.

Long story short, MTV Networks has filed a lawsuit against me, for copyright
infringement of their "trademark", that being their "MTV" call letters, as well
as having information onlie that was MTVN "property". In this case they are
refferring to several press releases I put up on mtv.com, such a an
announcement about Beavis and Butthead's "experience" cd release. Understand
that MTVN sent me these releases over their own internal computer network for
this very purpose! Again, I was only doing this to promote the channel, not for
my own personal gain..after all...mtv.com is free access for all, no charge.

Throughout all of this I have offered to maintain the site specifically for
mtv, but again they said "we're not interested". Ofcourse I have no problem
whatsoever removing all refrences to MTV Networks and it's projects from
mtv.com, no that I don't work there anymore gives me even more reason to want
to do this, but the kicker is they are moving for an injunction to make me stop
using the internet address mtv.com!

This is ofcourse totally unacceptable, I registered the domain name, and I
don't plan on giving it up. Sure MTV and their parent company Viacom have a
vast legal team, but david also nailed goliath, so I have faith. In the long
run, everyone knows that the only *true* winners will be the lawyers.

There are many different viewpoints on this situation, but I feel that the use
of mtv in an addressing scheme can't be seen as an infringement of
intellectulal propert laws, and a search of the InterNIC database shows at
least 15 domain names registered with mtv in the address. Irony is that I
incorporated a company called ON RAMP, Inc (tm) and onramp.com was already
registered to someone else, but I'm not suing them :)

It appears to me that MTV has their mind set on the address mtv.com, maybe not
for now, but posibly for future use, and I feel extremely used, in that I built
up quite an audience for that address, and they are basically saying "thank you
very much, you may go".

A pre-motion hearing is scheduled for this thursday morning at 11am, wit the
honourable Judge McKenna presiding, in an attemp to get an injunction to make
me stop using the address mtv.com. I will update the situation as it unfolds.

Adam Curry, [email protected]
==========================================================================

_______________________________________________________________________________
   MTV Sues Curry, Adam Curry


[From Computer underground Digest #6.87]

Date: Wed, 5 Oct 1994 17:33:21 CDT
From: Anonymous <[email protected]>
Subject: File 2--MCI Worker in Phone-card Ripoff (w/obligatory hacker link)

Source: Chicago Tribune, Oct 4, 1994, p. 4 (AP Wire story):

              MCI WORKER IS CHARGED IN HUGE PHONE-CARD THEFT

  An MCI employee has been charged with stealing more than 100,000
telephone calling-card numbers that were used to make $50 million in
long-distance calls, federal investigators said.

  Ivey James Lay was a main supplier of the numbers for an
international ring operating in Los Angeles, Chicago and other U.S.
cities, as well as in Spain and Germany, said the U.S. Secret Service,
which investigates interstate telephone fraud.

  Tens of thousands of customers at MCI, AT&T, Sprint and some local
telephone companies were victims, the Secret Service said. Those
consumers won't be billed for fraudulent calls on their phone-card
numbers, spokesmen for MCI, AT&T and Sprint said.

  Lay, a switch engineer based in Charlotte, N.C., was known as
"Knightshadow" to computer hackers. He devised computer software to
divert and hold calling-card numbers from a variety of carriers that
ran through MCI's telephone switching equipment, said Secret Service
special agent Steven A. Sepulveda.

  According to MCI officials, the case is the largest of its kind in
terms of known losses. The theft was far more sophisticated than past
credit-card and calling-card scams, MCI said. In the others, thieves
had access to a small number of cards.

  In this ring, the numbers were purchased by computer hackers in the
United States and Europe, who in turn sold them to Europeans who would
use them later to call the United States for free, Sepulveda said.

[end]

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION

LEGAL CASE SUMMARY
July 10, 1990

The Electronic Frontier Foundation is currently providing litigation
support in two cases in which it perceived there to be substantial civil
liberties  concerns which are likely to prove important in the overall
legal scheme by  which electronic communications will, now and in the
future, be governed,  regulated, encouraged, and protected.

Steve Jackson Games

Steve Jackson Games is a small, privately owned adventure game
manufacturer located in Austin, Texas.  Like most businesses today,
Steve Jackson Games uses computers for word processing and bookkeeping.
In addition, like many other manufacturers, the company operates an
electronic bulletin board to advertise and to obtain feedback on its
product ideas and lines.

One of the company's most recent products is GURPS CYBERPUNK, a science
fiction role-playing game set in a high-tech futuristic world.  The
rules of the game are set out in a game book.  Playing of the game is
not performed on computers and does not make use of computers in any
way.  This game was to be the company's most important first quarter
release, the keystone of its line.

On March 1, 1990, just weeks before GURPS CYBERPUNK was due to be
released, agents of the United States Secret Service raided the premises
of Steve Jackson Games.  The Secret Service:

%  seized three of the company's computers which were used in the
drafting  and designing of GURPS CYBERPUNK, including the computer used
to run the electronic bulletin board,

%  took all of the company software in the neighborhood of the computers
taken,

%  took with them company business records which were  located on the
computers seized, and

%  destructively ransacked the company's warehouse, leaving many items
in disarray.

In addition, all working drafts of the soon-to-be-published GURPS
CYBERPUNK game book -- on disk and in hard-copy manuscript form -- were
confiscated by the authorities.  One of the Secret Service agents told
Steve Jackson that the GURPS CYBERPUNK science fiction fantasy game book
was a, "handbook for computer crime."

Steve Jackson Games was temporarily shut down.  The company was forced
to lay-off half of its employees and, ever since the raid, has operated
on  relatively precarious ground.

Steve Jackson Games, which has not been involved in any illegal activity
insofar as the Foundation's inquiries have been able to determine, tried
in  vain for over three months to find out why its property had been
seized, why  the property was being retained by the Secret Service long
after it should have  become apparent to the agents that GURPS CYBERPUNK
and everything else in the company's repertoire were entirely lawful and
innocuous, and when the company's vital materials would be returned.  In
late June of this year, after attorneys for the Electronic Frontier
Foundation became involved in the case, the Secret Service finally
returned most of the property, but retained a number of documents,
including the seized drafts of GURPS CYBERPUNKS.

The Foundation is presently seeking to find out the basis for the search
warrant that led to the raid on Steve Jackson Games.  Unfortunately, the
application for that warrant remains sealed by order of the court.  The
Foundation is making efforts to unseal those papers in order to find out
what  it was that the Secret Service told a judicial officer that
prompted that  officer to issue the search warrant.

Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, a search
warrant may be lawfully issued only if the information presented to the
court by the government agents demonstrates "probable cause" to believe
that evidence of criminal conduct would be found on the premises to be
searched.  Unsealing the search warrant application should enable the
Foundation's lawyers, representing Steve Jackson Games, to determine the
theory by which Secret Service Agents concluded or hypothesized that
either the GURPS CYBERPUNK game or any of the company's computerized
business records constituted criminal activity or contained evidence of
criminal activity.

Whatever the professed basis of the search, its scope clearly seems to
have  been unreasonably broad.  The wholesale seizure of computer
software, and  subsequent rummaging through its contents, is precisely
the sort of general  search that the Fourth Amendment was designed to
prohibit.

If it is unlawful for government agents to indiscriminately seize all of
the  hard-copy filing cabinets on a business premises -- which it surely
is -- that  the same degree of protection should apply to businesses
that store information electronically.

The Steve Jackson Games situation appears to involve First Amendment
violations as well.  The First Amendment to the United States
Constitution prohibits the government from "abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press".  The government's apparent attempt to prevent
the publication of the GURPS CYBERPUNK game book by seizing all copies
of all drafts in all media prior to publication, violated the First
Amendment.  The particular type of First Amendment violation here is the
single most serious type, since the government, by seizing the very
material sought to be published, effectuated what is known in the law as
a "prior restraint" on speech.  This means that rather than allow the
material to be published and then seek to punish it, the government
sought instead to prevent publication in the first place.  (This is not
to say, of course, that anything published by Steve Jackson Games could
successfully have been punished.  Indeed, the opposite appears to be the
case, since SJG's business seems to be entirely lawful.)  In any effort
to restrain publication, the government bears an extremely heavy burden
of proof before a court is permitted to authorize a prior restraint.

Indeed, in its 200-year history, the Supreme Court has never upheld a
prior  restraint on the publication of material protected by the First
Amendment,  warning that such efforts to restrain publication are
presumptively  unconstitutional.  For example, the Department of Justice
was unsuccessful in  1971 in obtaining the permission of the Supreme
Court to enjoin The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Boston
Globe from publishing the so-called Pentagon Papers, which the
government strenuously argued should be enjoined because of a perceived
threat to national security.  (In 1979, however, the government sought
to prevent The Progressive magazine from publishing an article
purporting to instruct the reader as to how to manufacture an atomic
bomb.  A lower federal court actually imposed an order for a temporary
prior restraint that lasted six months.  The Supreme Court never had an
opportunity to issue a full ruling on the constitutionality of that
restraint, however, because the case was mooted when another newspaper
published the article.)

Governmental efforts to restrain publication thus have been met by
vigorous  opposition in the courts.  A major problem posed by the
government's resort to the expedient of obtaining a search warrant,
therefore, is that it allows the government to effectively prevent or
delay publication without giving the  citizen a ready opportunity to
oppose that effort in court.

The Secret Service managed to delay,  and almost to prevent, the
publication of an innocuous game book by a legitimate company -- not by
asking a court for a prior restraint order that it surely could not have
obtained, but by asking  instead for a search warrant, which it obtained
all too readily.

The seizure of the company's computer hardware is also problematic, for
it  prevented the company not only from publishing GURPS CYBERPUNK, but
also from operating its electronic bulletin board.  The government's
action in shutting down such an electronic bulletin board is the
functional equivalent of shutting down printing presses of The New York
Times or The Washington Post  in order to prevent publication of The
Pentagon Papers.  Had the government sought a court order closing down
the electronic bulletin board, such an order effecting a prior restraint
almost certainly would have been refused.  Yet by obtaining the search
warrant, the government effected the same result.

This is a stark example of how electronic media suffer under a less
stringent  standard of constitutional protection than applies to the
print media -- for no  apparent reason, it would appear, other than the
fact that government agents  and courts do not seem to readily equate
computers with printing presses and  typewriters.  It is difficult to
understand a difference between these media  that should matter for
constitutional protection purposes.  This is one of the  challenges
facing the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

The Electronic Frontier Foundation will continue to press for return of
the  remaining property of Steve Jackson Games and will take formal
steps, if  necessary, to determine the factual basis for the search.
The purpose of these  efforts is to establish law applying the First and
Fourth Amendments to  electronic media, so as to protect in the future
Steve Jackson Games as well as  other individuals and businesses from
the devastating effects of unlawful and  unconstitutional government
intrusion upon and interference  with protected property and speech
rights.

United States v. Craig Neidorf

Craig Neidorf is a 20-year-old student at the University of Missouri who
has  been indicted by the United States on several counts of interstate
wire fraud  and interstate transportation of stolen property in
connection with his  activities as editor and publisher of the
electronic magazine, Phrack.

The indictment charges Neidorf with:  (1) wire fraud and interstate
transportation of stolen property for the republication in Phrack of
information which was allegedly illegally obtained through the accessing
of a  computer system without authorization, though it was obtained not
by Neidorf but by a third party; and (2) wire fraud for the publication
of an   announcement of a computer conference and for the publication of
articles which allegedly provide some suggestions on how to bypass
security in some computer systems.

The information obtained without authorization is a file relating to the
provision of 911 emergency telephone services that was allegedly removed
from the BellSouth computer system without authorization.  It is
important to note that neither the indictment, nor any briefs filed in
this case by the  government, contain any factual allegation or
contention that Neidorf was  involved in or participated in the removal
of the 911 file.

These indictments raise substantial constitutional issues which have
significant impact on the uses of new computer communications
technologies.  The prosecution of an editor or publisher, under
generalized statutes like wire  fraud and interstate transportation of
stolen property, for the publication of  information received lawfully,
which later turns out to be have been "stolen," presents an
unprecedented threat to the freedom of the press.  The person who should
be prosecuted is the thief, and not a publisher who subsequently
receives and publishes information of public interest.  To draw an
analogy to the print media, this would be the equivalent of prosecuting
The New York Times and The Washington Post for publishing the Pentagon
Papers when those papers were dropped off at the doorsteps of those
newspapers.

Similarly, the prosecution of a publisher for wire fraud arising out of
the  publication of articles that allegedly suggested methods of
unlawful activity  is also unprecedented.  Even assuming that the
articles here did advocate  unlawful activity, advocacy of unlawful
activity cannot constitutionally be the basis for a criminal
prosecution, except where such advocacy is directed at  producing
imminent lawless action, and is likely to incite such action.  The
articles here simply do not fit within this limited category.  The
Supreme  Court has often reiterated that in order for advocacy to be
criminalized, the  speech must be such that the words trigger an
immediate action.  Criminal  prosecutions such as this pose an extreme
hazard for First Amendment rights in all media of communication, as it
has a chilling effect on writers and  publishers who wish to discuss the
ramifications of illegal activity, such as  information describing
illegal activity or describing how a crime might be  committed.

In addition, since the statutes under which Neidorf is charged clearly
do not  envision computer communications, applying them to situations
such as that  found in the Neidorf case raises fundamental questions of
fair notice -- that  is to say, the publisher or computer user has no
way of knowing that his  actions may in fact be a violation of criminal
law.  The judge in the case has  already conceded that "no court has
ever held that the electronic transfer of  confidential, proprietary
business information from one computer to another  across state lines
constitutes a violation of [the wire fraud statute]."  The  Due Process
Clause prohibits the criminal prosecution of one who has not had fair
notice of the illegality of his action.  Strict adherence to the
requirements of the Due Process Clause also minimizes the risk of
selective or arbitrary enforcement, where prosecutors decide what
conduct they do not like and then seek some statute that can be
stretched by some theory to cover that conduct.

Government seizure and liability of bulletin board systems

During the recent government crackdown on computer crime, the government
has on many occasions seized the computers which operate bulletin board
systems ("BBSs"), even though the operator of the bulletin board is not
suspected of any complicity in any alleged criminal activity.  The
government seizures go far beyond a "prior restraint" on the publication
of any specific article, as  the seizure of the computer equipment of a
BBS prevents the BBS from publishing at all on any subject.  This akin
to seizing the word processing and  computerized typesetting equipment
of The New York Times for publishing the Pentagon Papers, simply because
the government contends that there may be information relating to the
commission of a crime on the system.  Thus, the government does not
simply restrain the publication of the "offending"  document, but it
seizes the means of production of the First Amendment activity so that
no more stories of any type can be published.

The government is allowed to seize "instrumentalities of crime," and a
bulletin board and its associated computer system could arguably be
called an  instrumentality of crime if individuals used its private
e-mail system to send  messages in furtherance of criminal activity.
However, even if the government has a compelling interest in interfering
with First Amendment protected speech, it can only do so by the least
restrictive means.  Clearly, the wholesale seizure and retention of a
publication's means of production, i.e., its computer system, is not the
least restrictive alternative.  The government  obviously could seize
the equipment long enough to make a copy of the  information stored on
the hard disk and to copy any other disks and documents, and then
promptly return the computer system to the operator.

Another unconstitutional aspect of the government seizures of the
computers of bulletin board systems is the government infringement on
the privacy of the electronic mail in the systems.  It appears that the
government, in seeking warrants for the seizures, has not forthrightly
informed the court that private mail of third parties is on the
computers, and has also read some of this private mail after the systems
have been seized.

The Neidorf case also raises issues of great significance to bulletin
board  systems.  As Neidorf was a publisher of information he received,
BBSs could be considered publishers of information that its users post
on the boards.  BBS  operators have a great deal of concern as to the
liability they might face for  the dissemination of information on their
boards which may turn out to have been obtained originally without
authorization, or which discuss activity which may be considered
illegal.  This uncertainty as to the law has already caused a decrease
in the free flow of information, as some BBS operators have removed
information solely because of the fear of liability.

The Electronic Frontier Foundation stands firmly against the
unauthorized  access of computer systems, computer trespass and computer
theft, and strongly supports the security and sanctity of private
computer systems and networks. One of the goals of the Foundation,
however, is to ensure that, as the legal framework is established to
protect the security of these computer systems, the unfettered
communication and exchange of ideas is not hindered.  The Foundation is
concerned that the Government has cast its net too broadly, ensnaring
the innocent and chilling or indeed supressing the free flow of
information.  The Foundation fears not only that protected speech will
be curtailed, but also that the citizen's reasonable expectation in the
privacy and sanctity of electronic communications systems will be
thwarted, and people will be hesitant to communicate via these networks.
Such a lack of confidence in electronic communication modes will
substantially set back the kind of experimentation by and communication
among fertile minds that are essential to our nation's development.  The
Foundation has therefore applied for amicus curiae  (friend of the
court) status in the Neidorf case and has filed legal briefs in support
of the First Amendment issues there, and is prepared to assist in
protecting the free flow of information over bulletin board systems and
other computer technologies.

For further information regarding Steve Jackson Games please contact:

Harvey Silverglate or Sharon Beckman
Silverglate & Good
89 Broad Street, 14th Floor
Boston, MA  02110
617/542-6663

For further information regarding Craig Neidorf please contact:

Terry Gross or Eric Lieberman
Rabinowitz, Boudin, Standard, Krinsky and Lieberman
740 Broadway, 5th Floor
New York, NY 10003
212/254-1111



Subject: EFF, ACLU, CPSR take on 2600 Mall Case
Organization: Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.
Date: Fri, 22 Jan 1993 16:19:35 GMT

On the evening of November 6, 1992, approximately 30 computer
enthusiasts, who had gathered for a meeting of 2600 magazine readers at
the food court at Pentagon City Mall in Arlington, VA, were detained and
searched and had some of their possessions seized by about half a dozen
mall security guards acting under the direction of the Secret Service.
Somewhere between two and five officers from the Arlington County Police
were there, as well, having responded to a call about fraud.

Several of the attendees are interested in suing the mall, police and
Secret Service, and EFF and CPSR have done some preliminary research
into the case to determine what, if any, civil liberties violations were
involved.  After interviewing about a dozen people who were there, we
have determined that the Secret Service does seem to have been involved
(a county police officer on the scene confirmed that), and we are ready
to proceed with the case.

We contacted the Virginia ACLU, which has found a litigator in Northern
Virginia who wants to litigate the case. EFF, the ACLU and CPSR are
currently doing research on the legal theories we will need to pursue.
EFF is very committed to standing up for the civil liberties of those
who attended this open, publicized and nondisruptive meeting.

Shari Steele, Staff Attorney, Electronic Frontier Foundation
[email protected]





[From: EFFector Online    Volume 08, No. 03    March 20, 1995]


Subject: Scotland and Italy Crack Down on "Anarchy Files"
---------------------------------------------------------

Stanton McCandlish

Anarchists online were the target of two recent police actions, one in
Scotland and one in Italy.  Scotland Yard is investigating net-based
anarchist dissidents allegedly using online media to advocate
anti-government violence, at least one of whom was arrested several
weeks ago by detectives from the UK's Special Branch police agency, on
charges of sedition - the first such case in the UK to involve
computer-mediated communications.  The suspect appears to have been a
Scottish system operator, running a BBS called Terminal Boredom, which may
have archived some of the publications of anarchist publisher Spunk
Press, a voluteer-based collective (though Spunk itself does not know
the sysop, and says he is not directly associated with them).

A Computer programmer, activist, and editor for Spunk Press in Scotland
and who conducts seminars on progressive activism and Internet basics,
was recently targetted in the British press, and associated with the
online anarchists under investigation. A highly questionable article in
the UK _Sunday_Times_ by Adrian Levy and Ian Burrell (Mar. 5) accused
the Spunk editor (who prefers not to be named again due to negative
publicity) of encouraging the use of computer technology for organizing
violent and illegal acts, as part of an online terrorist coalition, at
an "anarchist campaign" last October (described by attendees rather as a
conference on anarchist politics and online activism).

However, the Levy/Burrell article is both replete with errors (it refers
in one place to FTP archive directories "booby trapped with viruses that
attack the computers of unauthorised intruders" - an impossibility, as
any experienced Internet user would know) and remarkably biased (the article
alleges that supposed 'anarchy files' encourage students to "take
part in dirty protests and riots.") Additionally it makes many wild and
highly unrealistic accusations of global anarchist conspiracy (led by
"an intelligent and well-informed girl", a British student, according to
another similar report.)  No relevant evidence or sources are cited.

Spunk "maintains an archive of anarchist material at umich [the U. of
Michican anonymous FTP site] and other sites. It includes historical
documents, articles by the likes of Chomsky & Bookchin, the text of
various anarchist magazines and, contrary to what the Sunday Times said,
nothing about bomb-making or other [seditious material]", Mitzi Waltz, a
technology writer and US member of Spunk, told EFF, adding that another
member of the Spunk collective, in Italy, suffered a police raid on
his political discussion BBS, BITS Against the Empire, Waltz disagreed
vehemently with the _Sunday_Times_ article: "I have met [the Spunk editor]
and he's about the furthest thing from a terrorist you can imagine. I
was at the conference referred to [in the _Sunday_Times_ article] also
last fall in London. [We] led workshops on using the Internet for
communications and networking. Basic stuff, like 'what's a BBS?'..."

Others involved with Spunk Press indicate that a previous article in the
UK trade magazine _Computing_ also attacked Spunk, possibly slanderously.
Recently, _Computing_ was inundated with criticism of its report.
These articles appear to have been the inspiration for a series of
similar, and even further removed from reality, mainstream press reports
in Italy, which compare the events to the raid on BITS Against the Empire.

BITS Against the Empire, a computer bulletin board system run by Clinamen,
(a Rovereto, Italy social center) and providing communications services to
users via Internet, Cybernet and FidoNet, was seized along with printed
material and disks during a Feb. 28 police search of Clinamen.  The homes
of a number of people associated with Clinamen were also raided that
morning by the Carabinieri Anti-Crime Special Operations Group, who
seized books, computers, diskettes, even diaries.  Some of those raided
are allegedly associated with the Italian anarchist movement.  Only one,
the sysop, Luciano Paccagnella, is directly associated with the BITS BBS.

To date, only some of the seized materials have been returned, and the
BBS itself, other computers, and diskettes are still being held for further
investigation.  No one has been arrested, but the individuals raided
have been formally charged with terroristic subversion crimes, which
carry severe penalities: 7-15 years in prison.  Paccagnella expresses
skepticism regarding the likelihood that authorities really want him in
prison for 15 years, reasoning he and the others charged are probably
expected to be intimidated into plea-bargaining. "What they really want
is clearly to scare us," he said.

A Clinamen press release noted wryly: "According to the authorities, the
bulletin board's activities in pursuit of free communication and counter-
information represent a danger to the democratic order...Clearly nobody
has explained to them that hard disks and diskettes can be copied in a
matter of minutes. Meanwhile, those facing prosecution, as well as the
hundreds of users of BITS Against the Empire BBS, must continue to wait as
police computer experts work to uncover not only the DOS 'copy' command,
but also that very dangerous information - from publicly available
electronic journals, articles and academic essays on the social use of
new technology, to publicly accessible electronic discussion groups -
which has inspired the charge of subversive association with terrorist
intent."

The BITS BBS carried a file index of materials available from the Spunk
archive (though not the files themselves), as well as back issues of
_Computer_underground_Digest_ (for which EFF itself is the main archive
site), and other political and non-political text material (no software).
It is currently unconfirmed whether there is a direct link between the
BITS raid, the Scottish BBS raid, the apparent mainstream media campaign
against the Spunk Press Collective, or the earlier Italian "BBS
crackdown" (which was targetted, ostensibly at least, at software
pirates, though a few victims of the raids suggest that the crackdown
was entirely politically motivated.)  Paccagnella doubts there is any
official connection between these events.

Those concerned about the Italian raids can send messages of support or
requests for updates to Luciano Paccagnella at:
Internet: [email protected]
Bitnet: lpaccag@itncisti
European Counter Network: Luc Pac, 45:1917/2.1
Cybernet: Luc Pac, 65:1400/6 (currently down)
Fidonet: Luc Pac, 2:333/412 (currently down)


This news is very disconcerting, particularly given the recent law passed
in the UK greatly restricting Britons' rights of assembly, not to mention
other Parliament actions to negate the right of silence at arrest and
broaden police search and seizure authority, as well as statements by UK
Minister of Parliament Chris Smith that the "findings" of the Scotland
Yard investigation into alleged online anarchist "terrorists" shows "the
need for international agreements to ban groups preaching violence from
the information superhighway", as the _Sunday_Times_ article triumphantly
paraphrased. MP Smith is also on record as supporting a ban on public
use of encryption, unless it is "escrowed" so that government agents can
decode encrypted messages and files, likely due to international
lobbying efforts on the part of the US Administration to convince European
and other governments to attempt to retard private-sector encryption
market growth and to embrace Clipper-like surveillance schemes.

When governments cannot distinguish between a socio-political philosophy
denying governmental authoritarianism and actual conspiracy to commit
terrorist crimes, no one's intellectual freedom is safe.

------------------------------

*********************************************************************
Julian Dibbell                                       [email protected]
*********************************************************************

----------------------------------------

(c)1993 by Julian Dibbell.  Electronic-redistribution only, limited to
the net and not-for-profit BBSs. Plus, it would be nice to be advised of
any reposts: [email protected].

(This article originally appeared in The Village Voice, January 11, 1994)



The Prisoner: Phiber Optik Goes Directly to Jail

By Julian Dibbell

____________________________________________________________________

Phiber Optik is going to prison this week and if you ask me and
a whole lot of other people, that's just a goddamn shame.

   To some folks, of course, it's just deserts. Talk to
phone-company executives, most computer-security experts, any
number of U.S. attorneys and law-enforcement agents, or Justice
Louis Stanton of the Southern District of New York (who handed
Phiber his year-and-a-day in the federal joint at Minorsville,
Pennsylvania), and they'll tell you the sentence is nothing more
than what the young hacker had coming to him. They'll tell you
Phiber Optik is a remorseless, malicious invader of other
people's computers, a drain on the economic lifeblood of our
national telecommunications infrastructure, and/or a dangerous
role model for the technoliterate youth of today.

   The rest of us will tell you he's some kind of hero. Just ask.
Ask the journalists like me who have come to know this
21-year-old high-school dropout from Queens over the course of
his legal travails. We'll describe a principled and gruffly
plain-talking spokesdude whose bravado, street-smart style, and
remarkably unmanipulative accessibility have made him the object
of more media attention than any hacker since Robert Morris
nearly brought down the Internet. Or ask the on-line civil
libertarians who felt that Phiber's commitment to nondestructive
hacking and to dialogue with the straight world made him an
ideal poster boy for their campaign against the repressive
excesses of the government's war on hackers. You might even ask
the small subset of government warriors who have arrived at a
grudging respect for Phiber's expertise and the purity of his
obsession with the workings of the modern computerized phone
system (a respect that has at times bordered on parental concern
as it grew clear that a 1991 conviction on state charges of
computer trespass had failed to curb Phiber's reckless
explorations of the system).

   But for a truly convincing glimpse of the high regard in which
Phiber Optik is held in some quarters, you'd have to pay an
on-line visit to ECHO, the liberal-minded but hardly cyberpunk
New York bulletin-board system where Phiber has worked as
resident technical maven since last spring. Forsaking the
glories of phonephreaking for the workaday pleasures of hooking
the system up to the Internet and helping users navigate its
intricacies, he moved swiftly into the heart of ECHO's virtual
community (which took to referring to him by the name his mother
gave him -- Mark -- as often as by his nom de hack). So that when he
was indicted again, this time on federal charges of unauthorized
access to phone-company computers and conspiracy to commit
further computer crimes, ECHO too was drawn into the
nerve-racking drama of his case.

   As the ``coconspirators'' named in the indictment (a group of
Phiber's friends and government-friendly ex-friends) pleaded
guilty one by one, there remained brave smiles and high hopes
for Phiber's jury trial in July. By the time the trial date
arrived, however, Phiber had made an agonizing calculus of risks
and decided to plead guilty to one count each of computer
intrusion and conspiracy. ECHO was left on tenterhooks waiting
for the day of the sentencing. Given Mark's newfound enthusiasm
for more legitimate means of working with computers and his
undisputed insistence at the time of his plea that he had never
damaged or intended to damage any of the systems he broke into,
it seemed reasonable to wish for something lenient. A long
probation, maybe, or at worst a couple months' jail time. After
all, the infamous Morris had done considerably greater harm, and
he got off with no jail time at all.

When the news arrived, therefore, of Phiber's 12-month prison
sentence (plus three years' probation and 600 hours of service),
it hit like a slap in the face, and ECHO responded with a
massive outburst of dismay and sympathy. ECHO's director, Stacy
Horn, posted the information at 3 p.m. on November 3 in the
system's main conference area, and within 24 hours the place was
flooded with over 100 messages offering condolences, advice on
penitentiary life, and curses on Judge Stanton. Not all the
messages were what you'd want to call articulate (``shit,'' read
the first one in its entirety; quoth another: ``fuckfuckfuck-
fuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuck''),
nor was all the advice exactly comforting (``Try not to get
killed,'' a sincere and apparently quite prison-savvy Echoid
suggested; ``Skip the country,'' proposed one user who connects
from abroad, inviting Phiber to join him in sunny South Africa).
But the sentiment throughout was unmistakably heartfelt, and
when Phiber Optik finally checked in, his brief response was
even more so:

   ``I just finished reading all this and...I'm speechless. I
couldn't say enough to thank all of you.''

   He didn't have to thank anybody, of course. Motivated by genuine
fellow feeling as this electronic lovefest was, it was also the
last step in the long-running canonization of Phiber Optik as
the digital age's first full-fledged outlaw hero, and making
somebody else a hero is not necessarily the most generous of
acts. For one thing, we tend to get more from our heroes than
they get from us, and for another, we tend to be heedless of
(when not morbidly fascinated by) the very high psychic overhead
often involved in becoming a hero -- especially the outlaw kind. To
their credit, though, the Echoids proved themselves sensitive to
the weight of the burden Phiber had been asked to take on. As
one of them put it: ``Sorry Mark. You've obviously been made a
martyr for our generation.''

   There was some melodrama in that statement, to be sure, but not
too much exaggeration. For ironically enough, Judge Stanton
himself seemed to have endorsed its basic premise in his remarks
upon passing sentence. Not unmoved by the stacks of letters sent
him in support of Phiber Optik's character and motivations, the
judge allowed as how a less celebrated Phiber Optik convicted of
the same crimes might not deserve the severity of the discipline
he was about to prescribe (and in Phiber's case it could be
argued that 12 months locked up without a computer is severe
enough to rate as cruel and unusual). But since Phiber had made
of himself a very public advertisement for the ethic of the
digital underground, the judge insisted he would have to make of
the sentence an equally public countermessage. ``The
defendant...stands as a symbol here today,'' said Stanton,
making it clear that the defendant would therefore be punished
as one too.

   The judge did not make it clear when exactly it was that the
judicial system had abandoned the principle that the punishment
fits the crime and not the status of the criminal, though I
suppose that happened too long ago to be of much interest. More
frustratingly, he also didn't go into much detail as to what it
was that Phiber Optik was to stand as a symbol _of_. In at least
one of his remarks, however, he did provide an ample enough
clue:

   ``Hacking crimes,'' said Judge Stanton, ``constitute a real
threat to the expanding information highway.''

   That ``real threat'' bit was a nice dramatic touch, but anyone
well-versed in the issues of the case could see that at this point the
judge was speaking symbolically. For one thing, even as practiced by the
least scrupulous joyriders among Phiber Optik's subcultural peers, hacking
represents about as much of a threat to the newly rampant
telecommunications juggernaut as shoplifting does to the future of world
capitalism. But more to the point, everybody recognizes by now that all
references to information highways, super or otherwise, are increasingly
just code for the corporate wet dream of a pay-as-you-go telecom turnpike,
owned by the same megabusinesses that own our phone and cable systems
today and off-limits to anyone with a slender wallet or a bad credit
rating. And _that_, symbolically speaking, is what Phiber Optik's
transgressions threaten.

   For what did his crimes consist of after all? He picked the
locks on computers owned by large corporations, and he shared
the knowledge of how to do it with his friends (they had given
themselves the meaningless name MOD, more for the thrill of
sounding like a conspiracy than for the purpose of actually
acting like one). In themselves the offenses are trivial, but
raised to the level of a social principle, they do spell doom
for the locks some people want to put on our cyberspatial
future. And I'm tempted, therefore, to close with a rousing
celebration of Phiber Optik as the symbol of a spirit of
anarchic resistance to the corporate Haussmannization of our
increasingly information-based lives, and to cheer Phiber's hero
status in places like ECHO as a sign that that spirit is
thriving.

   But I think I'll pass for now. Phiber Optik has suffered enough
for having become a symbol, and in any case his symbolic power
will always be available to us, no matter where he is. Right
now, though, the man himself is going away for far too long, and
like I said, that's nothing but a goddamn shame.





[From: TELECOM Digest, Sat, 31 Mar 90]


   Legion of Doom Indictments (Chicago Members) [Mike Godwin]
----------------------------------------------------------------------

From: Mike Godwin <[email protected]>
Subject: Legion of Doom Indictments (Chicago Members, Jolnet Shutdown)
Date: 31 Mar 90 22:37:33 GMT
Reply-To: Mike Godwin <[email protected]>
Organization: The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas


The following is the text of the federal indictments of the Chicago
Jolnet members. Secret Service jurisdiction to investigation these
alleged computer-related offenses comes from 18 USC 1030, the general
computer-fraud statute -- it's provided in section (d) under this
statute.

             UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT NORTHERN
                     DISTRICT OF ILLINOIS
                       EASTERN DIVISION

                              )
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA       )
                              )
         v.                   )    No. ______________________
                              )    Violations: Title 18, United
ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known    )    States Code, Sections
as Robert Johnson, also        )    1030(a)(6)(A) and 2314
known as Prophet, and          )
CRAIG NEIDORF, also known      )
as Knight Lightning            )

                           COUNT ONE

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY charges:

                       PROPERTY INVOLVED

    1. At all times relevant herein, enhanced 911 (E911) was the
national computerized telephone service program for handling
emergency calls to the police, fire, ambulance and emergency
services in most municipalities in the United States. Dialing 911
provided the public immediate access to a municipality's Public
Safety Answering Point (PSAP) through the use of computerized all
routing. The E911 system also automatically provided the recipient
of an emergency call with the telephone number and location
identification of the emergency caller.

    2. At all times relevant herein, the Bell South Telephone
Company and its subsidiaries ("Bell South") provided telephone
services in the nine state area including Alabama, Mississippi,
Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Lousiana {sic}, North Carolina, South
Carolina and Florida.

    3. At all times relevant herein, the E911 system of Bell South
was described in the text of a computerized file program known as
the Bell South Standard Practice 660-225-104SV Control Office

                             - 1 -

Administration of Enhanced 911 Services for Special and Major
Account Centers date March, 1988 ("E911 Practice"). The E911
Practice was a highly proprietary and closely held computerized
text file belonging to the Bell South Telephone Company and stored
on the company's AIMSX computer in Atlanta, Georgia. The E911
Practice described the computerized control and maintainence {sic}
of the E911 system and carried warning notices that it was not to be
disclosed outside Bell South or any of its subsidiaries except
under written agreement.

                        COMPUTER HACKERS

    4. At all times relevant herein, computer hackers were
individual involved with the unauthorized access of computer
systems by various means.

    5. At all times relevant herein, the Legion of Doom (LOD)
was a closely knit group of computer hackers involved in:

         a.   Disrupting telecommunications by entering
              computerized telephone switches and changing the
              routing on the circuits of the computerized
              switches.
         b.   Stealing proprietary computer source code and
              information from companies and individuals that
              owned the code and information.
         c.   Stealing and modifying credit information on
              individuals maintained in credit bureau computers.

                             - 2 -

         d.   Fraudulently obtaining money and property from
              companies by altering the computerized information
              used by the companies.
         e.   Disseminating information with respect to their
              methods of attacking computers to other computer
              hackers in an effort to avoid the focus of law
              enforcement agencies and telecommunication security
              experts.

    6. At all times relevant herein ROBERT J. RIGGS, defendant
herein, was a member of the LOD.

    7. At all times relevant herein CRAIG NEIDORF, defendant
herein, was a publisher and editor of a computer hacker newletter
{sic} known as "PHRACK."

    8. At all times relevant herein, a public access computer
bulletin board system (BBS) was located in Lockport, Illinois which
provided computer storage space and electronic mail services to its
users. The Lockport BBS was also used by computer hackers as a
location for exchanging and developing software tools for computer
intrusion, and for receiving and distributing hacker tutorials and
other information.

                            E-MAIL

    9. At all times relevant herein electronic mail (e-mail) was
a computerized method for sending communications and files between
individual computers on various computer networks. Persons who
sent or received e-mail were identified by an e-mail address,
similar to a postal address. Although a person may have more than

                             - 3 -

one e-mail address, each e-mail address identified a person
uniquely. The message header of an e-mail message identified both
the sender and recipient of the e-mail message and the date the
was {sic} message sent.

    10. Beginning in or about September, 1988, the exact date
begin unknown to the Grand Jury, and continuing until the return
date of this indictment, at Lockport, in the Northern District of
Illinois, Eastern Division, and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

defendants herein, together with others known and unknown to the
Grand Jury, devised and intended to devise and participated in a
scheme and artifice to defraud and to obtain money and other things
of value by means of false and fraudulent pretenses and
representations, well knowing at the time that such pretenses,
representations and promises were false when made.

                    OBJECT OF FRAUD SCHEME

    11. The object of the fraud scheme was to steal the E911
Practice text file from the computers of Bell South Telephone
Company though {sic} the use of false and fraudulent pretenses and
representations and to conceal all indications that the text file
had been stolen; and to thereafter publish the information about
the E911 Practice text file in a hacker publication for
dissemination.

                             - 4 -

                   OPERATION OF FRAUD SCHEME

    12. It was part of the fraud scheme that the defendant NEIDORF
would and did advise the defendant RIGGS that he had assembled a
group of computer hackers for the purpose of distributing computer
information.

    13. It was further part of the scheme that the defendant
RIGGS would and did steal sensitive proprietary Bell South
information files including the E911 Practice text file by gaining
remote unauthorized access to computers of the Bell South Telephone
Company.

    14. It was further part of the scheme that the defendant
RIGGS would and did disguise and conceal the theft of the E911
Practice text file from Bell South Telephone Company by removing
all indications of his unauthorized access into Bell South
computers and by using account codes of legitimate Bell South users
to disguise his authorized use of the Bell South computer.

    15. It was further part of the scheme that RIGGS would and
did transfer in interstate commerce a stolen E911 Practice text
file from Atlanta, Georgia to Lockport, Illinois through the use
of an interstate computer data network.

    16. It was further part of the scheme that defendant RIGGS
would and did store the stolen E911 Practice text file on a
computer bulletin board system in Lockport, Illinois.

    17. It was further part of the scheme that defendant NEIDORF,
utilizing a computer at the University of Missouri in Columbia,
Missouri would and did receive a copy of the stolen E911 text file

                             - 5 -

>from defendant RIGGS through the Lockport computer bulletin board
system through the use of an interstate computer data network.

    18. It was further part of the scheme that defendant NEIDORF
would and did edit and retype the E911 Practice text file at the
request of the defendant RIGGS in order to conceal the source of
the E911 Practice text file and to prepare it for publication in
a computer hacker newsletter.

    19. It was further part of the scheme that defendant NEIDORF
would and did transfer the stolen E911 Practice text file through
the use of an interstate computer bulletin board system
used by defendant RIGGS in Lockport, Illinois.

    20. It was further part of the scheme that the defendants
RIGGS and NEIDORF would publish information to other computer
hackers which could be used to gain unauthorized access to
emergency 911 computer systems in the United States and thereby
disrupt or halt 911 service in portions of the United States.

    22. It was further a part of the scheme that the defendants
would and did misrepresent, conceal, and hide, and cause to be
misrepresented, concealed and hidden the purposes of ane {sic} the
acts done in furtherance of the fraud scheme, and would and did use
coded language and other means to avoid detection and apprehension

                             - 6 -

by law enforcement authorities and to otherwise provide security
to the members of the fraud scheme.

    23. In or about December, 1988, at Lockport, in the
Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, and elsewhere,

              ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
              as Robert Johnson, also
              known as Prophet,

defendant herein, for the purpose of executing the aforesaid
scheme, did knowingly transmit and cause to be transmitted by means
of a wire communication in interstate commerce certain signs,
signals and sounds, namely: a data transfer of a E911 Practice
text file from Decatur, Georgia to Lockport, Illinois.

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section 1343.

                             - 7 -

                           COUNT TWO

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference
the allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count One of this
Indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. On or about January 23, 1989, at Lockport, in the
Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

the defendants herein, for the purposes of executing the aforesaid
scheme did knowingly transmit and cause to be transmitted by means
of a wire communication in interstate commerce certain signs,
signals and sounds, namely: a data transfer of a E911 Practice
text file from Decatur, Georgia to Lockport, Illinois, an edited
and retyped E911 Practice text file from Columbia, Missouri, to
Lockport, Illinois.

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section 1343.

                             - 8 -

                          COUNT THREE

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference the
allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count One of this
indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. In or about December, 1988, at Lockport, in the Northern
District of Illinois, Eastern Division, and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

defendants herein, did transport and cause to be transported in
interstate commerce from Decatur, Georgia, to Lockport, Illinois,
a computerized text file with a value of $5,000 or more, namely:

    A Bell South Standard Practice (BSP) 660-225-104SV- Control
    Office Administration of Enhanced 911 Services for Special
    Services and Major Account Centers dated March, 1988; valued
    at approximately $79,449.00

the defendants then and there knowing the same to have been stolen,
converted, and taken by fraud;

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section 2314.

                             - 9 -

                          COUNT FOUR

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference the
allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count one of this
Indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. On or about January 23, 1989, at Lockport, in the Northern
District of Illinois, Eastern Division, and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

defendants herein, did transport and cause to be transported in
interstate commerce from Columbia, Missouri, to Lockport, Illinois,
a computerized textfile with a value of $5,000 or more, namely:

         An edited Bell South Standard Practice (BSP) 660-225-
         104SV- Control Office Administration of Enhanced 911
         Services for Special Services and Major Account Centers
         dated March, 1988; valued at approximately $79,449.00.

the defendants, then and there knowing the same to have been
stolen, converted, and taken by fraud;

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section 2314.

                            - 10 -

                          COUNT FIVE

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference
the allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count One of this
Indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. On or about December, 1988, at Lockport, in the
Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

the defendants herein, knowingly and with intent to defraud, trafficked
in information through which a computer may be accessed without
authorization and by such conduct affected interstate commerce;

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section
1030(a)(6)(A).

                            - 11 -

                           COUNT SIX

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference
the allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count One of this
Indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. In or about January, 1989, at Lockport, in the Northern
District of Illinois, Eastern Division and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

the defendants herein, knowingly and with intend to defraud, trafficked
in information through which a computer may be accessed without
authorization and by such conduct affected interstate commerce;

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section
1030(a)(6)(A).

                            - 12 -

                          COUNT SEVEN

    The SPECIAL APRIL 1987 GRAND JURY further charges:

    1. The Grand Jury realleges and incorporates by reference the
allegations of paragraphs 1 through 22 of Count One of this
Indictment as though fully set forth herein.

    2. In or about February, 1989, at Lockport, in the Northern
District of Illinois, Eastern Division and elsewhere,

                 ROBERT J. RIGGS, also known
                 as Robert Johnson, also
                 known as Prophet, and
                 CRAIG NEIDORF, also known
                 as Knight Lightning,

the defendants herein, knowingly and with intent to defraud, trafficked
in information through which a computer may be accessed without
authorization and by such conduct affected interstate commerce;

    In violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section
1030(a)(6)(A).


                               A TRUE BILL:



                               ________________________________
                               F O R E P E R S O N



________________________________
UNITED STATES ATTORNEY


                            - 13 -

                ==============END=============

(transcribed for TELECOM Digest by)

Mike Godwin, UT Law School
[email protected]
[email protected]
(512) 346-4190

------------------------------


            D E F A M A T I O N   L I A B I L I T Y
                              O F
                    C O M P U T E R I Z E D
        B U L L E T I N   B O A R D   O P E R A T O R S
           A N D   P R O B L E M S   O F   P R O O F



                                      John R. Kahn
                                      CHTLJ Comment
                                      Computer Law Seminar
                                      Upper Division Writing
                                      February, 1989


_________________________________________________________________

I.  INTRODUCTION

        A  computer  user  sits  down  at her personal computer,
turns  it  on, and has it dial the number of a local computerized
bulletin  board  service  (BBS)  where  she  has  been exchanging
opinions,    information,    electronic    mail,   and   amicable
conversation  with other users. Upon connecting with the BBS, she
enters  a secret "password", presumably known only to herself and
to  the  bulletin  board  operator,  so  as to gain access to the
system.

        To  her  surprise,  she  finds herself deluged with lewd
electronic  mail  from  complete  strangers  and hostile messages
from  persons  with  whom she believed she was on friendly terms.
The messages read: "Why did you call me a worthless son-of-a ----
-  yesterday? I really thought we could be friends, but I guess I
was  wrong";  "Hey, baby, I liked your fetish you were telling me
about  yesterday:  call  me at home, or I'll call YOU"; and, "Why
didn't  you  get around to telling me about your venereal disease
sooner?".  Yet  our user has not called this BBS in weeks and has
never  made  any  of  these statements. Dismayed and angered, the

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn              2
----------------------

user  comes  to  realize  that  she is the victim of computerized
bulletin board abuse.

        A  personal  computer  hobbyist  (hereafter "SYSOP") who
operates  a  computerized bulletin board system notices a rash of
heated  arguments, profanity and complaints being reported to him
by  users  on  what had been a forum for the peaceful exchange of
ideas.   Investigating   the   complaints,   he   discovers  that
previously     responsible     users     have     suddenly    and
uncharacteristically  been  leaving  insulting,  rude  and  false
messages  about other users on the bulletin board. One user is so
enraged   about   a   public   message  accusing  her  of  sexual
misadventures  that  she  is  threatening  to  sue  the  computer
hobbyist  in  libel  for  having permitted the message to appear.
The  SYSOP  realizes  that  both  he  and  his  subscribers  have
suffered computerized bulletin board abuse.

        The  aggravating  force behind both the above situations
is   most   likely   a   third  user  (known  hereafter  as  "the
masquerader")   who   maliciously   exploits  both  his  computer
knowledge  and  his  access  to  BBSes. Since the masquerader has
discovered  the  password  and name of the regular user, and uses
them  to  access  bulletin boards, he appears for all intents and
purposes  to  be that regular user. The computer thus believes it
has  admitted a legitimate subscriber to its database when it has
in  fact  given  almost  free  reign  to  a  reckless hacker. The
masquerader,  posing  as another legitimate user, is then free to
portray  that  user  in  whatever  light  he  pleases and also to
harass other users of the bulletin board.

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn              3
----------------------


        When  validated  users  later discover that someone else
has   been  impersonating  them,  they  invariably  cancel  their
subscriptions  to  that  BBS  and often bring a defamation action
against   its  SYSOP  for  the  smearing  of  their  good  names.
Conversely,   the   SYSOP,  in  an  effort  to  avoid  liability,
reluctantly  engages  in  monitoring  each  and  every  piece  of
information  posted  daily  by  hundreds  of  users. If the SYSOP
chooses  instead  to  stop  running  his  BBS altogether, another
efficient and valuable forum for ideas is lost.

        What  sort of defamation action may be maintained by the
wrongfully  disparaged  user?  Is the computerized bulletin board
offered  by  the  SYSOP  subject to the stricter self-scrutiny of
newspapers,  or  does  it operate under some lesser standard? How
may  the  initial  party  at  fault  -  the masquerader - be held
accountable for his computerized torts?

        The  scope  of  this  Comment  will  be  to  examine the
defamation   liability   of   computerized   BBS   operators  and
evidentiary  proof  issues  that  arise  in  tracing computerized
defamation  to  its  true  source.  Other possible Tort causes of
action  -  intentional infliction of emotional distress, invasion
of  privacy,  trespass  to  chattels  -  are not addressed. It is
assumed  throughout  that  the  plaintiff is a private person and
that  the issues involved are not matters of "public interest" as
defined in Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.1


   A.   Background

        Computerized  BBSes exist as a quick, easy and efficient
way   to  acquire  and  exchange  information  about  the  entire

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn              4
----------------------

spectrum   of   interests.2   The  growing  popularity  of  these
electronic  forums  was  demonstrated  in  a  recent  study which
numbered  BBSes  at  more  than  3,500  nationwide.3 The size and
complexity  of  computerized  BBSes  range from relatively simple
programs,  run  on  privately-owned  microcomputers  with  a  few
hundred  subscribers,  to vast, multi-topic database systems with
nationwide lists of subscribers and operated for profit.4

        The  process  of  reaching,  or "accessing" one of these
bulletin  boards  is  quite  simple:  all  that  is required is a
computer,   a  computer  program  that  allows  the  computer  to
communicate  over  the phone lines, and a "modem" (a device which
converts   the   computer's   electrical  signals  into  acoustic
impulses,  defined  infra).5  Once  she has accessed the BBS, the
caller   is   free   to  trade  useful  non-copyrighted  computer
programs,  exchange  ideas  on  a host of topics, post electronic
mail  for  later reading by others, and much more.6 The ease with
which  most  BBSes may be accessed and the wealth of interests to
be  found  there  ensure  that they will continue to be important
sources of information and discourse.

        However,  the speed and efficiency of computerized BBSes
also  subject  them  to  serious, wide-ranging civil and criminal
abuse.  Recently  a  young  computer user paralyzed several major
computer  systems across the nation by sending a harmful computer
program  (or  "worm")  to  them  over  telephone  lines. The worm
quickly  replicated  itself  in  the computers' memories and thus
decreased  their  output  capacities.7  Further, certain computer
abusers  (known  as  "hackers") use the power of the computerized

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn              5
----------------------

forum  to  ply  illegal  copies  of  copyrighted  programs,  bilk
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars annually from credit card and
phone  companies, and to wrongfully access others' data files.8 A
minority   of  other  BBSes  exist  mainly  to  circulate  racist
ideologies.9

        What  is  more,  it now appears that the ancient tort of
defamation  is  actively  being  practiced  through  the  use  of
computerized   BBSes.10   Due   to   the   almost   ethereal  way
computerized  BBSes  operate  - one person may conveniently leave
an  electronic  message for others to respond to at their leisure
and  there  is  no  need  for the parties to converse directly or
even  to  know  each other11 - the risk of detection when the BBS
is  abused  is  lower  than  that for defamation practiced in the
print  media.12  Difficulties  arise  with  identifying  the true
party  at  fault  and with authenticating the computer records as
evidence  of  the  defamation.13  Adding  to  this  problem is an
uncertainty  in  the laws concerning the appropriate liability of
SYSOPs  for defamatory messages on their BBSes of which they were
unaware.14


   B.   Definitions

        The  following  are  brief definitions of some important
technical terms connected with electronic BBSes:

        SYSOP:  An  abbreviation  for "System Operator", this is
the  individual  generally responsible for organizing information
and  for  trouble-shooting  on  a computerized bulletin board. On
larger  bulletin  boards  covering  hundreds  of  topics, several
SYSOPS  may  be in charge of maintaining information contained in

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn              6
----------------------

separate  discrete  fields.15 But when the BBS is privately owned
and  operated,  a  single SYSOP may very well oversee all aspects
of  the  board's  operations, in addition to being able to access
all his users' passwords and personal information.16

        Modem:   An  abbreviation  for  "Modulator/Demodulator".
This  is  a  device  which  links a computer to an ordinary phone
line  and  converts computer signals to auditory phone signals. A
computer  modem  on  the  other  end  of  the  transmission  then
reverses  the  process.  Computers  using  modems  transfer  data
rapidly across phone lines and thus share information.17

        Validation:  Basically  this is a set of procedures used
by  responsible  SYSOPs  to  do everything reasonably possible to
verify  that  the personal information supplied by a user is true
and  correct.  Common  sense and emerging legal standards dictate
that  the  SYSOP should not merely rely on the name provided by a
potential  user  when  the  SYSOP  does  not personally know that
individual.   The   SYSOP   may   be  required  to  independently
corroborate  the  prospective  subscriber's  information by first
asking  the  potential  user's name, address and phone number and
then  by  checking  that information with directory assistance.18
These  procedures  will hopefully aid the operator in identifying
wrongdoers  if  misuse  occurs;19 however, as will be seen, these
procedures are by no means foolproof.

        Database:  Any  collection  of  data  in  a computer for
purposes  of  later  retrieval  and  use, i.e., names, addresses,
phone numbers, membership codes, etc.

        User:  Anyone who accesses a computerized bulletin board

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system  and is exposed to the information stored there. Users may
be  identified  by  their  true  names,  by an assigned numerical
code, or by colorful "handles", or "usernames."20

        Operating  System:  This is a program which controls the
computer's   basic  operations  and  which  recognizes  different
computer  users  so  that their actions do not interfere with one
another.21  For  example,  most multi-user operating systems will
not  allow  one  user  to delete another's data unless the second
user  gives  explicit  permission.22 BBS system software programs
perform  this  function  through  their  use  of  "accounts"  and
"passwords":23  private electronic mail sent to a particular user
may  not  be read or deleted by others. The BBS' operating system
is  also  designed  to  deny access to those attempting to log on
under an unvalidated or unrecognized name.24

        Account/Username:   As   another   part  of  BBS  system
security,   each   user  chooses  an  "account",  or  "username",
consisting  of  one  to  eight  letters  or  numbers.25  The BBS'
operating  system then will not allow commands issued by one user
of  one  account to modify data created by another account;26 nor
will  it  grant  access to an account that has been terminated or
invalidated.

        Password:  Yet  another aspect of BBS system security is
the  use  of  "passwords"  as  a  prerequisite  to  accessing the
computer  system.  Most  operating  systems  require  the user to
enter  both  her  account name and password to use the account.27
Because  electronic  mail  cannot be sent without the username to
which  it  is  being addressed, and because the account cannot be

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used  without  knowledge of the password, usernames are generally
public  knowledge  while  passwords are a closely-guarded secret,
known only to the user and the operating system.28

        Teleprocessing:  This is defined as accessing a computer
from  a remote location, usually over a telephone line or similar
communications channel.29

        Uploading/Downloading:   For   purposes   of  exchanging
computer  programs  or  electronic mail over the phone lines, the
process  of transferring information from one's personal computer
to  the bulletin board is called uploading. The reverse process -
transferring  information  from  a  bulletin  board to a personal
computer - is known as downloading.30

II. DEFAMATION LIABILITY OF COMPUTERIZED BBS OPERATORS

   A.   Computerized Defamation: Libel or Slander?

        Libel  is  the  "publication  of  defamatory  matter  by
written  or printed words, by its embodiment in physical form, or
by  any  other  form  of  communication  that has the potentially
harmful  qualities characteristic of written or printed words."31
Publication   of   a  defamatory  matter  is  "its  communication
intentionally  or by a negligent act to one other than the person
defamed."32  A  communication  is  defamatory  if it "tends to so
harm  the reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation
of  the  community  or to deter third persons from associating or
dealing  with  him."33  The  difference between libel and slander
has  traditionally  depended  upon the form of the communication:
oral  defamation  generally  is considered slander, while written

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defamation  is  generally  considered libel.34 The distinction is
important,  because  libel  requires  no proof of special damages
and  is  actionable  by  itself, while slander generally requires
proof of special damages in order to be actionable.35

        However,  with  the  advent  of  electronic  media,  the
traditional  libel/slander  distinctions  as  they apply to sight
and  hearing are no longer valid. For example, passing defamatory
gestures  and  signals,  though visible to sight, were considered
slander;36  an  ad-libbed  statement  on  a  telecast impugning a
person's financial status was found to be libel.37

        It  has been suggested that the real distinction between
libel  and  slander  is  the  threat  and  magnitude  of  harm to
reputation  inherent in the form of publication.38 Libel has been
historically  associated  with  writings because (1) a writing is
made  more  deliberately  than  an  oral statement; (2) a writing
makes  a  greater  impression  to  the  eye  than  does  an  oral
statement  to  the  ear;  (3)  a  writing  is more permanent than
speech;  and (4) a writing has a wider area of dissemination than
speech.39  These  four  qualities  inherent in a writing made the
possible  harm  to  reputation greater than mere spoken words. In
applying  libel  to  the  new  form of computerized communication
used  on  BBSes,  the  potentiality  for  harm  to  reputation is
significant,  and  should  again  be  considered  the controlling
factor.

        In  our hypothetical situation, the user discovered that
another  user  (the masquerader) had usurped her account name and
password,  causing  her  great embarrassment and humiliation. The

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act  of  prying into and taking another's computer information to
misuse  it elsewhere would indicate a certain deliberation on the
actor's   part  to  spread  defamatory  messages.  Secondly,  the
defamatory  message is displayed to other users on their computer
monitors  in  the  form of electronic characters, making a visual
impression.  Third,  this electronic defamation is more permanent
than  mere  words  because  it is stored in the BBS' memory until
erased  by the user or SYSOP. Finally, the message arguably has a
wider  area  of dissemination than a one-to-one spoken defamation
because,  as a message on an electronic BBS, it has the potential
of  being  viewed  by  hundreds, perhaps thousands, of users each
day.  Based  on these four criteria, the capacity for harm to our
user's  reputation  due to the masquerader's activities is indeed
great enough to be considered libellous.

   B.   Defamation Liability of the SYSOP

        Having  established  the  electronic  message  as  being
libellous,   the  next  issue  is  to  determine  the  extent  of
liability  for  the  SYSOP who unknowingly permits the message to
be  communicated  over  his  BBS.  Case  law  indicates  that the
SYSOP's  liability depends upon the type of person defamed and on
the subject matter of the defamation.

        1.   Degree of fault required

        The  United  States  Supreme  Court has addressed modern
defamation  liability  in  two  major decisions. Both conditioned
the  publisher's  liability  on the type of person defamed and on
the  content  of the defamation. In New York Times v. Sullivan,40
the  Court  determined  that  in  order  for a public official to

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recover  damages  in  a  defamation action, the statement must be
shown  to  have  been  made  with  "actual  malice",  i.e.,  with
knowledge  of  its  falsity  or  with  reckless disregard for its
truth.41  Due  to  society's interest in "uninhibited, robust and
wide-open"  debate  on  public  issues, neither factual error nor
defamatory  content  sufficed  to  remove  the  First Amendment's
shield from criticism of an official's conduct.42

        The  Supreme  Court  further  elaborated  on  defamation
liability  standards in the private and quasi-private sphere when
it  decided Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.43 In Gertz, the publisher
of  a  John  Birch  Society  newsletter  made  certain  false and
inaccurate  accusations  concerning an attorney who represented a
deceased  boy's family. The family had civilly sued the policeman
who  murdered  the  boy.  In  rebutting what he perceived to be a
secret  campaign  against  law  and order, the publisher labelled
the  family's attorney a "Leninist" and "Communist-fronter".44 In
addition,  the  publisher  asserted  that the attorney had been a
member  of  the National Lawyers Guild, which "'probably did more
than  any  other  outfit  to  plan  the  Communist  attack on the
Chicago  police  during  the  1968  Democratic Convention.'"45 In
publishing  these  statements  throughout  Chicago,  the managing
editor  of  the Birch Society newsletter made no effort to verify
or substantiate the charges against the attorney.46

        The  Supreme  Court  held  in  Gertz  that  while  First
Amendment   considerations   protect  publications  about  public
officials47  and about "public figures"48, requiring a showing of
"actual  malice"  before  defamation  damages could be recovered,

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the  same  was  not  true for defamation suits brought by private
citizens49,  a  group to which the attorney was held to belong.50
Private  citizens  were  seen  as deserving more protections from
defamation  than public officials or public figures, so they were
not  required  to  show  "actual  malice"  as  a  precondition to
recovery.51  The  Court  then left it to the states to decide the
precise   standard   of   liability  for  defamation  of  private
individuals,  so  long  as  liability  without  fault was not the
standard.52

        By  Gertz,  then,  the appropriate standard of liability
for  publicizing  defamation  of  private parties falls somewhere
below  actual malice and above strict liability. The problem with
defining  the defamation standard for computerized BBS operators,
however,  is  a lack of uniform standards. In such circumstances,
the   objective  "reasonable  person"  standard  will  likely  be
applied  to  the SYSOP's actions.53 Several cases may be usefully
applied by analogy.

        The  court  in  Hellar  v.  Bianco54  held  that  a  bar
proprietor  could  be  responsible  for  not removing a libellous
message  concerning  the  plaintiff's  wife  that appeared on the
wall  of  the  bar's  washroom  after  having been alerted to the
message's  existence.55  The court noted that "persons who invite
the  public  to  their  premises  owe  a  duty  to  others not to
knowingly  permit  their  walls  to  be  occupied with defamatory
matter....  The  theory  is  that  by  knowingly  permitting such
matter  to  remain  after  reasonable opportunity to remove [it],
the  owner  of  the wall or his lessee is guilty of republication

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of  the  libel."56  The  Hellar  court  then  left  the  ultimate
determination  of  the bar owner's negligence to the jury.57 This
holding  seems  to  be  in  accord with the Restatement of Torts,
which provides:

        PUBLICATION:

        (2)  One  who  intentionally  and unreasonably
             fails  to  remove  defamatory matter that
             he  knows  to  be  exhibited  on  land or
             chattels  in  his possession or under his
             control  is  subject to liability for its
             continued publication.58

        Contrarily,  however, the Ohio court of appeals in Scott
v.  Hull59  found  that  the  building  owner  and  agent who had
control  over  a  building's maintenance were not responsible for
libel  damages  for graffiti inscribed by an unknown person on an
exterior  wall.60  The  court distinguished Hellar by noting that
in  Hellar  the  bartender  constructively adopted the defamatory
writing  by  delaying  in removing it after having been expressly
asked to do so:

        "It  may  thus  be  observed  from these cases
        that  where  liability is found to exist it is
        predicated  upon  actual  publication  by  the
        defendant  or  on the defendant's ratification
        of  a publication by another, the ratification
        in  Hellar  v. Bianco...consisting of at least
        the   positive   acts  of  the  defendants  in
        continuing  to  invite  the  public into their
        premises  where  the  defamatory matter was on
        view  after  the  defendants  had knowledge of
        existence of same."61

        The  Scott  court  held  that  defendants  could only be
responsible  for publishing a libellous remark through a positive
act,  not  nonfeasance;  thus,  their  mere failure to remove the
graffiti  from  the building's exterior after having it called to

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their  attention  was  held  not  to  be  a  sufficient  basis of
liability.62

        A  situation  similar to Scott arose recently in Tackett
v.  General  Motors  Corporation.63  There, an employee brought a
libel  suit  against  his  employer  for,  inter alia, failing to
remove  allegedly  defamatory signs from the interior wall of its
manufacturing  plant  after having notice of their existence. One
large  sign  remained  on  the wall for two to three days while a
smaller  one  remained  visible  for  seven  to  eight  months.64
Instead   of   focussing  on  the  Scott  malfeasance/nonfeasance
test,65   the   Tackett   court  considered  defendant's  implied
adoption  of  the  libellous statement to be the correct basis of
liability.66  While  saying  that  failure  to remove a libellous
message  from  a  publicly-viewed  place may be the equivalent of
adopting  that  statement,  and  noting that Indiana would follow
the  Restatement  view "when the time comes,"67 the Tackett court
held  that  the  Restatement  view could be taken too far. Citing
Hellar, the court wrote:

        The  Restatement  suggests that a tavern owner
        would   be   liable   if  defamatory  graffiti
        remained  on  a  bathroom  stall a single hour
        after  the discovery [Citation to Hellar]. The
        common  law  of  washrooms is otherwise, given
        the  steep discount that readers apply to such
        statements   and   the  high  cost  of  hourly
        repaintings  of  bathroom  stalls [Citation to
        Scott].   The  burden  of  constant  vigilance
        exceeds  the  benefits  to be had. A person is
        responsible   for   statements   he  makes  or
        adopts,  so  the  question is whether a reader
        may  infer  adoption  from  the  presence of a
        statement.  That inference may be unreasonable
        for  a  bathroom  wall  or  the  interior of a
        subway  car  in  New York City but appropriate
        for  the  interior  walls  of  a manufacturing

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        plant,   over   which   supervisory  personnel
        exercise  greater supervision and control. The
        costs  of  vigilance  are  small (most will be
        incurred    anyway),    and    the    benefits
        potentially   large   (because  employees  may
        attribute  the  statements  to  their employer
        more  readily  than patrons attribute graffiti
        to barkeeps).68

        According  to  this  reasoning,  then,  the location and
length  of  time the libel is allowed to appear plays an integral
part  in  determining  whether  a given defendant has adopted the
libel, and thus has published it.

        An  application  of  the foregoing analysis to the issue
at  hand  highlights  the  need  for greater care in allowing the
posting  of  electronic mail messages on a BBS. The Tackett court
noted  that  while  the content of graffitti scrawled on bathroom
walls  might be subject to healthy skepticism by its readers, the
same  might  not be true for other locations such as interiors of
subway  cars  or  manufacturing  plant  walls.69 If this is true,
then  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  a  defamatory message
displayed  in a forum for the exchange of ideas is more apt to be
taken  seriously  by  its readers - especially when the libellous

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message purports to be written by the subject of the libel.70

        Further,  the Tackett court indicated that the high cost
of   repainting  bathroom  stalls  by  the  hour  outweighed  its
perceptible  benefits. The same is not true for electronic BBSes,
where  the costs of prevention are minimal in light of the threat
of widespread harm to users' reputations.71

        2.   Damages

        Once  the plaintiff establishes that the SYSOP failed to
act  reasonably in removing statements known to be libellous from
his  BBS  or  in  negligently failing to prevent their appearance
there,72  no  proof  of  special damages is necessary as libel is
actionable  per  se.73 The state's interest in protecting private
reputations  has been held to outweigh the reduced constitutional
value  of speech involving matters of no public concern such that
presumed  and  punitive damages may be recovered absent a showing
of actual malice.74

        The  proper  gauge  of  liability  has again raised some
questions.75  One writer has noted that if the burden of proof is

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to  rest  on  the  plaintiff,  she  may  be  at a disadvantage in
producing  sufficient  evidence  to demonstrate negligent conduct
on  the  part  of  the  SYSOP.76  Solutions  to this problem have
ranged  from  a  rebuttable presumption of negligence in favor of
the  plaintiff77  to  adoption  of  a set of standards similar to
those  set  out  in  the  Federal Fair Credit Reporting Act.78 In
either   event,  damage  awards  for  computer  abuse  have  been
addressed both by federal and state law.79

        3.   Suggestions

        Because  computerized  BBSes  are still a relatively new
technological  phenomena, consistent standards for SYSOPs' duties
have  yet  to  be developed.80 However, at least one users' group
has  adopted  a voluntary code of standards for electronic BBSes,
applicable  to  both  users  and  SYSOPs  of  boards  open to the
general public:

        SCOPE:

        This  Minimum  Code  of  Standards  applies to
        both  users  and  SYStem Operators (SYSOPs) of
        electronic  bulletin  boards  available to the
        general public.

        FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND IDEAS

        Each  user  and  SYSOP  of  such systems shall
        actively   encourage   and  promote  the  free
        exchange   and   discussion   of  information,

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        ideas,  and  opinions, except when the content
        would:
        -    Compromise  the  national security of the
             United States.
        -    violate proprietary rights.
        -    violate personal privacy,
        -    constitute a crime,
        -    constitute libel, or
        -    violate   applicable  state,  federal  or
             local   laws  and  regulations  affecting
             telecommunications.

        DISCLOSURE

        Each user and SYSOP of such system will:
        -    disclose their real name, and
        -    fully  disclose  any personal, financial,
             or  commercial  interest  when evaluation
             any specific product or service.

        PROCEDURES

        SYSOPS shall:

        -    review  in  a  timely manner all publicly
             accessible information, and
        -    delete  any  information  which they know
             or  should  know conflicts with this code
             of standards.

        A  'timely  manner'  is  defined  as  what  is
        reasonable  based  on  the potential harm that
        could be expected. Users are responsible for:

        -    ensuring   that   any   information  they
             transmit  to such systems adheres to this
             Minimum Code of Standards, and

        -    upon   discovering   violations   of  the
             Minimum  Code of Standards, notifying the
             SYSOP immediately.

        IMPLEMENTATION

        Electronic  bulletin board systems that choose
        to  follow  this  Minimum  Code  of  Standards
        shall  notify  their  users by publishing this
        Minimum  Code,  as  adopted by the [Capitol PC
        Users  Group],  and  prominently  display  the
        following:
        'This  system  subscribes  to  the  Capitol PC
        Users  Group  Minimum  Code  of  Standards for
        electronic bulletin board systems.'81

        While  non-binding  on  publicly-accessible  BBSes,  the
above  guidelines  furnish  sound  basic policies that all SYSOPs
might  use in shielding themselves from defamation liability. Our
hypothetical  at  the  beginning  of  this  Comment  described  a
situation  where  a  malicious  intruder  was  able to access and

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masquerade  as  a validated user on a BBS; the following are some
additional  computer  security measures that the reasonable SYSOP
could conduct to avoid that situation:

        a.   Special   "screening"   software:  One  writer  has
suggested  discouraging  potential BBS misuse through programming
the  BBS  to  reject  those messages containing common defamatory
and  obscene  language;82  such a program would discard a message
containing  any  of  those  terms and would presumably notify the
SYSOP  of  their  presence.  Drawbacks to this procedure are that
computer  programs cannot understand all the nuances of libellous
messages83  and  would  thus  lead  to the rigid deletion of many
otherwise legitimate messages.84

        b.   Unique    passwords:   A   more   fundamental   and
economical  approach  would  be  for the SYSOP to both notify all
new  users  about the potential for computerized BBS abuse and to
encourage  their  use of a unique password on each BBS they call.
This  would  have  the  practical effect of keeping a masquerader
from   using  the  names  and  passwords  found  on  one  BBS  to
wrongfully  access  and  masquerade on other BBSes. A drawback to
this  procedure is that the truly malicious masquerader may still
discover  a BBS' most sensitive user records by way of a renegade
computer  program  called  a "trojan horse".85 However, one could
speculate  that  the SYSOP acts reasonably in informing potential
users of the existing threat and in helping them avoid it.

        c.   Encryption:  This  is  essentially  a  way  for the
SYSOP  to make the users' passwords unique for them. The power of
the  computer  allows complex algorithms to be applied to data to

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encode  it in such a way that, without the key to the code, it is
virtually  impossible to decode the information.86 This technique
would  have  the  added  benefit of forcing the masquerader, upon
accessing  the BBS with a trojan horse program, to search for the
secret  decoding  algorithm  in  addition to the BBS' secret user
files.  Indeed,  it  is  conceivable that a special encryption or
password  could  be devised to allow only the SYSOP access to the
BBS'   decoding   algorithm.   However,   encryption  involves  a
significant  overhead  -  impractical  for most small, privately-
operated  BBSes - and is more frequently used to protect messages
from  one  system  to  another  where  the  data is vulnerable to
interception as it passes over transmission lines.87

        d.   Prompt  damage  control:  In  accord with Hellar,88
the  Restatement  (Second)  of Torts,89 and possibly Tackett,90 a
SYSOP  acts reasonably in promptly assisting the libelled user to
partially  reverse  the  effects  of  the  masquerader's actions.
Recall  that  in  those  instances  a  defendant was held to have
impliedly  adopted  a defamatory statement by acting unreasonably
slowly  in  removing  it  from his property once having been made
aware  of  it.91 While it may be unreasonable to expect the SYSOP
to  monitor  each message posted every day - especially where the
defamatory  message  appears to have been left by the true user -
it  is  not  too  much  to  require  the  SYSOP to quickly remedy
security  flaws  in  his BBS as they are pointed out to him.92 To
this  end, the SYSOP has several options. In situations where the
defaming   user   libels  another  without  masquerading  as  the
libelled  party,  the  SYSOP  could  simply  delete the defamer's

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account.  In  situations  where  a  user  masquerading as another
posts  a  libellous message, the SYSOP could publish a retraction
to  all  his subscribers, urging them to use a different password
on  each  BBS  they  call. Further, where a masquerader published
the  libel,  the  SYSOP  should offer his full cooperation to the
maligned  user  in  tracking down the time and date the libellous
message  was  posted93  in  order  to  better  limit  the SYSOP's
liability.

        Certain  BBS  SYSOPs  claim that holding them liable for
information   appearing  on  their  BBSes  violates  their  First
Amendment  rights by restricting their right to free speech94 and
by  holding  them  responsible  for  the libel perpetrated by the

>From kadie Sat Oct 12 09:53:46 1991
To: cafb-mail
~Subject: Computers and Academic Freedom mailing list (batch edition)
Status: R


Computers and Academic Freedom mailing list (batch edition)
Sat Oct 12 09:53:27 EDT 1991

[For information on how to get a much smaller edited version of the
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In this issue:

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-------------------

masquerader.  It has been suggested that the SYSOP should be held
to  the  same standard of liability as a neighborhood supermarket
which   furnishes   a   public  bulletin  board:95  just  as  the
supermarket  would not be liable for posting an advertisement for
illicit  services,  so  should the BBS SYSOP escape liability for
libellous  messages left on his board, especially when its poster
appears to be a validated user.96

        However,  this  comparison  lacks  merit for the reasons
given  by  the  Seventh  Circuit  in  Tackett  v.  General Motors
Corporation.97  The  defendant's liability in that case rested on
its  publication of libel by implicitly adopting the statement.98
Defendant's  failure  to  remove a defamatory sign painted on one
of  the  interior  walls of its factory for seven or eight months
after  discovering  its  presence  was  such that "[a] reasonable
person  could conclude that Delco 'intentionally and unreasonably

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fail[ed]   to   remove'  this  sign  and  thereby  published  its
contents."99

        There  would  certainly  be  accomplice liability if the
supermarket  unreasonably  delayed  removing an advertisement for
illegal  services  from its bulletin board once it was made aware
of  it.  The  market  could  be  seen  as having adopted the ad's
statements  by  not  acting  responsibly  to  its viewing public.
Similarly,  a  SYSOP  would  be  liable  for  defamatory messages
posted  on  his  BBS - even by what appears to be the true user -
if  he  fails  to  act  reasonably by using his computer skill to
eviscerate  the  libel.100  While  the  computerized  BBS  may be
nothing  more  than a hobby of the SYSOP, the speed with which it
can  disseminate potentially damaging information among its users
demands the standards of responsibility described above.

   C.   Defamation Liability of the Masquerader

        1.   Degree of fault required

        It  should  be noted that the liability and proof issues
concerning  the  SYSOP  and  masquerader  are  inverse. As to the
SYSOP  who allows libellous messages to be posted on his BBS, his
liability  may  be  inferred  simply  by  those  messages  having
appeared  there;101  however, his degree of fault - actual malice
or  simple  negligence  -  is  subject  to debate.102 Conversely,
while  the  masquerader's  degree of fault is clearly evident,103
tracing  that  fault back to him is a more elusive matter.104 The
requisite  degree of fault for masqueraders is set out in federal
and state law.105

        2.   Damages

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        Assuming  arguendo  that  the  masquerader's  defamatory
publications  have  been  successfully  traced back to him by the
plaintiff,  actual  and  punitive  damages  may then be recovered
from  him  based on his knowledge of the publication's falsity or
reckless  disregard  for its truth.106 Federal and state law have
also specified certain remedies.107

III PROBLEMS OF PROOF

   A.   Proof of SYSOP's Actions

        We  have seen that while the appropriate degree of fault
for  a  SYSOP  to  be liable for defamatory messages appearing on
his  BBS  is subject to dispute,108 a showing that the defamation
appeared  there  due  to  the  SYSOP's  negligence  is  much more
capable  of  resolution.109  The jury should be made aware of the
actual  validation/security procedures practiced by the SYSOP and
should  weigh  them  in  light  of  the  prevailing  practice.110
Several  facets  of  an emerging standard of care for SYSOPs have
already  been  suggested  in  this  Comment,111  and  the SYSOP's
adherence to them could be shown through users' testimony.

   B.   Proof of Masquerader's Actions

        In  contrast  with  the  degree  of  fault  required  to
establish  the  SYSOP's publication of the libellous message, the
degree  of  fault  for  the  masquerader  is much less subject to
debate.   The   masquerader's   actions  are  not  likely  to  be
considered  merely  inadvertent or negligent.112 However, because
the  masquerader  has  intentionally  discovered  and usurped the
user's  name  and  password,  he  appears  to be that user on all

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computer    records.   Tracing   the   masquerader's   defamatory
publication   back   to   him   thus  encounters  some  important
evidentiary  barriers:  the  maligned  user  is forced to rely on
computerized  records  produced  by  the BBS and phone company in
trying  to  link  the masquerader's libellous publication back to
him.113  We  turn  now  to consider the evidentiary hurdles to be
overcome  in  tracing  the  libellous  communication  to its true
source.

        1.   The Hearsay Rule & Business Records Exception

        The   first   evidentiary  obstacle  to  connecting  the
masquerader  with  his libellous publication is the hearsay rule.
As  defined  by  the  Federal  Rules  of  Evidence, hearsay is "a
statement,  other than one made by the declarant while testifying
at  the  trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth
of  the  matter  asserted";114  as  such,  it  is inadmissible as
evidence  at  trial.115 Computer-generated evidence is subject to
the  hearsay  rule,  not  because  it  is  the  "statement  of  a
computer",  but  because it is the statement of a human being who
entered  the  data.116 To the extent the plaintiff user relies on
computer-generated  records  to  show that a call was placed from
the  masquerader  to  the  BBS  at the time and date in question,
then, her evidence may be excluded.

        However,  numerous  exceptions  to the hearsay rule have
developed   over   the  years  such  that  evidence  which  might
otherwise  be  excluded  is deemed admissible. The most pertinent
hearsay  exception  as  applied  to  computerized evidence is the
"business  records  exception",  which  admits  into evidence any

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records  or  data  compilations,  so  long  as (1) they were made
reasonably  contemporaneously  with  the  events they record; (2)
they  were  prepared/kept  in the course of a regularly conducted
business  activity;  and  (3)  the business entity creating these
records  relied  on  them  in  conducting  its operations.117 The
veracity  of  the  computer  records  and  of the actual business
practices  are shown by the record custodian's or other qualified
witness'  testimony,  unless  the  circumstances indicate lack of
trustworthiness.118  The  term  "business"  as  used in this rule
includes  callings  of  every  kind, whether or not conducted for
profit.119

        Statutes  and  judicial decisions in several states have
gradually  recognized that the business records exception extends
to  include computer-generated records.120 This is largely due to
(1)  modern business' widespread reliance on computerized record-
keeping,  (2)  the impracticability of calling as witnesses every
person   having   direct   personal  knowledge  of  the  records'
creation,  and (3) the presumption that if a business was willing
to  rely  on  such records, there is little reason to doubt their
accuracy.121

        Using  this  exception  to  the  hearsay rule, plaintiff
user  would most likely seek to admit the BBS' computer-generated
username/password  log-in  records  plus the phone company's call
records  to  establish  the  connection between the masquerader's
telephone  and  the  BBS  at  the  precise  instant the libellous
message  was  posted.122 As an initial matter, however, plaintiff

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must  first  lay  a  foundation  for  both  the  BBS'  and  phone
company's computer-generated business records.

        A  sufficient  foundation for computer-generated records
was  found  recently to exist in People v. Lugashi.123 There, the
California  Court  of Appeal affirmed a conviction of grand theft
based  on  evidence adduced from computer-generated bank records.
Defendant,  an  oriental  rug  store owner, had been convicted of
fraudulently   registering   thirty-seven  sales  on  counterfeit
credit  cards.  The  issuing  banks became suspicious of criminal
activity  when  charge  card  sales  data  from defendant's store
showed  44  fraudulent  uses of charge cards at defendant's store
within  only  five  weeks.124  As  each  fraudulent  credit  card
transaction   was   completed,   defendant  registered  the  sale
simultaneously  with  the  banks'  computers.125  Each  night, as
standard  bank  practice,  the  banks  then  reduced the computer
records  of  credit  card transactions to microfiche. Information
gleaned   from  these  microfiche  records  was  entered  against
defendant at trial.126

        The  California  Court  of  Appeal  recognized the trial
court   judge's   wide   discretion   in  determining  whether  a
sufficient  foundation  to  qualify evidence as a business record
has  been  laid.127 It held that defendant's allocations of error
were  without merit since defendant himself had acknowledged that
the  bank's  computer  entries  memorialized  in  the  microfiche
record  were  entered  simultaneously  as  they  occurred  in the
regular  course  of  business.128  Further,  the Court of Appeals
dismissed  defendant's  claim  that  only a computer expert could

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supply  testimony  concerning  the  reliability  of  the computer
record:
   Appellant's  proposed test incorrectly presumes computer
   data  to  be  unreliable, and, unlike any other business
   record,   requires   its   proponent   to  disprove  the
   possibility  of error, not to convince the trier of fact
   to  accept  it,  but  merely to meet the minimal showing
   required for admission....
   The  time  required  to produce this additional [expert]
   testimony  would unduly burden our already crowded trial
   courts to no real benefit.129



        The  Lugashi  court  then  followed  the  bulk  of other
jurisdictions  adopting  similar analyses and upholding admission
of  computer  records  with similar or less foundational showings
over similar objections.130

        As  to  admission  into evidence of telephone companies'
computer-generated   call  records  under  the  business  records
exception,  courts  have  evinced  a  similar attitude to that in
Lugashi.  In  State  v.  Armstead,131  a  prosecution for obscene
phone  calls,  the trial court was held to have properly admitted
computer   printouts  showing  that  calls  had  been  made  from
defendant's  mother's  telephone,  despite defendant's contention
that  the  witness  who  was called to lay the foundation had not
been  personally  responsible  for  making the record.132 Because
the  printout represented a simultaneous self-generated record of
computer   operation,   the  court  held  it  was  therefore  not
hearsay.133

        In   an   Ohio   prosecution  for  interstate  telephone
harassment,  it  was  held  no  error  was committed in admitting
defendant's  computerized  phone  statement  under  the  Business
Records  exception  which  showed  that  telephone calls had been

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made  from  defendant's  phone  in  Ohio  to  various  numbers in
Texas.134  A  sufficient foundation for the admission of business
records  under  Federal  Rules of Evidence 803(6) was established
when  a  telephone  company  witness  identified  the  records as
authentic  and  testified they were made in the regular course of
business.135

        Applying  the foregoing analyses to BBSes, the plaintiff
user  would  establish a foundation for the correlated BBS136 and
telephone  company  phone logs by showing that (1) they were made
contemporaneously  with  the posting of the libellous message;137
(2)  they  were  prepared/kept  in  the  course  of  a  regularly
conducted  business  activity,  since  both the BBS and telephone
company  consistently  maintain  accounts  of all persons who use
their  services;  and (3) the BBS and telephone company relied on
those  records for billing purposes.138 Once such a foundation is
laid,  the  trial court has wide discretion in admitting business
records into evidence.139

        2.   Authentication & the Voluminous Records Exception

        The  second  evidentiary  barrier encountered in tracing
the  masquerader's  libellous messages back to him is proving his
authorship  of  the  libel,  or "authenticating" the computerized
records.140  The computer-generated phone and BBS records showing
that  a call from a certain phone number at a particular date and
time  resulted  in  a  libellous  message  being  published  must
somehow be linked to the masquerader.

        The  Federal  Rules  of  Evidence  provide  in pertinent

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part:
   (a)  General     provision.     The    requirement    of
        authentication  or  identification  as  a condition
        precedent   to   admissibility   is   satisfied  by
        evidence  sufficient  to support a finding that the
        matter in question is what its proponent claims.
   (b)  Illustrations.  By  way  of  illustration only, and
        not   by  way  of  limitation,  the  following  are
        examples   of   authentication   or  identification
        conforming with the requirements of this rule:...
        (6)  Telephone       conversations.       Telephone
             conversations,  by  evidence  that  a call was
             made  to  the  number  assigned at the time by
             the  telephone  company to a particular person
             or business, if
             (A)  in  the  case of a person, circumstances,
                  including  self-identification,  show the
                  person  answering  to  be the one called,
                  or
             (B)  in  the  case of a business, the call was
                  made  to  a  place  of  business  and the
                  conversation    related    to    business
                  reasonably     transacted     over    the
                  telephone....141

        The   question   of   whether   a  writing  is  properly
authenticated  is  primarily  one  of  law  for the court; if the
court  decides  the  question affirmatively, it is ultimately for
the  jury.142  The  court  will  make  no  assumptions  as to the
authenticity    of    documents   in   deciding   their   initial
admissibility.143  The  difficulty  presented  here  is  that the
Federal  Rules  of  Evidence  seem  to  require authentication of
telephone  calls  by  reference to their specific content.144 The
specific  content  of  a  given phone call is not demonstrated by
phone logs showing merely the date and time the call occurred.

        The   authentication   of  extrinsic  documents  may  be
subject  to  a  "best  evidence  rule"  objection.  As  stated in
Federal Rule of Evidence 1002:
   REQUIREMENT  OF  ORIGINAL:  To  prove  the contents of a

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   writing,  recording, or photograph, the original of that
   writing,  recording,  or  photograph is required, unless
   provided  otherwise  in  these  rules  or  by  an act of
   Congress.145



        Since  its  introduction  in  the  18th century, various
rationales  have  been  posited  for  this rule.146 While earlier
writers  asserted  that  the  rule  is intended to prevent fraud,
most  modern  commentators  agree that the rule's main purpose is
to  convey  to  the  court  the  exact  operative  effect  of the
writing's contents.147

        However,   at  least  one  jurisdiction  has  implicitly
equated  compliance  with the business records exception with the
Best  Evidence  Rule.  In Louisiana v. Hodgeson,148 the defendant
in  a  manslaughter  trial  contended  that  a  printout  of  her
telephone  bill, offered to show communications between her and a
third  party,  was  not authenticated.149 The court, while making
no  specific  reference  to  the  authentication  point, rejected
defendant's  contention,  noting  that  the  information from the
computer's  storage was the company's business record and that it
was accessible only by printout.150

        Similarly,  in  an  Indiana bank robbery prosecution,151
the  state  offered  microfiche copies of the telephone company's
computerized   records   showing  certain  telephone  calls  from
defendant.  On appeal, defendant argued that these documents were
not  authenticated  because  they were not the "original or first
permanent  entry,"  and  that they therefore should not have been
admitted  into  evidence.  The  court  disagreed,  saying  that a
duplicate  was  admissible  to  the  same  extent  as an original

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unless  a  "genuine  issue" were raised as to the authenticity of
the original.152

        By  these  precedents,  then,  provided  plaintiff  user
establishes  that  both  the  telephone and BBS user records were
prepared  in  accordance  with the business records exception,153
the  fact  that  a  call from the masquerader's phone is shown to
have  occurred  at  the  same  instant  the libellous message was
posted  may  be sufficient to authenticate that the call was made
by  the  masquerader.  Other  circumstantial  evidence adduced by
plaintiff user would strengthen this inference.154

        Another  authentication  hurdle  in  plaintiff's case is
the  requirement  that  the  entire  original record sought to be
authenticated  be  produced.155 This requirement can prove highly
impractical  in  situations  where  there  are  vast  numbers  of
individual  records  extending  over  long  periods  of  time.156
Requiring  plaintiff  to produce the entire body of these records
would  be  unduly  expensive and time-consuming. What is more, if
plaintiff   were   to  attempt  to  summarize  vast  computerized
business  data  compilations  so  as to introduce those summaries
into  evidence  without  producing  the complete body of computer
records,  such  summaries  might not be admissible on the grounds
that they were not made "in the regular course of business."157

        However,   an   exception   to   strict   authentication
requirements   of   the   Federal  Rules  of  Evidence  has  been
developed. Rule 1006 provides:
   The  contents  of  voluminous  writings,  recordings, or
   photographs  which  cannot  conveniently  be examined in
   court  may be presented in the form of a chart, summary,


---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             32
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   or  calculation.  The originals, or duplicates, shall be
   made  available  for examination or copying, or both, by
   other  parties  at  reasonable time and place. The court
   may order that they be produced in court.158



        In   Cotton   v.  John  W.  Eshelman  &  Sons,  Inc.,159
summaries  of  certain  computerized  records  were held properly
admitted  into  evidence on the theory that "[w]hen pertinent and
essential  facts  can  be ascertained only by an examination of a
large  number  of  entries  in  books  of  account, an auditor or
expert  examiner  who has made an examination and analysis of the
books  and  figures  may testify as a witness and give summarized
statements   of   what   the  books  show  as  a  result  of  his
investigation,  provided  the  books themselves are accessible to
the   court   and  to  the  parties."160  Under  this  precedent,
plaintiff  user would only need to produce the pertinent parts of
the computerized records, as determined by an impartial auditor.
IV. CONCLUSION

        It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the ease with which
computers  now  enable  us  to  compile and exchange information.
Computerized  "bulletin boards" run on personal microcomputers by
private  persons  and  businesses  are  examples of this enhanced
form  of  communication.  Users  can  trade computer programs and
exchange  a  wealth  of ideas, opinions, and personal information
through such forums.

        The  advantages  of  this  process  break down, however,
when   malicious   users   abuse   the   system  and  BBS  SYSOPS
intentionally  or  negligently allow this to occur. The nature of
computerized  data  is  such  that  tortious  misinformation  may

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& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             33
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easily  be  spread to thousands of users before it is discovered.
Because  the  potential  for harm to reputation is so tremendous,
appropriate  standards  of liability and methods of proof must be
addressed.

        The  requisite  degree  of  fault  in  libelling private
persons  is  less than that for libelling public officials/public
figures,  and  may  be established as against a SYSOP by a simple
showing  of  his  negligent failure to observe reasonably minimal
computer   security  measures.  The  basis  of  liability  for  a
masquerader  who  intentionally misappropriates another's private
information is even less subject to debate.

        Two  main evidentiary hurdles face the plaintiff seeking
to  link  the  masquerader  with  his  libellous  message through
reliance  on  computer-generated records. First, the hearsay rule
automatically  excludes  all  evidence produced out-of-court that
is  being  offered  to  prove  the  truth  of the matter at hand.
Second,   the   authentication   requirement   demands  that  the
masquerader's   connection   to  the  entire  body  of  proffered
computer records be established.

        However,  certain exception to both of these limitations
ease   the   plaintiff's  burden.  First,  the  business  records
exception  to  the  hearsay  rule  admits  computer  records into
evidence  if they (1) were made reasonably contemporaneously with
the  events  they record; (2) were prepared/kept in the course of
a  regularly  conducted  business  activity; and (3) the business
entity  creating  these  records relied on them in conducting its
operations.  Both  BBS  and  telephone  company  records may come

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& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             34
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under  this  exception. Second, the voluminous writings exception
allows  the  contents  of  voluminous  computerized records which
cannot  conveniently  be examined in court to be presented in the
form  of a summary. So long as the original records or duplicates
thereof  are  available  for  examination  by  other  parties  at
reasonable  times  and  places,  the entire data compilation need
not   be   produced.   Plaintiff  should  employ  both  of  these
exceptions  in an effort to convince a jury by a preponderance of
the  evidence that the masquerader has abused his computer skills
and has damaged plaintiff's reputation.

          ==============================================
Resent-Message-Id: <[email protected]>
       id AA20305; Fri, 20 Apr 90 12:46:45 PDT
~Date: Fri, 20 Apr 90 12:42:02 PDT
~From: Lang Zerner <[email protected]>
Message-Id: <[email protected]>
~Subject: Sysops and libel liability -- endnotes
Resent-Date:  Sat, 21 Apr 90 0:05:23 CDT
Resent-From: [email protected]
Resent-To: [email protected]
Status: RO
Here are the endnotes to the paper I submitted in a separate message.
Be seeing you...
==Lang
=======

---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             35
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                            ENDNOTES

1.       418 U.S. 323, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 41 L.Ed.2d 789 (1974).

2.       These  interests can cover anything from science fiction
        to  gourmet  cooking. Uyehara, Computer Bulletin Boards:
        Let the Operator Beware, 14 Student Lawyer 28 (1986).

3.       Id., at 30.

4.       The  data  service  Compuserve  is one such national BBS
        run  for  profit  by business organizations. Uyehara, at
        28.  Other  examples  of  large databases of interest to
        the  legal profession are computerized research services
        such as LEXIS and WESTLAW.

5.       Uyehara,  at  28;  Manning, Bulletin Boards: Everybody's
        Online  Services,  Online, Nov. 1984, at 8,9. "Modem" is
        defined infra, note 17 and accompanying text.

6.       "...computer   bulletin   boards   offer   their   users
        important  benefits.  An  individual  can use a bulletin
        board  to  express  his  opinion  on  a matter of public
        interest.  He  may  find  a  review  of  a product he is
        considering  buying.  He  may  find  a  useful  piece of
        software.  An  individual  might  also  use the bulletin
        board  to  ask  a  technical  question  about a specific
        computer   program."   Note,   Computer  Bulletin  Board
        Operator  Liability  For  User Misuse, 54 Fordham L.Rev.
        439,  440  (1985)  (Authored  by  Jonathan Gilbert); see
        also  Lasden,  Of  Bytes And Bulletin Boards, N.Y.Times,
        August  4, 1985, sec. 6, at 34, col. 1, where the author
        notes  computer  users  may now use BBSes to voice their
        opinions directly to State Senators' offices.

7.       "Virus"  Hits  Nation's  Research  Computers,  San  Jose
        Mercury News, Nov. 4, 1988, at 1, col. 1.

8.       "It   is  estimated  that  the  theft  of  long-distance
        services  and  software  piracy  each  approximate  $100
        million  a  year;  credit card fraud via computers costs
        about   $200   million   annually."   Pittman,  Computer
        Security  In Insurance Companies, 85 Best's Rev. - Life-
        Health Ins. Edition, Apr. 1985 at 92.

9.       Schiffres,  The  Shadowy  World  of  Computer "Hackers,"
        U.S. News & World Report, June 3, 1985, at 58.

10.      Pollack,  Free  Speech Issues Surround Computer Bulletin
        Board  Use,  N.Y.  Times,  Nov. 12, 1984, note 1, at D4,
        col. 6.

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Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
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11.      Note, 54 Fordham L.Rev. 440-441 (1985).

12.      Poore and Brockman, 8 Nat'l L.J. 14, (1985).

13.      See infra, Topic III, Problems of Proof.

14.      The  uncertainty  revolves  around  how to define BBSes.
        When  viewed as analogous to newspapers and other media,
        SYSOPS  would  be  responsible for any message posted on
        their   systems,   much   as   newspaper   editors   are
        responsible  for  articles  appearing  in  their medium.
        Uyehara,  14  Student  Lawyer  30 (1986). But when BBSes
        are  compared to a bulletin board found in a public hall
        or  supermarket,  the liability issue is focused more on
        those  actually  posting the messages rather than on the
        board's  owner.  Id.,  at 30. This Comment suggests that
        BBS  SYSOPs  be  held  to  a reasonable standard of care
        emerging  specifically  for  their endeavors. See infra,
        Topic II.

15.      Poore  and  Brockman,  8  Nat'l L.J. 14, (1985). Another
        writer  has  noted  that Compuserve now has over 200,000
        users  making  use  of  nearly  100  diverse  databases.
        Lasden,  Of  Bytes  And  Bulletin  Boards,  N.Y.  Times,
        August 4, 1985, sec. 6, at 34, col. 1.

16.      Poore and Brockman, 8 Nat'l L.J. 14 (1985).

17.      14  Am  Jur.  POF 2d Computer-Generated Evidence Sec. 11
        (1977).

18.      Note, 54 Fordham L.Rev. 439, 446 (1985).

19.      Id.

20.      See "Account," infra, note 25 and accompanying text.

21.      Garfinkel,  An  Introduction  to  Computer  Security, 33
        Prac. Law.41-42 (1987).

22.      Id.

23.      See infra, notes 25 and 27 and accompanying text.

24.      Some   more   sophisticated  operating  systems  provide
        greater  access  control  by  (1) recording unauthorized
        attempts  at  entry;  (2)  recording  those attempts and
        sending  a  warning  to the perpetrator; and (3) keeping
        the   perpetrartor  off  the  system  permanently  until
        he/she   is   reinstated   by  the  computer's  security
        administrator  or  SYSOP. Balding, Computer Breaking and
        Entering:  The  Anatomy of Liability, 5 Computer Lawyer,
        Jan. 1988, at 6.
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25.      Garfinkel,  An  Introduction  to  Computer  Security, 33
        Prac. Law. 42 (1987).

26.      Id.

27.      Id.  "A  password is a secret word or phrase that should
        be  known  only  to  the user and the computer. When the
        user  first  attempts to use the computer, he must first
        enter  the  password.  The  computer  then  compares the
        typed  password  to  the  stored  password  and, if they
        match, allows the user access."

28.      Id., at 42 and 46.

29.      14  Am.  Jur. POF 2d Computer-Generated Evidence Sec. 11
        (1977).

30.      54 Fordham L.Rev. 439, note 2 (1985).

31.      Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec. 568(1) (1976).

32.      Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec. 577(1) (1976).


33.      Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec.559 (1976).

34.      Veeder,   The   History   and   Theory  of  the  Law  of
        Defamation, 3 Colum. L.Rev. 546, 569-571 (1903).

35.      Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec. 622 (1976).

36.      Restatement, Torts Sec. 568, comment d (1938).

37.      Shor  v.  Billingley,  4  Misc.2d  857, 158 N.Y.S.2d 476
        (Sup.  Ct.  1956),  aff'd  mem., 4 App.Div. 2d 1017, 169
        N.Y.S.2d 416 (1st Dep't. 1957).

38.      Torts:     Defamation:     Libel-Slander    Distinction:
        Extemporaneous  Remarks  Made  on  Television Broadcast:
        Shor  v.  Billingley,  4  Misc. 2d 857, 158 N.Y.S.2d 476
        (Sup.Ct.  N.Y.  County  1957),  43 Cornell L.Q. 320, 322
        (1957) (Authored by Stephen A. Hochman).

39.      Id.


40.      376  U.S.  254,  84  S.Ct.  710,  11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964),
        motion  denied  376  U.S. 967, 84 S.Ct. 1130, 12 L.Ed.2d
        83.


41.      376 U.S. 254, 273.

42.      376 U.S. 254, 280.

43.      418 U.S. 323, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 41 L.Ed.2d 789 (1974).

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Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             38
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44.      Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 326.

45.      Id.

46.      Id., at 327.

47.      "...those  who  hold governmental office may recover for
        injury  to reputation only on clear and convincing proof
        that  the  defamatory  falsehood was made with knowledge
        of  its  falsity  or  with  reckless  disregard  for the
        truth."  Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 342.
        "An  individual  who decides to seek governmental office
        must  accept  certain  necessary  consequences  of  that
        involvement  in  pubic  affairs.  He  runs  the  risk of
        closer  public  scrutiny  than  might  otherwise  be the
        case." Id., at 344.

48.      "...[A]n  individual  may attain such pervasive fame and
        notoriety  that  he  becomes  a  public  figure  for all
        purposes   and   in  all  contexts.  More  commonly,  an
        individual  voluntarily injects himself or is drawn into
        a  particular  public  controversy and thereby becomes a
        public  figure  for a limited range of issues. In either
        case  such  persons  assume  special  prominence  in the
        resolution of public questions." 418 U.S. 323, 351.


49.      "Even  if  the  foregoing  generalities do not obtain in
        every   circumstance,   the   communications  media  are
        entitled  to act on the assumption that public officials
        and  public  figures have voluntarily exposed themselves
        to   the   increased  risk  of  injury  from  defamatory
        falsehood   concerning   them.  No  such  assumption  is
        justified  with  respect to a private individual. He has
        not  accepted  public  office or assumed an 'influential
        role  in  ordering  society.'  Curtis  Publishing Co. v.
        Butts,  388  U.S., at 164 ...He has relinquished no part
        of  his interest in the protection of his own good name,
        and  consequently  he  has a more compelling call on the
        courts   for   redress   of   injury  inflicted  by  the
        defamatory  falsehood. Thus, private individuals are not
        only  more  vulnerable  to  injury than public officials
        and  public  figures;  they  are  also more deserving of
        recovery." Id., at 345.

50.      "...[P]etitioner   was  not  a  public  figure.  He  ...
        plainly  did  not thrust himself into the vortex of this
        public  issue,  nor did he engage the public's attention
        in an attempt to influence its outcome." Id., at 352.

51.      Justice Powell noted for the Court that

          "[T]he  communications  media are entitled to act on
          the  assumption  that  public  officials  and public
          figures   have  voluntarily  exposed  themselves  to
          increased  risk  of injury from defamatory falsehood
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Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             39
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          concerning  them.  No  such  assumption is justified
          with  respect  to  a  private individual. He has not
          accepted  public  office  or assumed an 'influential
          role  in  ordering  society....' He has relinquished
          no  part  of  his  interest in the protection of his
          own  good  name,  and  consequently  he  has  a more
          compelling  call on the courts for redress of injury
          inflicted  be  defamatory  falsehood.  Thus, private
          individuals  are  not only more vulnerable to injury
          than  public  officials and public figures; they are
          also more deserving of recovery." Id., at 345.


52.      Id., at 347.

53.      Keeton,  Dobbs,  Keeton  and Owen, Prosser and Keeton on
        Torts,  sec.  32,  p.174.  See also Vaughn v. Menlove, 3
        Bing. (N.C.) 467, 132 Eng.Rep. 490 (1837).

54.      111  Cal.  App.  2d  424,  244  P.2d  757,  28 ALR2d 451
        (1952).


55.      111 Cal. App. 2d 424, 427.

56.      Id., at 426.

57.      Id, at 427.

58.      Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec. 577(2) (1976).

59.      22 Ohio App.2d 141, 259 N.E.2d 160 (1970).


60.      Scott v. Hull, 259 N.E.2d 160, 162 (1970).

61.      Id., at 161.

62.      Id., at 162.

63.      836 F.2d 1042 (7th Cir. 1987).


>From kadie Sat Oct 12 09:54:35 1991
To: cafb-mail
~Subject: Computers and Academic Freedom mailing list (batch edition)
Status: R


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64.      Id., at 1047.

65.      The  Court  of  Appeals  noted  the Restatement view and
        observed  that  Indiana  law  had  neither  embraced nor
        rejected that approach. Id., at 1046.

66.      Id.

67.      Id.

68.      Id., at 1046-47.

69.      Id.


70.      Recall   that   in   our   hypothetical   a  third  user
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Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             40
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        masquerading  as  another  is  transmitting  messages to
        others, revealing embarassing and false information.


71.      BBS  systems  security  and  other preventative measures
        are discussed more fully infra, Topic 3.d.


72.      Issues  in  proving  the  SYSOP's role in publishing the
        libellous  statement  are  discussed more fully in Topic
        III. A., infra.

73.      Sydney  v.  MacFadden  Newspaper  Publishing  Corp., 242
        N.Y.  208, 151 N.E. 209, 44 A.L.R. 1419 (1926). See also
        Restatement  (Second) of Torts Sec. 621 (1976) ("One who
        is  liable  for a defamatory communication is liable for
        the  proved, actual harm caused to the reputation of the
        person defamed.")

74.      Dun  & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc., 472
        U.S. 749, 86 L.Ed.2d 593, 105 S.Ct. 2939 (1985).

75.      See supra, note 53 and accompanying text.

76.      Note,  Protecting  the  Subjects  of  Credit Reports, 80
        Yale L.J. 1035, 1051-52, n.88 (1971).

77.      Gertz  did  not  rule  out  an assumption of defendant's
        negligence.  See  Eaton,  The American Law of Defamation
        Through  Gertz  V.  Robert  Welch,  Inc., and Beyond: An
        Analytical Primer, 61 Va. L.Rev. 1349 (1975).

78.      15  U.S.C.A. Sec. 1681 et seq. (1974). Two standards are
        proposed  there:  the  first,  willful noncompliance, is
        defined  as  equivalent  to  the  New York Times "actual
        malice"  standard,  and  violators are liable for actual
        and  punitive  damages.  Sec. 1681(n), supra. Presumably
        this  would  apply  to  the situation where the SYSOP is
        dilatory  in  removing the libellous message. The second
        proposed  standard,  negligent  noncompliance, occurs in
        the  absence  of  willfulness  and  results in liability
        only   for   actual   damages.   Sec.   1681(o),  supra.
        Situations  where  the  SYSOP failed to adopt reasonable
        computer   security   measures  might  come  under  this
        category.

79.      18  U.S.C.S.  Sec.  2707(b),(c) (Law. Co-op 1979 & Supp.
        1988) provides in pertinent part:
          (b)  Relief.  In  a civil action under this section,
               appropriate relief includes -
               (1)  Such  preliminary  and  other equitable or
                    declaratory relief as may be appropriate;
               (2)  damages under subsection (c); and
               (3)  a  reasonable  attorney's  fee  and  other
                    litigation costs reasonably incurred.
          (c)  Damages.  The  court may assess as damages in a
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               civil  action under this section the sum of the
               actual  damages  suffered  by the plaintiff and
               any  profits  made  by the violator as a result
               of  the  violation,  but  in  no  case  shall a
               person  entitled  to  recover receive less than
               the sum of $1,000.

        18  U.S.C.S. Sec. 2707(e) (Law. Co-op 1979 & Supp. 1988)
        limits  the civil action under this section to two years
        after  the date upon which the claimant first discovered
        or   had   a  reasonable  opportunity  to  discover  the
        violation.
        As  to  damage  provisions  supplied  by  state law, see
        California Penal Code 502(e)(1),(2) (West Pub. 1988):
          (e)(1)  In  addition  to any civil remedy available,
          the  owner  or  lessee  of  the  computer,  computer
          system,  computer network, computer program, or data
          may   bring   a  civil  action  against  any  person
          convicted   under   this  section  for  compensatory
          damages,  including  any  expenditure reasonably and
          necessarily  incurred  by  the  owner  or  lessee to
          verify  that  a  computer  system, computer network,
          computer  program, or data was not altered, damaged,
          or  deleted  by  the access. For purposes of actions
          authorized  by  this  subdivision, the conduct of an
          unemancipated  minor  shall be imputed to the parent
          or  legal  guardian having control or custody of the
          minor,  pursuant to the provisions of Section 1714.1
          of the Civil Code.
          (2)   In   any   action  brought  pursuant  to  this
          subdivision   the   court   may   award   reasonable
          attorney's fees to a prevailing party.


80.      A  lawsuit  recently filed in the United States District
        Court  for  the  Southern  District of Indiana may break
        new  ground  in  enunciating  precisely what BBS SYSOPs'
        reasonable  duties  of  care  are. Thompson v. Predaina,
        Civil  Action  #IP-88  93C  (S.D.  Ind. filed 1988). The
        complaint  alleges,  inter  alia,  invasion of plaintiff
        user's  privacy, libel, and wrongful denial of access to
        the  BBS  in  violation  of  U.S.C.  Title  18,  ss 2701
        (a)(2).  As  to  statutory damages available, see infra,
        note 105.

81.      Gemignani,  Computer Law 33:7 (Lawyers Co-op 1985, Supp.
        1988)  (quoting  Capitol  PC Users Group Minimum Code of
        Standards   for   electronic   Bulletin  Board  Systems,
        reprinted in 4 Computer Law Reptr. 89).

82.      Note,  54  Fordham  L.Rev.  439, 449 (1985) (Authored by
        Jonathan Gilbert).

83.      Id., at 449.

84.      Id., at 449-50.
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85.      A  "trojan  horse"  program takes control of the BBS and
        allows   its   sender  to  access  and  steal  its  most
        sensitive  information.  Fites,  Johnston and Kratz, The
        Computer  Virus Crisis, Van Nortrand/Reinhold (1989), at
        39 and 45.

86.      Balding,  Computer Breaking and Entering: The Anatomy of
        Liability, 5 Computer Law. (January 1988), at 6.

87.      Id.

88.      Hellar  v.  Bianco, 244 P.2d 757. See supra, note 54 and
        accompanying text.

89.      Restatement  (Second)  of  Torts Sec. 577(2) (1976). See
        supra, note 58 and accompanying text.

90.      Tackett  v.  General  Motors  Corporation, 836 F.2d 1042
        (7th  Cir.  1987).  See  supra, note 63 and accompanying
        text.

91.      See note 53, supra, and accompanying text.


92.      It  has  been  suggested  that  this  would be the rough
        equivalent  of a newspaper publishing a retraction after
        discovering  what  it  had printed was defamatory. Note,
        54  Fordham  L.Rev.  439,  note 55 (1985). BBS operators
        should  not  be held liable in this situation insofar as
        they  did not know of the nature of the statement at the
        time  it  was  made.  Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec.
        581 (1977).

93.      Proving  the  masquerader's  actions  is  discussed more
        fully infra, Topic III. B.

94.      Stipp,  Computer  Bulletin  Board  Operators  Fret  Over
        Liability  for Stolen Data, Wall St. J. Nov. 9, 1984, at
        33, col. 1.

95.      Id.

96.      See   Topic   I.,   supra,  where  the  masquerader  has
        discovered  and  uses  the  password  and  name  of  the
        regular  user;  he  appears for all intents and purposes
        to be that regular user.

97.      836 F.2d 1042 (7th Cir. 1987).

98.      Id., at 1047.

99.      Id.

100.     Indeed,  U.S.C.  Title  18, Sec. 2702 (Law. Co-op 1979 &
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        Supp.  1988)  proscribes the knowing dissemination of an
        electronically stored communication by the SYSOP:
          Sec. 2702. Disclosure of contents
          (a)  Prohibitions.  Except as provided in subsection
               (b)-
               (1)  a    person   or   entity   providing   an
                    electronic  communication  service  to the
                    public  shall not knowingly divulge to any
                    person   or   entity  the  contents  of  a
                    communication  while in electronic storage
                    on that service; and
               (2)  a   person   or  entity  providing  remote
                    computing  service to the public shall not
                    knowingly  divulge to any person or entity
                    the  contents  of  any communication which
                    is carried or maintained on that service-
                    (A)  on  behalf  of, and received by means
                         of  electronic  transmission from (or
                         created    by   means   of   computer
                         processing      of     communications
                         received   by   means  of  electronic
                         transmissions  from), a subscriber or
                         customer of such service; and
                    (B)  solely  for  the purpose of providing
                         storage    or   computer   processing
                         services   to   such   subscriber  or
                         customer,  if  the  provider  is  not
                         authorized  to access the contents of
                         any  such communications for purposes
                         of  providing any services other than
                         storage or computer processing.

        A  similar  provision is embodied in Cal. Pen. Code sec.
        502(c)(6) (West Pub. 1988), which provides:

               (c)  Except  as  provided  in  subdivision (i),
                    any   person   who   commits  any  of  the
                    following  acts  is  guilty  of  a  public
                    offense:
                    (6)  Knowingly   and   without  permission
                         provides  or  assists  in providing a
                         means   of   accessing   a  computer,
                         computer  system, or computer network
                         in violation of this section.



101.     The  doctrine of res ipsa loquitor, or "the thing speaks
        for  itself"  warrants  the  inference  of  the  SYSOP's
        negligence,  which  the  jury  may  draw  or  not as its
        judgement   dictates.   See  Sullivan  v.  Crabtree,  36
        Tenn.App. 469, 258 S.W.2d 782 (1953).

102.     See discussion under Topic II. B., supra.

103.     As   someone  who  intentionally  accesses  confidential
        password  information  to  masquerade  as other users on
        other  BBSes, the masquerader falls well within the pale

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        of  "actual  malice"  defined  in Gertz v. Robert Welch,
        Inc.,   418   U.S.   323,   342,   supra,  note  43  and
        accompanying  text (a defamatory falsehood was made with
        knowledge  of its falsity or with reckless disregard for
        the truth).

104.     Evidentiary   problems   involved   with   proving   the
        masquerader's  actions  are discussed more in Topic III.
        B., infra.

105.     18  U.S.C.S. Sec. 2707(a) (Law. Co-op 1979 & Supp. 1988)
        describes the masquerader's fault thus:
          (a)  Cause  of action. Except as provided in section
               2703(e),    any    provider    of    electronic
               communication  service, subscriber, or customer
               aggrieved  by  any violation of this chapter in
               which  the  conduct  constituting the violation
               is  engaged  in  with  a knowing or intentional
               state  of  mind may, in a civil action, recover
               from  the  person  or  entity  which engaged in
               that   violation   such   relief   as   may  be
               appropriate.

        California  Penal  Code  sec.  502(c) et seq. (West Pub.
        1988) is even more specific:
          (c)  Except  as  provided  in  subdivision  (i), any
               person  who  commits  any of the following acts
               is guilty of a public offense:
               (1)  Knowingly  accesses and without permission
                    alters,  damages,  deletes,  destroys,  or
                    otherwise   uses   any   data,   computer,
                    computer  system,  or  computer network in
                    order to either
                    (A)  devise   or  execute  any  scheme  or
                         artiface   to  defraud,  deceive,  or
                         extort, or
                    (B)  wrongfully  control  or obtain money,
                         property or data.
                                  * * *
               (3)  Knowingly  and  without permission uses or
                    causes to be used computer services.
               (4)  Knowingly  accesses and without permission
                    adds,   alters,   damages,   deletes,   or
                    destroys  any  data, computer software, or
                    computer  programs  which  reside or exist
                    internal   or   external  to  a  computer,
                    computer system, or computer network.
                                    * * *
               (7)  Knowingly  and without permission accesses
                    or  causes  to  be  accessed any computer,
                    computer system, or computer network.


106.     Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 342.

107.     In  addition  to  the  remedies  set  forth in note 105,
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        supra,  the  following  federal  and state penalties may
        apply:
        18  U.S.C.S.  Sec.  2701(b),(c) (Law. Co-op 1979 & Supp.
        1988):
          (b)  Punishment.   The  punishment  for  an  offense
               under subsection (a) of this seciton is -
               (1)  if  the  offense is committed for purposes
                    of    commercial    advantage,   malicious
                    destruction    or   damage,   or   private
                    commercial gain -
                    (A)  a  fine  not  more  than  &250,000 or
                         imprisonment  for  not  more than one
                         year,  or  both,  in  the  case  of a
                         first      offense     under     this
                         subparagraph; and
                    (B)  a    fine   under   this   title   or
                         imprisonment  for  not  more than two
                         years,  or  both,  for any subsequent
                         offense under this subparagraph; and
               (2)  a   fine   of  not  more  than  $5,000  or
                    imprisonment   for   not   more  than  six
                    months, or both, in any other case.
          (c)  Exceptions.  Subsection  (a)  of  this  section
               does   not   apply   with  respect  to  conduct
               authorized-
               (1)  by  the  person or entity providing a wire
                    or electronic communications service;
               (2)  by  a user of that service with respect to
                    a  communication  of  or intended for that
                    user; or
               (3)  in  section  2703,  2704,  or 2518 of this
                    title.

        For  an  example of state-mandated damages provisions on
        this  subject,  see California Penal Code sec. 502(d) et
        seq. (West Pub. 1988).

108.     See discussion under Topic II. B., supra.

109.     See note 101, supra.

110.     "Custom...bears  upon  what  other will expect the actor
        to  do, and what, therefore, reasonable care may require
        the   actor  to  do,  upon  the  feasibility  of  taking
        precautions,  the  difficulty of change, and the actor's
        opportunity  to  learn  the risks and what is called for
        to  meet them. If the actor does only what everyone else
        has  done, there is at least an inference that the actor
        is  conforming  to  the  community's  idea of reasonable
        behavior."  Keeton,  Dobbs, Keeton and Owen, Prosser and
        Keeton  on  Torts,  sec.  33,  p.194.  See  also  James,
        Particularizing   Standards  of  Conduct  in  Negligence
        Trials,  5  Vand. L. Rev. 697, 709-714 (1952); Ploetz v.
        Big  Discount  Panel  Center,  Inc.,  402 So.2d 64 (Fla.
        App. 1981).

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111.     See notes 80-93, supra, and accompanying text.

112.     See note 103, supra.

113.     See  Pfau  and Keane, Computer Logs Can Pinpoint Illegal
        Transactions,  Legal  Times  of Washington, vol. 6, p.16
        (May  14,  1984):  "Computers can monitor their own use.
        Unlike  other  such  forms  of physical evidence such as
        guns,  computers  can keep track of individual users and
        other  identifying  data.  Imagine a gun that logs every
        instance  it  is  fired  or  even handled, and shows the
        date,  time,  and  activity.  Recovery  of such a weapon
        would be essential to the prosecution.
        "Most   computers   have   long   had  built-in  logging
        capabilities....The   log   function   was  designed  to
        facilitate  billing  for  the  use of computer resources
        rather  than  to  assist  crime detection. To the extent
        that  the  owner  of  a smaller computer does not charge
        for  its  use,  he or she has no incentive to purchase a
        self-executing  log.  Still, such logs keep surprisingly
        accurate records of who is using the computer."

114.     Fed. R. Evid. 801(c).

115.     Fed.  R. Evid. 802: "Hearsay is not admissible except as
        provided  by  these rules or by other rules precribed by
        the  Supreme Court pursuant to statutory authority or by
        Act  of  Congress."  Exclusion  of  hearsay  evidence is
        grounded  on:  (1)  nonavailability of the declarant for
        cross-examination   and   observance  of  demeanor;  (2)
        absence  of  an oath by the person making the statement;
        amd  (3)  significant  risk  that  the  person  that the
        witness  may report proffered statements inaccurately. 2
        Bender, Computer Law, sec. 6.01[2].

116.     Gemignani,  The  Data  Detectives:  Building A Case From
        Computer Files, 3 Nat'l L.J. 29 (1981).

117.     Fed.  R.  Evid. 803(6). See also 2 Bender, Computer Law,
        sec. 6.01[4] (1988).

118.     Fed. R. Evid. 803(6).

119.     Id.  In  current  practice  records  kept  by  nonprofit
        organizations,  such as churches, have long been held to
        be  admissible.  Ford  v.  State,  82 Tex.Cr.R. 638, 200
        S.W.  841  (1918).  It  is  at  least  arguable  that  a
        computerized  BBS,  although run as a hobby, falls under
        the same classification.

120.     See  Iowa  Code Ann. Sec. 622.28; People v. Lugashi, 252
        Cal.Rptr 434 (Cal.App. 2 Dist. 1988).
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121.     See  14  Am.Jur.  POF2d  Sec. 15 (1977, Supp. 1988). Cf.
        United  States  v. De Georgia, 420 F.2d 889, 2 CLSR 479,
        484  (1969,  CA9  Ariz),  where  it  was held that it is
        immaterial  whether a business record is maintained in a
        computer   rather   than   in  company  books  regarding
        admissibility  of  those  records,  so  long  as (1) the
        trial  court  requires the proponent of the computerized
        records    to    lay    a   foundation   as   to   their
        trustworthiness,  and  (2)  the  opposing party is given
        the  same  opportunity  to  inquire  into the computer's
        accuracy  as  he would have to inquire into the accuracy
        of written business records.

122.     The  BBS  program run on the SYSOP's computer ordinarily
        "stamps"  the  date  and time of day each user logs onto
        the   BBS.   A  corresponding  record  is  automatically
        affixed  to each piece of electronic mail posted so that
        the  reader  knows  when  it  was added to the database.
        Similarly,   the  telephone  company  maintains  copious
        records  of  the  date  and  time  each  phone  call  is
        connected  in  its  dialing  area.  The  caller  has  no
        control over either of these processes.

123.     252 Cal.Rptr. 434 (Cal.App. 2 Dist. 1988).

124.     Id., at 437.

125.     Id.

126.     Id.

127.     Id., at 439.

128.     Id., at 437.

129.     Id., at 440.

130.     Id.,  at  442. See also United States v. Russo, 480 F.2d
        1228  (CA6 Mich, 1973), cert den 414 U.S. 1157, 94 S.Ct.
        915,  39 L.Ed.2d 109; Capital Marine Supply, Inc. v. M/V
        Roland  Thomas  II,  719 F.2d 104 (1983 CA5 La), 104 Fed
        Rules  Evid Serv 731; Peoples Cas & Coke Co. v. Barrett,
        118  Ill.App.3d  52,  73  Ill.  Dec. 400, 455 N.E.2d 829
        (1983).

131.     432 So.2d 837 (La., 1983).

132.     Id., at 839-40.

133.     Id., at 839.

134.     United  States  v.  Verlin,  466  F.Supp.  155  (ND Tex,
        1979).
---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             48
----------------------

135.     Id., at 158.

136.     The  reasonable  SYSOP should offer his full cooperation
        in  aiding  the maligned user to regain her good name by
        providing  her  with  his  BBS' phone-in records made at
        the  time  the  libellous message appeared. See note 93,
        supra.

137.     See note 123, supra.

138.     Cf.  note  118,  supra.  As  to  an electronic BBS being
        classified  as  a  "business"  for hearsay purposes, see
        note 120, supra.

139.     See note 128, supra.

140.     Authentication  has been broadly described thus: "[W]hen
        a  claim  or  offer  involves impliedly or expressly any
        element  of personal connection with a corporeal object,
        that  connection  must  be  made to appear...." Wigmore,
        Evidence,   Sec.   2129  at  564  (2d  ed.  1972).  This
        requirement is also known as the "Best Evidence Rule."

141.     Fed. R. Evid. 901(a),(b)(6).

142.     2 Bender, Computer Law, sec. 5.03[1][a] (1988).

143.     Id.

144.     See    Fed.   R.   Evid.   901(b)(6):   "(6)   Telephone
        conversations.   Telephone  conversations,  by  evidence
        that  a call was made to the number assigned at the time
        by  the  telephone  company  to  a  particular person or
        business,  if  ***  (B)  in  the case of a business, the
        call   was   made   to  a  place  of  business  and  the
        conversation  related  to business reasonably transacted
        over the telephone...." (emphasis added).

145.     Fed. R. Evid. 1002.


146.     E.W.  Cleary,  McCormick on Evidence, sec. 231 (2nd. Ed.
        1972).


147.     Id.  Further  rationales  for  the  rule  are  risks  of
        inaccuracy    contained   in   commonly   used   copying
        techniques    and   heightened   chances   of   witness'
        forgetfulness through oral testimony. Id., sec. 231.


148.     305 So.2d 421, 7 C.L.S.R. 1238 (La. 1974).

149.     305 So.2d 421, 427.

150.     Id., at 428.
---
Defamation Liability of Computerized BBS Operators
& Problems of Proof          (C) 1989 John R. Kahn             49
----------------------

151.     Brandon v. Indiana, 396 N.E.2d 365 (Ind. 1979).

152.     Id., at 370.

153.     See note 121, supra, and accompanying text.

154.     Other   circumstantial  evidence  might  include,  among
        other  things:  possible  motive  for the masquerader to
        defame  plaintiff;  plaintiff's  own  inability  to call
        from  the phone number from which the defamatory message
        is  shown  to  have  originated;  or  even an electronic
        "fingerprint"  left  by  the  particular  computer  from
        which   the  defamatory  message  originated.  Pfau  and
        Keane,  Computer  Logs Can Pinpoint Illegal Trasactions,
        Legal Times of Washington, vol. 6, p.16 (May 14, 1984).

155.     Fed. R. Evid. 1002 provides:
            REQUIREMENT  OF  ORIGINAL. To prove the content of
            a  writing, recording, or photograph, the original
            of   that  writing,  recording  or  photograph  is
            required,   unless  provided  otherwise  in  these
            rules or by an Act of Congress.


156.     Examples  of  this situation are the telephone company's
        keeping   of   hundreds   of   thousands  of  individual
        computerized  records of each telephone call made within
        a  certain  dialing area, or a BBS' extensive history of
        subscriber use compiled for billing purposes.

157.     See  Harned  v. Credit Bureau of Gilette, 513 P2d 650, 5
        CLSR 394 (1973).

158.     Fed. R. Evid. 1006.


159.     137 Ga.App. 360, 223 S.E.2d 757 (1976).

160.     223 S.E.2d 757, 760.

[Originally published in _Internet_World_, Jan./Feb. 1994.]


When Copying Isn't Theft:
How the Government Stumbled in a "Hacker" Case


By Mike Godwin




As more and more private individuals and private companies connect to the
Internet, more and more of them will generate or use their intellectual
property there. And since not everyone is familiar with the legal
distinctions between so-called "intellectual property" and everyday
tangible property, there will be more and more discussion of how
infringement of intellectual property amounts to "online theft."


But the law of intellectual property is not so simple as Usenet
discussions may lead you to believe. Assuming that your information is
"property" (when in fact it may not be property at all) may lead you to a
false sense of security about how much the law protects your interest in
that information. This article discusses one computer-crime case, United
States v. Riggs, that illustrates how even well-trained federal
prosecutors can grow confused about how to apply intellectual-property
law--especially the law of trade secrets. In particular, it shows what can
happen when prosecutors uncritically apply *intellectual* property notions
in prosecuting a defendant under laws passed to protect *tangible*
property.


Big Phrack Attack


In the recent case of U.S. v. Riggs, the Chicago U.S. Attorney's office
prosecuted two young men, Robert Riggs and Craig Neidorf, on counts of
wire fraud (18 U.S.C. 1343), interstate transportation of stolen property
(18 U.S.C.  2314) and computer fraud (18 U.S.C. 1030).  Of these statutes,
only the last was passed specifically to address the problems of
unauthorized computer intrusion; the other two are "general purpose"
federal criminal statutes that are used by the government in a wide range
of criminal prosecutions.  One element of the wire-fraud statute is the
taking (by fraudulent means) of "money or property," while the
interstate-transportation-of-stolen-property (ITSP) statute requires,
naturally enough, the element of "goods, wares, merchandise, securities or
money, of the value of $5,000 or more."


(I don't discuss here the extent to which the notions of "property" differ
between these two federal statutes.  It is certain that they do differ to
some extent, and the interests protected by the wire-fraud statute were
expanded in the 1980s by Congress to include Rthe intangible right to
honest services.S 18 U.S.C. 1346..  Even so, the prosectuion in the Riggs
case relies not on 1346, but on intellectual-property notions, which are
the focus of this article.)


The computer-intrusion counts against Neidorf were dropped in the
governmentUs June 1990 superseding indictment, the indictment actually
used at NeidorfUs trial in July 1990. Probably this was due to the
government's realization that it would be hard to prove beyond a
reasonable doubt that Neidorf had any direct involvement with any actual
computer breakin.


The Riggs case is based on the following facts: Robert Riggs, a computer
"hacker" in his early '20s, discovered that he could easily gain access to
an account on a computer belonging to Bell South, one of the Regional Bell
Operating Companies (RBOCs).  The account was highly insecure--access to
it did not require a password (a standard, if not always effective,
security precaution).  While exploring this account, Riggs discovered a
word-processing document detailing procedures and definitions of terms
relating the Emergency 911 system ("E911 system").  Like many hackers,
Riggs had a deep curiosity about the workings of this country's telephone
system. (This curiosity among young hackers is a social phenomenon that
has been documented for more than 20 years. See, e.g., Rosenbaum, "Secrets
of the Little Blue Box," Esquire, October 1971; and Barlow, "Crime and
Puzzlement: In Advance of the Law on the Electronic Frontier," Whole Earth
Review, September 1990.)


Riggs knew that his discovery would be of interest to Craig Neidorf, a
Missouri college student who, while not a hacker himself, was an amateur
journalist whose electronically distributed publication, Phrack, was
devoted to articles of interest to computer hackers.  Riggs sent a copy of
the E911 document to Neidorf over the telephone, using computer and modem,
and Neidorf edited the copy to conceal its origin.  Among other things,
Neidorf removed the statements that the information contained in the
document was proprietary and not for distribution.  Neidorf then sent the
edited copy back to Riggs for the latter's review; following RiggsUs
approval of the edited copy, Neidorf published the E911 document in the
February 24, 1989, issue of Phrack.  Some months following publication of
the document in Phrack, both Riggs and Neidorf were contacted and
questioned by the Secret Service, and all systems that might contain the
E911 document were seized pursuant to evidentiary search warrants.


Riggs and Neidorf were indicted under the statutes discussed above; Riggs,
whose unauthorized access to the BellSouth computer was difficult to
dispute, later pled guilty to wire fraud for that conduct.  In contrast,
Neidorf pled innocent on all counts, arguing, among other things, that his
conduct was protected by the First Amendment, and that he had not deprived
Bell South of property as that notion is defined for the purposes of the
wire fraud and ITSP statutes.


The two defenses are closely related.  Under the First Amendment, the
presumption is that information is free, and that it can readily be
published and republished.  For this reason, information "becomes
property" only if it passes certain legal tests.  This means that law
enforcement cannot simply assume that whenever information has been copied
from a private computer system a theft has taken place.


But in Neidorf's case, as it turns out, this is essentially what the
Secret Service and the U.S. Attorney's office did assume. And this
assumption came back to haunt the government when it was revealed during
trial that the information contained within the E911 document did not meet
any of the relevant legal tests to be established as a property interest.


How information becomes stealable property.


In order for information to be stolen property, it must first be property.
There are only a few ways that information can qualify as a property
interest, and two of these--patent law and copyright law--are entirely
creations of federal statute, pursuant to an express Constitutional grant
of legislative authority. (U.S. Constitution, Article I, Sec. 8, clause
8.)  Patent protections were clearly inapplicable in the Neidorf case; the
E911 document, a list of definitions and procedures, did not constitute an
invention or otherwise patentable process or method.  Copyright law might
have looked more promising to Neidorf's prosecutors, since it is well
established that copyrights qualify as property interests in some contexts
(for example, your uncle's copyright interest in his novel can be
bequeathed to you as "personal property" through a will).


Unfortunately for the government, the Supreme Court has explicitly stated
that copyrighted material is not property for the purposes of the ITSP
statute.  In Dowling v. United States, 473 U.S. 207 (1985), the Court held
that interests in copyright are outside the scope of the ITSP statute.
(Dowling involved a prosecution for interstate shipments of pirated Elvis
Presley recordings.)  In reaching its decision, the Court held, among
other things, that 18 U.S.C. ' 2314 contemplates "a physical identity
between the items unlawfully obtained and those eventually transported,
and hence some prior physical taking of the subject goods."   Unauthorized
copies of copyrighted material do not meet this "physical identity"
requirement.


The Court also reasoned that intellectual property is different in
character from property protected by generic theft statutes: "The
copyright owner, however, holds no ordinary chattel.  A copyright, like
other intellectual property, comprises a series of carefully defined and
carefully delimited interests to which the law affords correspondingly
exact protections."  The Court went on to note that a special term of art,
"infringement," is used in reference to violations of copyright
interests--thus undercutting any easy equation between unauthorized
copying and "stealing" or "theft."


It is clear, then, that in order for the government to prosecute the
unauthorized copying of computerized information as a theft, it must rely
on other theories of information-as-property.  Trade-secret law is one
well-established legal theory of this sort.  Another is the
breach-of-confidence theory articulated recently by the Supreme Court in
Carpenter v. United States, 108 S.Ct. 316 (1987). I will discuss each
theory in turn below.

Trade Secrets


Unlike copyrights and patents, trade secrets are generally created by
state law, and most jurisdictions have laws that criminalize the
violations of a trade-secret holder's rights in the secret. There is no
general federal definition of what a trade secret is, but there have been
federal cases in which trade-secret information has been used to establish
the property element of a federal property crime. In the 1966 case of
United States v. Bottone (365 F.2d 389, cert denied, 385 U.S. 974 (1966)),
for example, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed ITSP convictions
in a case involving a conspiracy to steal drug-manufacturing bacterial
cultures and related documents from a pharmaceutical company and sell them
in foreign markets.


But the problem in using a trade secret to establish the property element
of a theft crime is that, unlike traditional property, information has to
leap several hurdles in order to be established as a trade secret.


Trade secret definitions vary somewhat from state to state, but the
varying definitions typically have most elements in common.  One good
definition of "trade secret" is outlined by the Supreme Court in Kewanee
Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470 (1974): "a trade secret may consist
of any forumula, pattern, device or compilation of information which is
used in one's business, and which gives one an opportunity to obtain an
advantage over competitors who do not know or use it.  It may be a formula
for a chemical compound, a process of manufacturing, treating or
preserving materials, a pattern for a machine or other device, or a list
of customers."  The Court went further and listed the particular
attributes of a trade secret:


* The information must, in fact, be secret--"not of public knowledge or of
general knowledge in the trade or business."
* A trade secret remains a secret if it is revealed in confidence to
someone who is under a contractual or fiduciary obligation, express or
implied, not to reveal it.
* A trade secret is protected against those who acquire via unauthorized
disclosure, violation of contractual duty of confidentiality, or through
"improper means." ("Improper means" includes such things as theft,
bribery, burglary, or trespass. The Restatement of Torts at 757 defines
such means as follows: "In general they are means which fall below the
generally accepted standards of commercial morality and reasonable
conduct.")
* A court will allow a trade secret to be used by someone who discovered
or developed the trade secret independently (that is, without taking it in
some way from the holder), or if the holder does not take adequate
precautions to protect the secret.
* An employee or contractor who, while working for a company, develops or
discovers a trade secret, generally creates trade secret rights in the
company.


The holder of a trade secret may take a number of steps to meet its
obligation to keep the trade secret a secret.  These may include:
a) Labelling documents containing the trade secret "proprietary" or
"confidential" or "trade secret" or "not for distribution to the public;"
b) Requiring employees and contractors to sign agreements not to disclose
whatever trade secrets they come in contact with;
c) destroying or rendering illegible discarded documents containing parts
or all of the secret, and;
d) restricting access to areas in the company where a nonemployee, or an
employee without a clear obligation to keep the information secret, might
encounter the secret. (See Dan Greenwood's Information Protection Advisor,
April 1992, page 5.)


Breach-of-confidence


Even if information is not protected under the federal patent and
copyright schemes, or under state-law trade-secret provisions, it is
possible, according to the Supreme Court in Carpenter v. United States,
for such information to give rise to a property interest when its
unauthorized disclosure occurs via the breach of confidential or fiduciary
relationship.  In this case, R. Foster Winans, a Wall Street Journal
reporter who contributed to the Journal's "Heard on the Street" column,
conspired with Carpenter and others to reveal the contents of the column
before it was printed in the Journal, thus allowing the conspirators to
buy and sell stock with the foreknowledge that stock prices would be
affected by publication of the column.  Winans and others were convicted
of wire fraud; they appealed the wire-fraud convictions on the grounds
that had not deprived the Journal of any money or property.


It should be noted that this is not an "insider trading" case, since
Winans was no corporate insider, nor was it alleged that he had received
illegal insider tips.  The "Heard on the Street" column published
information about companies and stocks that would be available to anyone
who did the requisite research into publicly available materials.  Since
the information reported in the columns did not itself belong to the
Journal, and since the Journal planned to publish the information for a
general readership, traditional trade secret notions did not apply.  Where
was the property interest necessary for a wire-fraud conviction?


The Supreme Court reasoned that although the facts being reported in the
column were not exclusive to the Journal, the Journal's right--presumably
based in contract--to Winan's keeping the information confidential gave
rise to a property interest adequate to support a wire-fraud conviction.
Once the Court reached this conclusion, upholding the convictions of the
other defendants followed: even if one does not have a direct fiduciary
duty to protect a trade secret or confidential information, one can become
civilly or criminally liable if one conspires with, solicits, or aids and
abets a fiduciary to disclose such information in violation of that
person's duty.  The Court's decision in Carpenter has received significant
criticism in the academic community for its expansion of the contours of
"intangible property," but it remains good law today.


How the theories didn't fit


With these two legal approaches--trade secrets and breach of
confidence--in mind, we can turn back to the facts of the Riggs case and
see how well, or how poorly, the theories applied in the case of Craig
Neidorf.


With regard to any trade-secret theory, it is worth noting first of all
that the alleged victim, BellSouth, is a Regional Bell Operating
Company--a monopoly telephone-service provider for a geographic region in
the United States.  Remember the comment in the Kewanee Oil case that a
trade secret "gives one an opportunity to obtain an advantage over
competitors who do not know or use it"?  There are strong arguments
that--at least so far as the provision of Emergency 911 service
goes--BellSouth has no "competitors" within any normal meaning of the
term.  And even if BellSouth did have competitors, it is likely that they
would both know and use the E911 information, since the specifications of
this particular phone service are standardized among the regional Bells.


Moreover, as became clear in the course of the Neidorf trial, the
information contained in the E911 document was available to the general
public as well, for a nominal fee. (One of the dramatic developments at
trial occurred during the cross-examination of a BellSouth witness who had
testified that the E911 document was worth nearly $80,000.  Neidorf's
counsel showed her a publication containing substantially the same
information that was available from a regional Bell or from Bellcore, the
Bells' research arm, for $13.to any member of the public that ordered it
over an 800 number.) Under the circumstances, if the Bells wanted to
maintain the E911 information as a trade secret, they hadn't taken the
kind of steps one might normally think a keeper of a secret would take.


BellSouth had, however, taken the step of labelling the E911 document as
"NOT TO BE DISCLOSED OUTSIDE OF BELLSOUTH OR ITS SUBSIDIARIES" (it was
this kind of labelling that Neidorf attempted to remove as he edited the
document for publication in Phrack).  This fact may have been responsible
for the federal prosecutors' oversight in not determining prior to trial
whethe E911 document actually met the tests of trade-secret law.  It is
possible that prosecutors, unfamiliar with the nuances of trade-secret
law, read the "proprietary" warnings and, reasonining backwards, concluded
that the information thus labelled must be trade-secret information.  If
so, this was a fatal error on the government's part.  In the face of
strong evidence that the E911 document was neither secret nor
competitively or financially very valuable, any hope the government had of
proving the document to be a trade secret evaporated.


(It's also possible that the government reasoned that the E911 information
could be used by malicious hackers to damage the telephone system in some
way. The trial transcript shows instances in which the government
attempted to elicit information of this sort. It should be noted, however,
that even if the information did lend itself to abuse and vandalism, this
fact alone does not bring it within the scope of trade-secret law.)


Nor did the facts lend themselves to a Carpenter-like theory based on
breach of confidence; Neidorf had no duties to BellSouth not to disclose
its information.  Neither did Riggs, from whom Neidorf acquired a copy of
the document.  The Riggs case lacks the linchpin necessary for a
conviction based on Carpenter--in order for nonfiduciaries to be
convicted, there must be a breaching fiduciary involved in the scheme in
some way.  There can be no breach of a duty of confidence when there is no
duty to be breached.


Thus, when its trade-secret theory of the E911 document was demolished in
mid-trial, the government had no fall-back theory to rely on with regard
to its property-crime counts, and the prosecution quickly sought a
settlement on terms favorable to Neidorf, dropping prosecution of the case
in return for Neidorf's agreement to a pre-trial diversion on one minor
count.


The lesson to be learned from Riggs is that it is no easy task to
establish the elements of a theft crime when the "property" in question is
information.  There are good reasons, in a free society, that this should
be so--the proper functioning of free speech and a free press require that
information be presumptively free, and that the publication of information
be presumptively protected from regulation by the government or by private
entities invoking the civil- or criminal-law property protections.  The
government in Riggs failed in its duty to recognize this presumption by
failing to make the necessary effort to understand the intellectual
property issues of the case.  Had it done so, Neidorf might have been
spared an expensive and painful trial, and the government might have been
spared a black eye.*


*See, e.g., "Score One for the Hackers of America," NEWSWEEK, Aug. 6 1990,
page 48, and "Dial 1-800 ... for BellSouth 'Secrets'," COMPUTERWORLD, Aug.
6, 1990, page 8.


_______________________________________________


Mike Godwin, a 1990 guaduate of the University fo Texas School of Law, is
legal services counsel for the Electronic Frontier Foundation. EFF filed
an amicus curiae brief in the Neidorf case, arguing that Neidorf's
attempted publication of the E911 document was protected speech under the
First Amendment. Godwin received a B.A. in liberal arts from the
University of Texas at Austin in 1980. Prior to law school, Godwin worked
as a journalist and as a computer consultant.









AL      Computer Crime Act, Code of Alabama, Sections 13A-8-100 to 13A-8-103
AK      Statutes, Sections 11.46.200(a)(3), 11.46.484(a)(5),
       11.46.740, 11.46.985, 11.46.990
AZ      Revised Statues Annotated, Sections 13-2301(E), 13-2316
CA      Penal Code, Section 502
CO      Revised Statutes, Sections 18-5.5-101, 18-5.5-102
CT      General Statutes, Sections 53a-250 to 53a-261, 52-570b
DE      Code Annotated, Title 11, Sections 931-938
FL      Computer Crimes Act, Florida Statutes Annotated, Sections
       815.01 to 815.07
GA      Computer Systems Protection Act, Georgia Codes Annotated, Sections
       16-9-90 to 16-9-95
HI      Revised Statutes, Sections 708-890 to 780-896
ID      Code, Title 18, Chapter 22, Sections 18-2201, 18-2202
IL      Annotated Statutes (Criminal Code), Sections 15-1, 16-9
IN      Code, Sections 35-43-1-4, 35-43-2-3
IO      Statutes, Sections 716A.1 to 716A.16
KS      Statutes Annotated, Section 21-3755
KY      Revised Statutes, Sections 434.840 to 434.860
LA      Revised Statutes, Title 14, Subpart D. Computer Related Crimes,
       Sections 73.1 to 73.5
ME      Revised Statutes Annotated, Chapter 15, Title 17-A, Section 357
MD      Annotated Code, Article 27, Sections 45A and 146
MA      General Laws, Chapter 266, Section 30
MI      Statutes Annottated, Section 28.529(1)-(7)
MN      Statutes (Criminal Code), Sections 609.87 to 609.89
MI      Code Annotated, Sections 97-45-1 to 97-45-13
MS      Revised Statutes, Sections 569.093 to 569.099
MT      Code Annotated, Sections 45-2-101, 45-6-310, 45-6-311
NE      Revised Statutes, Article 13(p) Computers, Sections 28-1343 to 28-1348
NV      Revised Statutes, Sections 205.473 to 205.477
NH      Revised Statutes Annotated, Sections 638:16 to 638:19
NJ      Statutes, Title 2C, Chapter 20, Sections 2C:20-1, 2C:20-23 to 2C:20-34,
       and Title 2A, Sections 2A:38A-1 to 2A:38A-3
NM      Statutes Annotated, Criminal Offenses, Computer Crimes Act, Sections
       30-16A-1 to 30-16A-4
NY      Penal Law, Sections 155.00, 156.00 to 156.50, 165.15 subdiv. 10,
       170.00, 175.00
NC      General Statutes, Sections 14-453 to 14-457
ND      Century Code, Sections 12.1-06.1-01 subsection 3, 12.1-06.1-08
OH      Revised Code Annotated, Sections 2901.01, 2913.01, 2913.04, 2913.81
OK      Computer Crimes Act, Oklahoma Session Laws, Title 21, Sections
       1951-1956
OR      Revised Statutes, Sections 164.125, 164.377
PA      Consolidated Statutes Annotated, Section 3933
RI      General Laws (Criminal Offenses), Sections 11-52-1 to 11-52-5
SC      Code of Laws, Sections 16-16-10 to 16-16-40
SD      Codified Laws, Sections 43-43B-1 to 43-43B-8
TN      Code Annotated, Computer Crimes Act, Sections 39-3-1401 to 39-3-1406
TX      Codes Annotated, Title 7, Chapter 33, Sections 33.01 to 33.05
UT      Computer Fraud Act, Utah Code Annotated, Sections 76-6-701 to 76-6-704
VA      Computer Crime Act, Code of Virginia, Sections 18.2-152.1 to
       18.2-152.14
WA      Revised Code Annotated, Sections 9A.48.100, 9A.52.010, 9A.52.110 to
       9A.52.130
WI      Statutes Annotated, Section 943.70
WY      Statutes, Sections 6-3-501 to 6-3-505
-- cut --
--
   Brendan Kehoe - Widener Sun Network Manager - [email protected]
Widener University in Chester PA              A Bloody Sun-vs-Dec War Zone
   "Well you can't expect to wield supreme executive power cause some
     some watery tart threw a sword at you!" - Barbara Bush to Dan Quayle


-----------------------------------------------------------------
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 2, no. 1 (1991):
164-170.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
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Recursive Reviews
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Copyright, Digital Media, and Libraries
by Martin Halbert

Running a branch library devoted to computational materials, I am
frequently amazed at patrons' lack of understanding of copyright
issues.  One patron, an otherwise very intelligent research
scientist, was baffled concerning the restrictions inherent in
checking software out of the library.  The magnitude of his
misunderstanding came home to me when he asked if our
restrictions meant that he didn't need to bring his own disks to
copy the software onto.  He thought, in all honesty, I finally
realized, that copying the software was what checking out
software was all about.  After a very long discussion with him
about copyright and why it is illegal to copy software, he went
away somewhat shocked, but at least informed.

While most librarians have a better understanding of the concept
of copyright than my patron, how many of us have really thought
about all the ramifications of copyright and new digital media
technologies?  Librarians are ostensibly supposed to be experts
on the proper use of the collections of information they
administer.  This month's column is devoted to a brief
bibliography on the subject of copyright and digital media.  I
know that I had never considered many of the issues raised in the
sources reviewed below, so I think they will be of interest to
all librarians who have added any kind of digital media (e.g.,
software and CD-ROM databases) to their collections.

+ Page 165 +

-----------------------------------------------------------------
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.  Intellectual
Property Rights in an Age of Electronics and Information.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1986.
OTA-CIT-302.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

This 1986 report by the Office of Technology Assessment is the
best existing review and discussion of how new technological
developments have impacted the concept of intellectual property
in the United States.  Many discussions of the topic begin with a
review of this source (see below), which is justifiable
considering its quality.  The 300-page report concisely covers
the conceptual framework and goals of intellectual property
rights, how current laws have tried to accommodate technological
change, enforcement issues, and the role of the federal
government as a regulator.  The conclusion of the report is that
the new technologies, especially functional works like software,
have rendered the existing concepts and implementations of
domestic intellectual property law obsolete.  An entirely new
approach to the issue of what constitutes intellectual property
and how to regulate it will have to be developed by congress.
The OTA report raises profoundly troubling issues for librarians
and the entire information industry.


-----------------------------------------------------------------
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.  Computer
Software and Intellectual Property--Background Paper.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1990.
OTA-BP-CIT-61
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Drawing on the 1986 OTA report and others, this OTA background
paper further analyzes software issues.  It goes into greater
detail concerning questions peculiar to software, such as
addressing the following questions.  Can an interface be
copyrighted?  Can the concept of an algorithm be unambiguously
defined?  Patented?  Is a neural net to be considered a software
system or a hardware system?  The paper includes a few
developments which happened after the 1986 OTA report, but
fundamentally the paper only raises questions and provides a
context for discussing the problem.  Real answers may be a long
way off.

+ Page 166 +

----------------------------------------------------------------
Duggan, Mary Kay.  "Copyright of Electronic Information: Issues
and Questions."  Online 15, no. 3 (May 1991): 20-26.  (ISSN
0146-5422)
----------------------------------------------------------------

Because developments in the law have lagged so far behind
technological developments, many issues of copyright and digital
media are being resolved in practice, if not in legal fact.
Duggan discusses emerging views about what constitutes "fair use"
of electronic information sources.  She concludes that while some
consensus is developing about use of search results from CD-ROM
and dial-up databases, little agreement has yet been reached
about LAN and WAN access to databases and other network
information sources.


----------------------------------------------------------------
Garret, John R.  "Text to Screen Revisited: Copyright in the
Electronic Age."  Online 15, no. 2 (March 1991): 22-24.  (ISSN
0146-5422)
----------------------------------------------------------------

John Garret is the director of market development at the
Copyright Clearance Center.  Taking a very different view from
most of the other sources reviewed in this column, he maintains
that current copyright laws are perfectly capable of dealing with
the new electronic environment.  He calls into question many of
the assumptions about computer systems and monetary funding that
(he claims) underlie the move to overhaul the copyright system.
He describes a variety of small-scale pilot projects that the
Copyright Clearance Center has undertaken in conjunction with
publishers and researchers "to provide owner-authorized,
text-based information electronically for internal use to various
sets of users, and to determine what they use, when they use it,
why, how often, and to what end."  He further claims: "For these
pilots, and for other, larger-scale programs that will be
developed in the future, existing copyright law provides a
perfectly adequate context for the development and elaboration of
systems to manage computer-based text."

+ Page 167 +

While one has to wonder whether Mr. Garret is unbiased in this
matter given his position, he does make a convincing argument for
the limited case of electronic access to text-only databases.
However, his points do not address the larger issues raised in
the OTA intellectual property studies.


----------------------------------------------------------------
Alexander, Adrian W., and Julie S. Alexander.  "Intellectual
Property Rights and the 'Sacred Engine': Scholarly Publishing in
the Electronic Age."  In Advances in Library Resource Sharing,
ed. Jennifer Cargill and Diane J. Graves, 176-192.  Westport,
Conn.: Meckler, 1990.
----------------------------------------------------------------

Adrian and Julie Alexander give a fine overview of the 1986 OTA
report, as well as a conference on intellectual property rights
held in 1987 by the Network Advisory Committee of the Library of
Congress.  They conclude with a broad discussion of the potential
for electronic publishing for the scholarly research and
publication process, which echoes many of the themes discussed at
recent meetings of the Coalition for Networked Information.

They maintain, as some CNI speakers have, that electronic
publishing represents an opportunity for universities to
recapture their intellectual property from the expensive and
fruitless cycle of sale back and forth to publishers.  They also
point out that publishers want to capture this potential
publication medium as well.

+ Page 168 +

----------------------------------------------------------------
Shuman, Bruce A., and Joseph J. Mika.  "Copyrighted Software and
Infringement by Libraries."  Library and Archival Security 9, no.
1 (1989): 29-36.  (ISSN 0196-0075)
----------------------------------------------------------------

Shuman and Mika provide a good overview of the current state of
software piracy and copyright infringement, with a few additional
comments that describe the situation of libraries which circulate
software.  They are quite critical of the practice of
"shrink-wrap" licensing which many vendors have taken up.  This
is the familiar tactic of pasting a license agreement with many
restrictions on the outside of a shrink-wrapped software package,
with a statement to the effect of "if you open this package, you
thereby agree to this license."  They describe the many problems
involved in trying to police the use of software by library
patrons, and state that: "Librarians will continue to find
themselves between copyright holders and license-vendors, eager
to recover the money they feel entitled to, and patrons (and
sometimes library employees) who wish to 'liberate' programs,
whether out of simple greed, a love of the challenge, altruism,
or a 'Robin Hood' complex."


----------------------------------------------------------------
Denning, Dorothy E.  "The United States vs. Craig Neidorf."
Communications of the ACM 34, no. 3 (March 1991): 24-32.  (ISSN
0001-0782)
----------------------------------------------------------------

Finally, I would like to conclude this column with an example of
the kinds of troubling legal actions that are surely brewing on
the horizon.

The March 1991 Communications of the ACM was partly devoted to a
debate concerning electronic publishing, constitutional rights,
and hackers.  The article by Dorothy Denning was a description of
the trial of Craig Neidorf, a pre-law student at the University
of Missouri.  Neidorf was charged by a federal grand jury with
wire fraud, computer fraud, and interstate transportation of
stolen property.

+ Page 169 +

All this because he published a document (containing what turned
out to be public domain information) in an electronic journal he
edited.  The electronic journal was called "Phrack," a
contraction of the terms "Phreak" (the act of breaking into
telecommunications systems) and "Hack" (the act of breaking into
computer systems).  The document in question concerned the E911
system of Southwestern Bell, and it contained only information
that was already in the public domain.  The charges against
Neidorf were dropped when this was brought up during the trial,
but Neidorf was left with all his court costs, amounting to
$100,000.

Now, regardless of what one thinks of Neidorf or the ethics of
hacking, the fact that the U.S. government can bankrupt an
individual (or institution!) by making groundless accusations of
publishing "secret" electronic documents bears attention!
Neidorf's case may potentially mark the beginning of entirely new
types of censorship revolving around electronic media.  Denning's
article points out that currently the government can seize all
computer equipment and files of an individual or organization,
and hold them for months.  This kind of search and seizure (again
on mistaken grounds) devastated one small company called Steve
Jackson Games.  Denning discusses this incident as well, and it
is chilling to imagine happening by accident to one's own
organization.

Problems of copyright and the new digital media are only now
beginning to surface, but they have been inherent in the new
technologies since at least the sixties.  Libraries and society
as a whole will increasingly have to face these issues, either in
legislation by a forward-looking congress, or more likely in
painful court trials like the United States vs. Neidorf.

+ Page 170 +

About the Author

Martin Halbert
Automation and Reference Librarian
Fondren Library
Rice University
Houston, TX 77251-1892
[email protected]

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----------------------------------------------------------------

       COMPUTER PRIVACY VS. FIRST AND FOURTH AMENDMENT RIGHTS
                      (By Michael S. Borella)

<Mike Borella received a bachelor's degree in Computer Science and
Technical Communication from Clarkson University (1991). He is
currently a graduate student and teaching assistant in Computer
Science at U.  Cal. at Davis. This paper is the result of an
independent study sponsored by Susan Ross, an assistant professor in
Technical Communication at Clarkson. e-mail
[email protected] or [email protected]>


I: What is Cyberspace?

           "Cyberspace.  A consensual hallucination experienced daily
       by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation...  A
       graphical representation of data abstracted from the banks
       of every computer in the human system.  Unthinkable
       complexity.  Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the
       mind, clusters and constellations of data.  Like city lights,
       receding..."

                                       - William Gibson, Neuromancer

       Even after reading William Gibson's cyberpunk novels, one's

conceptualization of cyberspace, the electronic world of computers and

computer networks, can be insubstantial.  Gibson describes cyberspace as

a world of simulated stimulation that a computer feeds to a "jockey"

(computer operator) via a "cyberspace deck" (human-computer interface).

Explorers in Gibson's cyberspace often have difficulty telling what is

real and what is not.  Frequently, in our world, the novice computer

user has similar problems understanding how to use the potential wealth

of information at their finger tips.  In Gibson's uncharted future,

people access computers by merging their thoughts with a database.

Today we can "enter" cyberspace through keyboard and modem.  But what

actually is cyberspace?  Is it real?  What does it look like?  What are

some of the personal and legal issues emerging from this vastly

uncharted new frontier?  This paper will answer those questions and more

as we explore cyberspace, meet its frequenters, and discuss its

increasing role in the life of every human being, not just those who

actually use a computer.

       Before we embark on our journey through the legal battles and

rights issues regarding cyberspace, we need a working knowledge of what

it is and how computer operators use it.

       Envision a roadmap.  Cities dot the otherwise sparse landscape

and roads branch out in all directions, connecting every city.  This

network leaves no city unserviced. Although not every city is connected

to every other, it is possible to reach any one city from any other.

Like every other mass transit system, certain areas are more travelled

than others.  Some cities are larger than others and some stretches of

road are more prone to traffic.  The size and complexity of this roadmap

defies the imagination - it encircles the world.

       But the cities are not actually cities.  They are computers or

groups of computers.  The roads are telephone lines or fiber-optic

cable.  The system surrounds the globe in an electronic web of data.

The travellers on these 'virtual' roads are packets of information which

are sent from one city to another, perhaps via many.  The roadmap is a

worldwide computer "network."  Each city is a depot or terminal for the

packets, and is usually referred to as a "node."  In reality they are

mainframes owned by universities, companies, or groups of computer

users.  There are several worldwide computer networks currently in

existence.

       Every individual who has an account on any mainframe in the

world has their own unique electronic address.  It is not unlike a

mailbox, except that it can only receive mail of the electronic kind.

Electronic addresses are similar to postal addresses in that they

contain:

       --a name, or user identification which corresponds to the
       individual computer user who owns the particular address.
       --a local machine name, which is the specific mainframe that the
       userid is on.  Local names are only used in the node consists of
       more than one mainframe.  This is not unlike a street address.

       --a node name, which corresponds to the physical location of the
       node that the userid belongs to.  This is not unlike a city
       address and/or zip code.

       This is all a network needs to know before it can send

information from one mailbox to another.  Just like postal mail, if the

user doesn't address mail correctly, the network will return it.  In the

case of e-mail (electronic mail) a simple misspelling will cause the

network to return the mail, or send it to an improper destination.  Each

of the several worldwide networks has its own unique but similar method

for addressing e-mail.  Corresponding via electronic mail has been

available to some academicians for over 20 years, but today it is

possible for anybody with a computer and a modem to have their own

mailbox.  For the sake of convenience, many useful physical objects have

been abstracted into cyberspace.  Computerized filing systems

(databases), bulletin boards, and electronically published digests and

magazines proliferate in the virtual world of networks.  Many of these

electronic items are being treated differently than their "real"

counterparts.  Often, due to the convenience of having millions of

pieces of data available in seconds, individual privacy rights are

violated.  This is leading to debate and litigation concerning the use

of various aspects of cyberspace.  The next sections cover the

situations, people, and legislation of this untamed and largely

undefined frontier.



II: Databases

       A database is a collection facts, figures, numbers, and words

that are sorted in a particular order and/or indexed. They are stored on

a computer so that retrieval is quick and simple.  Often, databases are

used by the government, corporations, and private businesses to keep

track of the names, address, phone numbers, and other relevant data

about their clients, subscribers, members, etc.  For example, most

public libraries have databases containing information of every person

who has a card at that library.  Besides the name, address, and phone

number of the card holder, the library's database would also contain

information regarding what books the holder is currently borrowing,

whether they are overdue or not, and when each person's library card

expires.

       Similarly, banks have databases containing information regarding

the persons they transact with.  Again, name, address and phone number

is essential, but the bank would also be interested in social security

number, credit rating, assets, mortgage information, and so on.  By

organizing this data on a computer, the bank increases its efficiency.

It is able to serve more customers in less time, and provide monetary

transactions within seconds.  Anyone who has used a bank card at an

automated teller can attest to this.

       But all databases are not used for such beneficial purposes.  As

we will see in the next section, even the information stored in "benign"

databases can be used to violate privacy rights.

       In 1967, J. Edgar Hoover, then head of the FBI, created the

National Crime Information Center (NCIC).  This organization's purpose

is to use a computerized database containing the criminal record of

every United States citizen to increase the efficiency of all levels of

law enforcement by facilitating quick exchange of information.  The

NCIC's federal databanks interface with over 64,000 state and local

governments' computer networks, and even with some criminal databases of

foreign countries.  This widespread and far-reaching power is used by

everyone from top FBI investigators to county and municipal patrol

officers.  For example, if a police officer pulls over a speeder in New

York, they can check, within a matter of seconds, if that person is

wanted in any other state, and if that person has a criminal record.

       The NCIC contains records on every person arrested in the United

States, which amounts to approximately 40 million people, a number

equivalent to one-third of the work force (Gordon and Churchill, p.

497). It goes without saying that the holders of this information have

incredible power.  However, at first glance, the existence of the NCIC's

databases seem completely beneficial; in fact they do much to protect

the privacy of the average American.  Authorities can find out if an

individual is wanted for a crime and detain that person if necessary,

all with the push of a few buttons.  Effective law enforcement does make

the country a safer place for its citizens.  But, as we will see, the

current state of and uses for the NCIC do infringe upon individual

privacy.

       There are many cases in which the NCIC databases have been

found to hold inaccurate and incomplete information. Keep in mind that

they only contain arrest records, not conviction records.  If an

individual has been acquitted of a charge, it does not necessarily get

entered into the computers.  An example of this was the legal battle

fought by Los Angeles native Terry Dean Rogan.  After Rogan lost his

wallet, a man using his identification was linked to four crimes,

including two murders.  Rogan was mistakenly arrested, and an NCIC file

was made about him.  The file was inaccurate - it did not contain a

description of him.  As a result, he was arrested four times for crimes

he didn't commit.  Rogan successfully sued to city if Los Angeles in

1987 for violating his Fourth Amendment rights (Science Court Opinions,

p. 99).  But some victims of NCIC errors don't get off so easily.

       In 1979, Michael Ducross of Huntington Beach California made a

minor traffic violation on his way to the supermarket one day.  The

police officer radioed for a check on Ducross.  When a police station

desk clerk punched up the NCIC database to see if Ducross had a file, he

got a surprising result.  Ducross was wanted for going AWOL from the

Marine Corps 10 years earlier.  He was seized and held for five months

at Camp Pendleton.  The Marine Corps eventually dropped the charges

because he had never actually gone AWOL.  Ducross was a Native American,

and he had left the Corps on a special discharge program available only

to Native Americans and foreign citizens (Burnham, pp. 33-34).

       But these are just two isolated examples, right?  Wrong!  A

study by the Congressional Office of Technology Assistance (OTA)

conducted in 1982 found that, "...as many as one-third of state records

lacked information about the disposition of the cases on file.

Therefore, an arrest in one state, which may have resulted in a

dismissal or an acquittal, could in another state influence the decision

to withhold bail or to prosecute the defendant as a 'career criminal.' "

(Gordon and Churchill, p. 514).  The OTA study found that, at best, 49.5

percent of the NCIC Criminal History records were complete, correct, and

unambiguous (Burnham, p. 74).

       It's bad enough that the NCIC files are largely inaccurate -that

your Fourth Amendment rights protecting unlawful search and seizure can

be lawfully violated if you have been previously arrested for a crime

you didn't commit - but these computerized criminal files are used for

much more than law enforcement, and are used by more than just law

enforcement agencies.  Approximately 90 percent of all criminal

histories in the United States are available to public and private

employers (Gordon and Churchill, p. 515).

       Nor is the NCIC without local competition. For example, one

Rhode Island data merchant, whose clients are mostly prospective

employers, keeps files on people who have been arrested but

no necessarily convicted of a crime. That merchant includes in the files

names of individuals taken from local newspaper stories (Consumer

Reports).

       If arrest records but not conviction records are available,

might not they influence hiring decisions? For example, might not an

employer finding a record of arrests in the file of a person claiming a

"clean record" on an employment application question the credibility of

the applicant's claim and make a decision not to hire influenced by that

doubt? Given that the applicant would not be aware that such a database

had been consulted, he or she could not possibly mount a defense if the

information in the file was inaccurate (e.g., someone else's arrests) or

misleading (e.g. no arrests led to convictions).

       Since 40 million US citizens have an arrest record, the

social cost is potentially high.  In several states, including

California and Connecticut, more than half of the information requests

to criminal history databases were made by employers (Gordon and

Churchill, p.  515).

       But the problems don't end there.  In 1981, mainly because

of John Hinckley's attempt on then President Ronald Reagan's life, about

400 files were added to the NCIC database.  These were of people who had

no criminal record and were wanted for no crime!  Why were they being

entered into the computers?  Because these individuals were considered

"a potential danger" by the Secret Service.  Secret Service Director

John R. Simpson stated that listing these people would provide an

invaluable tool for tracking their location and activities (Epstein, p.

17).  This shows that the government is only paying lip service to the

"innocent until proven guilty" precedent that our freedom is based on.

The "potential danger" would be to members of the FBI protectorate,

including the President, Congress members, and controversial political

and social figures such as Jacqueline Onassis.  Considering how

"accurate" the files have been proven to be, one can imagine the

atrocities possible (and encouraged) under these provisions.

       But there are more culprits to this mess than just the

government. The use of databases in the violation of privacy extends

into the corporate world.  The U.D. Registry Inc. was formed in 1977 by

Harvey Saltz, a former deputy district attorney in Los Angeles.  "Using

a computer to store information obtained from legal charges filed by

landlords in the courts, Saltz says he currently has compiled more than

a million records about such disputes all over the Los Angeles area.

Over 1900 landlords pay Saltz an annual fee ranging from $35 to $60...to

determine whether the individuals who come to them for housing have had

arguments with other landlords in the past." (Burnham, p. 34).  And just

like the NCIC, Saltz's database was found to be less than reliable.

       In 1978, Lucky Kellener paid the rent to his brother's

apartment. But when his brother was evicted, Kellener's name was

included in the U.D. Registry files, defining him as an undesirable

tenant.  When Kellener went looking for a new apartment in 1981, he got

repeatedly turned down and brushed off.  Finally, a landlord told him

that he had been blacklisted (Burnham, pp. 34-35).

       Another victim was Barbara Ward, who moved to Los Angeles and

found that her newly rented apartment was infested with cockroaches.

When she gave her landlord a thirty day notice, he countered with an

eviction notice.  When the landlord didn't show up in court, the judge

threw the case out.  But Ward was entered in the U.D. Registry as having

an eviction notice, and when she wanted to rent an apartment later she

was unable to (Burnham, pp. 34-35).

       In both cases, errors caused a major personal difficulty and

breach of privacy.  Also, in both cases the victim did not know of the

U.D. Registry's existence.  Therefore, neither could possibly confront

the unfavorable, electronically-stored data, analogous to a "false

witness," that led to their blacklisting.

       Perhaps the grandest scale of gathering information about people

by a non-governmental agency was undertaken by the Lotus Development

Corp. in conjunction with Equifax Inc.  Lotus and Equifax developed

"Marketplace: Households," a database of the names, addresses, and

marketing information on 120 million residents of the United States

(Fisher, p. C3).  The purchaser of this information would probably be

large consumer goods companies specializing in mail order.  Databases

like this are currently used by organizations to send unsolicited (junk)

mail to potential buyers. Imagine the volume of junk mail if the entire

business world had the names and addresses of almost half of the

country's population on-line!

       Fortunately, on January 23, 1991, Lotus and Equifax announced

that they had cancelled plans to release "Marketplace: Households" due

to  30,000 letter and phone calls from individuals who wanted their

files deleted from the product.  Apparently, the companies decided that

the privacy issues involved would make the product unviable.  (Fisher,

p.  C3.) Ironically, a similar product, "Marketplace: Business", which

contained database  information on seven million U.S. businesses, was

discontinued the same day.  "Marketplace: Business" has been shipping

since October 1990, but was not profitable without the revenues from

"Marketplace: Households" (Fisher, p. C3).

       A similar example of the same type of database belongs to the

Phone Disc USA Corporation.  This small, Massachusetts based company

has manually copied the names, addresses and numbers of 90 million

people out of the white pages of telephone books from across the nation.

They put this information on CD-ROM storage devices, and sell it to

mass-marketers.  In a recent ruling, the Supreme Court decided that it

is legal to copy white pages listings because they are not copyrighted.

For the next version of the product, co-founder James Bryant plans to

copy every name from over 4000 sets of regional whites pages.

(Kleinfield) Unlike the Lotus/Equifax undertaking, Phone Disc USA shows

no signs of halting their product.

       How many of these computer databases and networks exist that the

average American doesn't know about?  Just about every government or

private agency that interacts with the public has its own computerized

index of names, addresses, social security numbers, etc.  Every time you

open a bank account, apply for a credit card, attend a learning

institution, register at a hotel, get medical aid, or obtain a loan, a

new file is opened for you, without your explicit knowledge!  And these

are the easy ones to track; there are many databases you get into

without anyone telling you. In fact, these "secret" records, not unlike

the U.D. Registry's, are more effective if the "victims" don't know

about them.

       Now that we are aware of the problem, we can ask the question,

"What do we do?"  First we must clarify one point - does the mere

existence of these databases and computerized records intrude upon the

individual's privacy, or does the use of them constitute privacy

invasion? The best way to do this is to find out if similar privacy

violations occurred before the advent of computerized files.

       The Census Bureau's charter contains the provision, "in no case

shall information furnished under the authority of this act be used to

the detriment of the person or persons to which this information

relates."  But, during World War I, the Justice Department was looking

for the names and addresses of young men who were trying to evade the

draft so they could track these dissenters down and prosecute them.

Under pressure from the military, the Census Bureau disclosed this

information (Burnham, pg. 24).  Computers did were not used to record

information until the mid-forties.  One of the first organizations to

use primitive databases (stacks and stacks of punch cards) for the

purpose of information gathering on a large number of people was the

Census Bureau.

       The violation of privacy did take place before computerized

databases.  The largest differences between a stack of papers and a

computer file are that the computer file is easier to use, faster to

find, able to be disseminated and/or transmitted quickly.  An example of

how efficient computer files are at finding people is the case of the

California Locator Service.  This database is used to track parents who

refuse to pay child support.  The names of the wayward parents are filed

in the database.  The database is compared to that of the Franchise Tax

Board. In the case of a match, the parent's tax refund is intercepted

and sent to the parent with custody (Burnham, pp. 30-33).  The Locator

Service also has direct links to the Department of Motor Vehicles, the

Employment Development Board, criminal databases, and several other

computer networks to help locate the delinquent parent.  According to

manager Richard Beall, the service is able to provide at least some sort

of information 62% of the time (Burnham, pp. 30-33).  Imagine the

difference if the California Locator Service were run by pen, pencil, or

typewriter instead.  The proper information on the wayward parent would

have to be sent to all the associate agencies, processed, and answers

given.  The time to do this would be prohibitive enough to make the

service slow and negligibly effective.  The computer facilitates this

sort of information sharing and retrieval.

       We conclude that computers aren't the inherent evil, but they

help the government and other organizations to procreate the evil of

privacy infringement more easily than if computer databases weren't

used.  So we can't necessarily eliminate the problem by eliminating the

databases. Often the computer database used for the questionable

activity is one that exists for a different purpose.  Cases of this are

the Census Bureau's information, and the NCIC.  Both of these databases

exist to serve beneficial purposes - population surveys and law

enforcement, respectively.  Eliminating all computer databases

containing personal information would to too radical a step. Our society

would grind to a standstill as bank records, medical files, legal

reports, etc. (the list goes on indefinitely) would have to be hand

copied and disseminated.

       Think of the examples of given at the beginning of this section

of a library and a bank.  We saw how these organizations used databases

to improve their service to the public.  These same databases can be

used to invade the privacy of the public.  For example if library

databases are available to the public, they can be used to list the

books or type of books that an individual reads.  A magazine or book

club might find library databases useful in deciding who to send

unsolicited subscription or membership information to.  Bank records can

be used similarly to determine the financial status of an individual.

       What is comes down to is that any database containing personal

information that is used for any other purpose than the one it exists

for is a potential violation of privacy.  As a case in point, under

current law, our video rental histories have more protection than our

medical or insurance records. Under a 1988 law, video rental records may

only be released under court order. That law, often referred to as the

"Bork bill," was inacted after video rental information about a Supreme

Court nominee was made public in the press (Consumer Reports).  Must we

wait for similar abuses related to the medical, library, or bank records

of persons in the public eye to similarly secure the privacy of these

records?

       Is there a solution?  Is there a middle ground where we can have

the databases, but control how they are used?  In the January 1988 issue

of Omni magazine, experts from various legal and scientific fields were

asked to comment upon the Terry Dean Rogan case (see above).  Some

responses were: (Science Court Opinions, p.  100).

Sheldon L. Glashow, Nobel laureate and professor of physics at Harvard
University: "A centralized computerized crime file is absolutely
necessary for crime control, but it does jeopardize the rights of
citizens...Under no circumstance but one should the NCIC files be made
available for non-crime related purposes: The exception is the right of
each citizen to examine his or her own file."

Melvin Konner, M.D.,  professor of anthropology at Emory University:
"Centralized data banks pose a new, probably serious threat to
privacy, yet such data banks are too valuable to be forsworn.
..challenges should result in the emergence of a system of check
and balances that will prevent the abuse of data."

John Money, professor emeritus of medical psychology and pediatrics at
Johns Hopkins University and Hospital: "...it becomes imperative
to have strictly enforced safeguards on the usage of such
[computerized] lists.  One such safeguard would be a legally
guaranteed principle of freedom of information, so that an
individual could access his or her name on the list and correct
information falsely entered against it."

George B. Schaller, director of science for Wildlife Conservation
International: "...as a potential victim, I am pleased that the file
might help insure my privacy - that is my property and person.
The file should, however, be accessible for criminal matters only,
or it will be misused."


       Furthermore, an interesting precedent may be set for privacy

rights in the United States by the new European Community. The European

Community is proposing a set of laws that would strictly limit how

database information is used and who has access to it.  Basically, the

laws would instruct owners of databases to notify individuals of their

inclusion, and these individuals would be able to obtain copies of the

database information on them.  Also, owners of databases would not be

allowed to sell the personal information of an individual without the

permission of that individual.  "The proposals would prohibit...a

publisher from selling a list of subscribers to a real estate developer

- unless the subscribers agreed to be included.  Banks would be required

to notify credit card holders before selling their names to mail-order

houses." (Markoff, p. D1). Interestingly enough, these proposed

regulations have the U.S. based companies complaining the loudest.  IBM,

GTE, and AT&T claim that the proposed laws would strictly limit their

business abroad (Markoff, p. D1).

       Privacy experts maintain that the companies are overreacting.

Some of the restriction that are under consideration include: (Markoff,

p. D1).


       --Companies must register all databases containing personal
         information with the countries...in which they are
         operating...

       --Corporations using personal data must tell the subjects of
         their use...

       --Private companies can only collect or process personal data
         with the consent of the subjects.

        --Companies would not be able to transfer data to another
          country unless that country also offered adequate protection
          of records.

       Taking these experts' opinions and the precedents under

consideration by the European Community, we have a basis for legislation

concerning computer databases and the privacy of individuals.  The

following guidelines are suggested:

       1) All individuals who have personal information stored in a
          computer database must be informed of this fact. They also
          must be given a chance to review their file(s) and to
          petition for changes if they find that the information held
          within is incorrect.

       2) When a person is arrested and/or brought to trial because of
          the information in one of these databases, attention must be
          given to the question of the file's accuracy and
          completeness.

       3) Files that exist for purposes of law enforcement (e.g., the
          NCIC) should not be used for anything other than law
          enforcement.  A system of checks and balances should be
          maintained to guarantee this.

      4) Files that exist for marketing or statistical purposes should
         inform all individuals who are included in the database of
         their inclusion, and give them an opportunity to request that
         their file be deleted.

       The constitution was written as anticipatory democracy, but its

framers did not (and could not) anticipate the advent nor the power of

the computer.  Although the ideals of individual privacy have not

changed over the last 200 years, the reality has.  In the next section

other outdated legal concepts that are in danger of violating the First

and Fourth Amendment rights of every citizen are exposed.


III: The Printed Word vs. The Electronic Word

           "The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
       houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches
       and seizures, shall not be violated and no warrants shall
       issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or
       affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
       searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

               - The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the
                 United States

       On March 1st, 1990, Secret Service agents raided the offices of

Steve Jackson Games, a small role-playing game company.  The agents

seized three computers, including one being used to run a bulletin

board, all company software in the proximity of these computers, and all

business records contained in the computers' storage.

       Why would the government want to virtually shut down a game

company? Because Steve Jackson Games was just weeks away from

publishing a science-fiction role-playing game called Gurps Cyberpunk.

The game is set in a high-tech future society where the players use

human/computer interfaces to "enter" computer networks and infiltrate

(or hack) through defenses to valuable data.  Playing the game does not

require the use of (or even the knowledge of how to use) a computer.  A

Secret Service agent told Steve Jackson that the Gurps Cyberpunk playing

manual was a "handbook on computer crime." (Barlow).

       As a result of losing their computing capabilities and data,

Steve Jackson Games temporarily shut down and had to lay off half of its

employees.  For three months, the Secret Service retained the equipment

and data even though they had no evidence that the game or any other

Steve Jackson game violated any law.  When some of the equipment was

finally returned in June, 1990, the Service kept the drafts of Gurps

Cyberpunk.  The rest of the equipment was "lost." (Barlow).

       According to the Fourth Amendment, the Secret Service agents

needed "probable cause" that criminal evidence will be at the scene of

the search to get a search warrant issued.  The Fourth Amendment also

specifies that the search should be as narrow as possible (in other

words, the Secret Service should have known exactly what they were

looking for.) By taking all computer records, the Service not only

effectively shut Jackson down, but violated  the Fourth Amendment.

       The only "probable cause" that the Secret Service had for

seizing Jackson's computers was that Jackson had hired a former "hacker"

to work on Gurps Cyberpunk.  A "hacker" is a member of an underground

subculture dedicated to breaking and entering computer systems.  While

this is illegal, the hacker community in general frowns upon the

stealing of data for personal profit, but does it instead for bragging

rights and the thrill of gaining illicit access to a "guarded" area of

cyberspace.  This is not unlike breaking the speed limit for kicks and

the excitement of defying authority.  If this is indeed why the Service

raided Steve Jackson Games,  this sets another frightening precedent

regarding privacy - will employers now check to see if applicants are

hackers along with the "normal" checks for arrest records?  This may be

an effect that the Service was looking for.  According to Steve Jackson,

the Secret Service suspected this staff member of wrongdoing at home,

not at Steve Jackson Games (Computer Underground Digest, 3.20).

       At the time of this writing, the search warrant remained sealed.

If the object of the search, according to the warrant, was evidence of

the staffer's wrongdoing, only evidence of that crime should have been

retained. If the object was the game, the agents should have taken just

the hard copy and soft copy regarding Gurps Cyberpunk.  By taking the

whole computer system of Steve Jackson Games, the FBI seriously hindered

the lawful commercial activities of the company.  By holding the

computer equipment and software for three months, Steve Jackson Games

was almost put out of business.  The non-relevant equipment and software

should have been returned promptly.

       Along with the computer equipment and software seized, the

agents disconnected and confiscated Steve Jackson Games' BBS.  A BBS,

or Bulletin Board System, is a centralized, information gathering and

dissemination point for many computer users.  The BBS contains e-mail

from and for those users, who can access the system with their home

computer's modem through normal phone lines.  Many users who don't

have network access through a university or the organization they work

for use a BBS to enter cyberspace.  The BBS stores personal mail for

these users and enables them to read it when they are logged on.  U.S.

postal mail is considered private.  Electronic mail is the same as

physical mail in that it should be protected by the same privacy rights

that physical mail is.  In the next section, the seizure of personal

mail is explored in detail.

       Even though Steve Jackson Games did eventually publish Gurps

Cyberpunk, the company was hit hard by the loss of its information.

They had to recreate the game from rough drafts and memory.  But, a

positive result did come out of the SJG case.  Mitch Kapor, founder of

Lotus Development Corp, and associate John Perry Barlow, established the

Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) with the purposes of educating the

public about computer-based media and supporting litigation to extend

First Amendment rights into the computer world.  The EFF intervened in

the Jackson case, pushing the government to restore SJG's equipment.  In

April, 1991 the EFF in conjunction with Steve Jackson Games filed a

civil suit against the U.S. Secret Service and several of the

individuals responsible for the raid and the withholding of Jackson's

property.  Unfortunately, at the time of this writing, more detail about

this precedent setting case was unavailable.

       Although it will not set a legal precedent, there is a similar

case on the books.  The Alcor Life Extension Foundation is an

organization that, for a large fee, will freeze an individual's body

upon death.  In December, 1987, the Riverside County Coroner's Office

accused Alcor of hastening the death of cryogenic participant Dora Kent

by prescribing her a lethal dose of barbituates (Computer Underground

Digest, 1.04).  In January 1988, law enforcement officers raided Alcor's

headquarters and confiscated its computer equipment.  Like the Steve

Jackson Games case, the search warrant for the Alcor foundation did not

specify what information that should have specifically be confiscated.

The section of the warrant pertaining to computer seizures follows:

           All electronic storage devices, capable of storing
       electronic data regarding the above records, including magnetic
       tapes, disk (floppy or hard), and the complete hardware
       necessary to retrieve electronic data including CPU (central
       processing unit), CRT (viewing screen), disc or tape drives,
       printer, software, and operation manuals for the above said
       computer, together with all handwritten notes or printed
       material describing the operation of the computer
       (Computer Underground Digest, 1.04).

       In other words, the officers were directed to seize all

computers and computer equipment from the Alcor site.  Even though the

warrant states that only computer equipment  "...capable of storing

electronic data regarding the above records..."  should be seized, this

can be interpreted as a warrant to seize all computer equipment because

any equipment is capable of holding data about Dora Kent.  So once

again, the warrant was very wide reaching and vague, exactly what the

Fourth Amendment is  supposed to protect against.

       But in this case, the issue became more focused.  H. Keith

Henson, a member of Alcor, claimed that personal e-mail belonging to

himself and 13 other Alcor members was "stolen" by the raiding officers.

Although Henson repeatedly tried to get the court to turn over the

private e-mail, on the account that it had no relevance to the Dora Kent

case, they would not return it.  So Henson and his group sued the FBI

for not intervening on their behalf in this case (Computer Underground

Digest, 1.04).

       The stealing of private e-mail like in the Alcor case is another

precedent that can have dangerous repercussions.  This is the equivalent

of law enforcement officers obtaining a search warrant for a post office

because some of its employees were suspected of illegal activities, and

proceeding to seize all mail contained in the post office and reading

it, and not returning it to its intended recipients.

       At the time of this writing, Alcor case was settled out of

court. The result of the settlement was not available.

       As we can see from these examples, there is a fundamental

difference in how the legal community in the U.S. views printed and

electronic media.  Print media is protected by the First Amendment;

electronic media is not.  This is a difference that should not exist.

Almost all newspapers and magazines exist in electronic form before they

are printed.  Electronic digests follow the same process, but they leave

out the final step - the actual printing.  There have been cases of

electronic hacker magazines being shut down for publishing hacked

(stolen) documents.

       However there is a hacker magazine called 2600 that doesn't

leave out the final step.  Printed, not electronic, copies are sent to

subscribers.  2600 has included similarly hacked documents, but has

never been accosted. According to 2600 editor Emmanuel Goldstein, it is

because of the physical printing, "I've got one advantage.  I come out

on paper and the Constitution knows how to deal with paper." (Barlow).

Computer based media and e-mail should have the same Constitutional

protection as the written word.  But it doesn't.  Why not?

       We can answer this question by tracing history back to the late

1700's when the Framers were writing the Constitution. They had no

concept of computers or electronic communication at its current level.

Because of this excusable lack of foresight, the Constitution and Bill

of Rights do not contain specific provisions for computer based speech

and the computerized press.  In fact, the word "press" implies the

printed press, not actual process of disseminating information to large

numbers of people.  In the Fourth Amendment, an individual's "papers"

are safe from unreasonable search and seizure.  Electronic, or

unprinted, "papers" are not specifically protected.  In strict

interpretations of the Constitution, electronic media are not protected.

Of course, this is nonsense since the only difference between an article

in a newspaper or magazine and an article stored electronically, that is

intended to be printed, is the act of printing.

       Using the Steve Jackson Games and Alcor cases as a basis,

it is proposed that the following guidelines be legislated:

       1) If computer information is to be seized, the search warrant
          must explicitly describe the data sought.  The officers
          carrying out the search should seize only the storage devices
          (floppy disk, hard disk, magnetic tape) holding this
          information.

       2) If the storage device(s) seized contain other information as
          well as the data described by the warrant, the wanted data
          should be copied them the storage device should be promptly
          returned.

       3) If any electronic mail is confiscated, only the pieces from
          or to suspects of the crime should be read.  The rest should
          be promptly returned unread to the addressees.


       By following these guidelines, we can avoid many violations of

individual privacy that the Constitution, in its current wording,

allows.  In the final section a somewhat radical step to help our

society into the information age is recommended.


IV: Where Do We Go From Here?

       The untamed electronic frontier is an intimidating domain for

the computer illiterate.  Many view this mysterious technology as

responsible for whittling away their personal rights and privacy.  Thus

they find it fearful and intimidating.  Ironically, the only way that

the electronic frontier can "dehumanize" an individual is if that

individual is ignorant of what it really is.  We've seen that we can't

continue to function at our current level of society without computer

technology, but unless the users of this technology are monitored, they

can use it to invade the privacy of individuals.  If the general

populace is educated, they will have the background to challenge these

intruders.

       But where do we start?  As we have seen before, the outdated

wording of the Constitution promotes this dread image of computers and

electronic media.  Perhaps a good place to start would be with the

Constitution.  The current wording of the Bill of Rights is archaic, and

it represents the mind-frame that many people still have.  Computer

technology and cyberspace must not be viewed as separate from or outside

of laws protecting free speech and privacy.

       The First and Fourth Amendments don't explicitly mention

electronic media. They should regard rights in the electronic world of

cyberspace as just as important as those in the physical world.  A new

amendment stating that the rights guaranteed by the First, Fourth, and

any other amendment for that matter, apply to cyberspace would prevent

many of the violations we have discussed from happening. (As the final

revision of this paper was about to be printed, word was received that

Laurence Tribe of Harvard Law School had proposed discussion of just

such an amendment. However, this author's proposal was developed

independently of Tribe's.)

      If a new amendment is a step too far, then legislation and

precedent setting legal decisions must be made.  There seems to be a ray

of hope in the Steve Jackson Games case, but it will take several such

cases to approach the benefit of a Constitutional amendment.

       The global village is just around the corner.  Whether it is a

technological utopia of peace and freedom or an aspect of Orwell's

"1984" depends on decisions made now.










































                                Bibliography

     Article One: An Overview, (2600 Magazine, Spring 1990), pp.1-10.*


     Burnham, David, The Rise of the Computer State, (1980, Vintage
     Books).

     Barlow, John Perry, Crime and Puzzlement. **

     Computer Underground Digest, Volume 1.04, April 11th, 1990. *

     Computer Underground Digest, Volume 3.20, May 12, 1991.*

     Consumer Reports, "What Price Privacy," (May, 1991, pp. 356-360).

     Epstein, Aaron, "The Shadow of Your File," The Progressive, (v47,
     Jun., 1983), p. 17.

     Fisher, Lawrence M., "Lotus Database Cancelled," (New York Times,
     Jan 24, 1991), p. C3.

     Gordon, Diana R. and Churchill, Mae, " 'Triple I' Will Be Tracking
     Us," The Nation, (New York, v238, April 28, 1984), pp.  497, 513-
     515.

     Kleinfield, N.R., "The Man With All The Numbers," New York Times,
     Sunday, April 14th, 1991.

     Markoff, John, "Europe's Plan to Protect Privacy Worry Business,"
     New York Times, Thursday, April 11th, pp. D1, D5.

     Pool, Ithiel de Sola, Technologies of Freedom, "On free speech in
     an electronic age," (1983, Harvard University Press).

     Science Court Opinions - Case 6: Computer Privacy, Omni, (New
     York, Jan. 1988, v10), pp. 99-100.

     Wilson, Kevin, The Technologies of Control, (1988, University of
     Wisconsin Press).


       * These are electronic publications.  If copies cannot be found,
         feel free to contact the author.

      ** This document was originally disseminated electronically, then
         was published in Harper's Magazine.  The author used the
         original version.


Date: Sat, 28 Jan 1995 09:00:07 GMT
From: [email protected] (Brad Templeton)
Subject: DRAFT FAQ: 10 big myths about copyright explained
Newsgroups: news.announce.newusers,news.admin.policy,misc.legal,misc.legal.comp
uting,misc.int-property

Original-author: [email protected] (Brad Templeton)
Archive-name: law/Copyright-FAQ/myths
Last-change: 11 Jan 1994 by [email protected] (Brad Templeton)
Changes-posted-to: news.misc

[This is a draft FAQ, proposed for inclusion in news.announce.newusers.  It
has not yet been sent to news.answers for approval, so the Archive-name
above is just a proposal.  After a few rounds of posting this as a draft,
it'll be added to news.answers.  - [email protected]]

               10 Big Myths about copyright explained
                       By Brad Templeton


       1) If it doesn't have a copyright notice, it's not
       copyrighted.

       This was true in the past, but today almost all major
       nations follow the Berne copyright convention.  For example,
       after April 1, 1989, almost everything created privately in the
       USA is copyrighted and protected whether it has a notice or not.
       The default you must assume for other people's works is that
       they are copyrighted and may not be copied unless you *know*
       otherwise.  There are some old works that lost protection
       without notice, but frankly you should not risk it unless
       you know for sure.

       It is true that a notice strengthens the protection, by
       warning people, and by allowing one to get more and
       different damages, but it is not necessary.  If it looks
       copyrighted, you must assume it is.   This applies to pictures,
       too.  You can't scan pictures from magazines and post them
       to the net, and if you come upon something unknown,
       you shouldn't post that either.

       The correct form for a notice is:
               "Copyright <dates> by <author/owner>"
       You can use C in a circle instead of "Copyright" but "(C)"
       has never been given legal force.  The phrase "All Rights
       Reserved" used to be required in some nations but is now
       not needed.


       2) If I don't charge for it, it's not a violation.

       False.  Whether you charge can affect the damages awarded in
       court, but that's essentially the only difference.  It's still a
       violation if you give it away -- and there can still be
       heavy damages if you hurt the commercial value of the
       property.

       3) If it's posted to USENET it's in the public domain.

       False.  Nothing is in the public domain anymore unless the
       owner explicitly puts it in the public domain(*).  Explicitly,
       as in you have a note from the author/owner saying, "I grant
       this to the public domain."  Those exact words or words very
       much like them.

       Some argue that posting to USENET implicitly grants
       permission to everybody to copy the posting within fairly
       wide bounds, and others feel that USENET is an automatic store and
       forward network where all the thousands of copies made are
       done at the command (rather than the consent) of the
       poster.  This is a matter of some debate, but even if the
       former is true (and in this writer's opinion we should all pray
       it isn't true) it simply would suggest posters are implicitly
       granting permissions "for the sort of copying one might expect
       when one posts to USENET" and in no case is this a placement
       of material into the public domain.  Furthermore it is very
       difficult for an implicit licence to supersede an explicitly
       stated licence that the copier was aware of.

       Note that all this assumes the poster had the right to post
       the item in the first place.  If the poster didn't, then all
       the copies are pirate, and no implied licence or theoretical
       reduction of the copyright can take place.

       (*) It's also usually in the public domain if the creator has
       been dead for 50 years.  If anybody dead for 50 years is posting
       to the net, let me know.  There are some other fine points
       to this issue -- check more detailed documents for info.

       4) My posting was just fair use!

       See other notes on fair use for a detailed answer, but bear
       the following in mind:

       The "fair use" exemption to copyright law was created to allow
       things such as commentary, parody, news reporting, research and
       education about copyrighted works without the permission of the
       author.  Intent, and damage to the commercial value of the
       work are important considerations.  Are you reproducing an
       article from the New York Times because you needed to in order
       to criticise the quality of the New York Times, or because you
       couldn't find time to write your own story, or didn't want your
       readers to have to pay to log onto the online services with the
       story or buy a copy of the paper?  The former is probably fair
       use, the latter probably isn't.

       Fair use is almost always a short excerpt and almost always
       attributed.  (One should not use more of the work than is
       necessary to make the commentary.) It should not harm the
       commercial value of the work (which is another reason why
       reproduction of the entire work is generally forbidden.)

       Note that most inclusion of text in USENET followups is for
       commentary and reply, and it doesn't damage the commercial
       value of the original posting (if it has any) and as such it
       is fair use.  Fair use isn't an exact doctrine, either.  The
       court decides if the right to comment overrides the copyright
       on an indidvidual basis in each case.  There have been cases
       that go beyond the bounds of what I say above, but in general
       they don't apply to the typical net misclaim of fair use.
       It's a risky defence to attempt.

       5) If you don't defend your copyright you lose it.

       False.  Copyright is effectively never lost these days, unless
       explicitly given away.  You may be thinking of trade marks, which
       can be weakened or lost if not defended.

       6) Somebody has that name copyrighted!

       You can't copyright a name, or anything short like that.
       Titles usually don't qualify, but I doubt you could write a
       song entitled "Everybody's got something to hide except for
       me and my monkey."

       However, you can trademark an adjective, when applied to a
       generic type of product or service.  Like an "Apple"
       computer.  Apple Computer "owns" that word applied to
       computers, even though it is also an ordinary word.  Apple
       Records owns it when applied to music.  Neither owns the
       word on its own, only in context, and owning a mark doesn't
       mean complete control -- see a more detailed treatise on
       this law for details.

       You can't use somebody else's trademark in a way that would
       unfairly hurt the value of the mark, or in a way that might
       make people confuse you with the real owner of the mark, or
       which might allow you to profit from the mark's good name.
       For example, if I were giving advice on music videos, I
       would be very wary of trying to label my works with a name
       like "mtv."  :-)

       7) They can't get me, defendants in court have powerful rights!

       Copyright law is mostly civil law.  If you violate copyright
       you would usually get sued, not charged with a crime.
       "Innocent until proven guilty" is a principle of criminal
       law, as is "proof beyond a reasonable doubt."  Sorry, but in
       copyright suits, these don't apply the same way or at all.
       It's mostly which side and set of evidence the judge or
       jury accepts or believes more, though the rules vary based
       on the type of infringement.  In civil cases you can even
       be made to self-incriminate.

       8) Oh, so copyright violation isn't a crime or anything?

       Actually, recently in the USA commercial copyright
       violation involving more than 10 copies and value over
       $2500 was made a felony.  So watch out.  (At least you get
       the protections of criminal law.)  On the other hand, don't
       think you're going to get people thrown in jail for posting
       your E-mail.  The courts have much better things to do than
       that.  This is a fairly new, untested statute.

       9) It doesn't hurt anybody -- in fact it's free advertising.

       It's up to the owner to decide if they want the free ads or
       not.  If they want them, they will be sure to contact you.
       Don't rationalize whether it hurts the owner or not, *ask*
       them.  Usually that's not too hard to do.  Time past,
       ClariNet published the very funny Dave Barry column to a
       large and appreciative USENET audience for a fee, but some
       person didn't ask, and forwarded it to a mailing list, got
       caught, and the newspaper chain that employs Dave Barry
       pulled the column from the net, pissing off everybody who
       enjoyed it.  Even if you can't think of how the author or
       owner gets hurt, think about the fact that piracy on the net
       hurts everybody who wants a chance to use this wonderful new
       technology to do more than read other people's flamewars.

       10) They e-mailed me a copy, so I can post it.

       To have a copy is not to have the copyright.  All the E-mail
       you write is copyrighted.  However, E-mail is not, unless
       previously agreed, secret.  So you can certainly *report* on
       what E-mail you are sent, and reveal what it says.  You can
       even quote parts of it to demonstrate.  Frankly, somebody
       who sues over an ordinary message might well get no damages,
       because the message has no commercial value, but if you want
       to stay strictly in the law, you should ask first.  On the
       other hand, don't go nuts if somebody posts your E-mail. If
       it was an ordinary non-secret personal letter of minimal
       commercial value with no copyright notice (like 99.9% of all
       E-mail), you probably won't get any damages if you sue them.


       -----------------    In Summary   ---------------------------

       These days, almost all things are copyrighted the moment they
       are written, and no copyright notice is required.

       Copyright is still violated whether you charged money or not,
       only damages are affected by that.

       Postings to the net are not granted to the public domain, and
       don't grant you any permission to do further copying except
       *perhaps* the sort of copying the poster might have expected
       in the ordinary flow of the net.

       Fair use is a complex doctrine meant to allow certain valuable
       social purposes.  As yourself why you are republishing what
       you are posting and why you couldn't have just rewritten it
       in your own words.

       Copyright is not lost because you don't defend it; that's
       a concept from trademark law.  The ownership of names is
       also from trademark law, so don't say somebody has a name
       copyrighted.

       Copyright law is mostly civil law where the special rights
       of criminal defendants you hear so much about don't apply.
       Watch out, however, as new laws are moving copyright
       violation into the criminal realm.

       Don't rationalize that you are helping the copyright holder;
       often it's not that hard to ask permission.

       Posting E-mail is technically a violation, but revealing
       facts from E-mail isn't, and for almost all typical E-mail,
       nobody could wring any damages from you for posting it.

       -----------------------------------------------------------

               Permission is granted to freely copy this
               document in electronic form, or to print for
               personal use.  If you had not seen a notice
               like this on the document, you would have to
               assume you did not have permission to copy it.
               This document is still protected by you-know-
               what even though it has no copyright notice.

       It should be noted that the author, as publisher of an
       electronic newspaper on the net, makes his living by
       publishing copyrighted material in electronic form and has
       the associated biases.  However, DO NOT E-MAIL HIM FOR LEGAL
       ADVICE; for that use other resources or consult a lawyer.
       Also note that while most of these principles are universal
       in Berne copyright signatory nations, some are derived from
       Canadian and U.S. law.  This document is provided to clear
       up some common misconceptions about intellectual properly
       law that are often seen on the net.  It is not intended to
       be a complete treatise on all the nuances of the subject.  A
       more detailed copyright FAQ, covering other issues including
       compilation copyright and more intricacies of fair use is
       available in the same places you found this note, or for FTP
       on rtfm.mit.edu in pub/usenet-by-group/comp.answers/law/Copyright-FAQ.
       Also consider gopher://marvel.loc.gov/11/copyright for
       actual statutes.



Laurence H. Tribe, "The Constitution in Cyberspace"
PREPARED REMARKS

KEYNOTE ADDRESS AT THE
FIRST CONFERENCE ON COMPUTERS, FREEDOM & PRIVACY

Copyright, 1991, Jim Warren & Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility
 All rights to copy the materials contained herein are reserved, except as
hereafter explicitly licensed and permitted for anyone:
 Anyone may receive, store and distribute copies of this ASCII-format
computer textfile in purely magnetic or electronic form, including on
computer networks, computer bulletin board systems, computer conferencing
systems, free computer diskettes, and host and personal computers, provided
and only provided that:
(1) this file, including this notice, is not altered in any manner, and
(2) no profit or payment of any kind is charged for its distribution, other
  than normal online connect-time fees or the cost of the magnetic media, and
(3) it is not reproduced nor distributed in printed or paper form, nor on
CD ROM, nor in any form other than the electronic forms described above
without prior written permission from the copyright holder.
 Arrangements to publish printed Proceedings of the First Conference on
Computers, Freedom & Privacy are near completion.  Audiotape and videotape
versions are also being arranged.
 A later version of this file on the WELL (Sausalito, California) will
include ordering details.  Or, for details, or to propose other distribution
alternatives, contact Jim Warren, CFP Chair,345 Swett Rd., Woodside CA 94062;
voice:(415)851-7075; fax:(415)851-2814; e-mail:[email protected].[4/19/91]

[  These were the author's *prepared* remarks.
 A transcript of Professor Tribe's March 26th comments at the Conference
(which expanded slightly on several points herein) will be uploaded onto the
WELL as soon as it is transcribed from the audio tapes and proofed against
the audio and/or videotapes.]


"The Constitution in Cyberspace:
Law and Liberty Beyond the Electronic Frontier"

by Laurence H. Tribe

Copyright 1991 Laurence H. Tribe,
Tyler Professor of Constitutional Law,
Harvard Law School.

Professor Tribe is the author, most recently, of
"On Reading the Constitution" (Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1991).


Introduction

       My topic is how to "map" the text and structure of our
Constitution onto the texture and topology of "cyberspace".  That's
the term coined by cyberpunk novelist William Gibson, which many
now use to describe the "place" -- a place without physical walls
or even physical dimensions -- where ordinary telephone
conversations "happen," where voice-mail and e-mail messages are
stored and sent back and forth, and where computer-generated
graphics are transmitted and transformed, all in the form of
interactions, some real-time and some delayed, among countless
users, and between users and the computer itself
       Some use the "cyberspace" concept to designate fantasy worlds
or "virtual realities" of the sort Gibson described in his novel
*Neuromancer*, in which people can essentially turn their minds into
computer peripherals capable of perceiving and exploring the data
matrix.  The whole idea of "virtual reality," of course, strikes a
slightly odd note.  As one of Lily Tomlin's most memorable
characters once asked, "What's reality, anyway, but a collective
hunch?"  Work in this field tends to be done largely by people who
share the famous observation that reality is overrated!
       However that may be, "cyberspace" connotes to some users the
sorts of technologies that people in Silicon Valley (like Jaron
Lanier at VPL Research, for instance) work on when they try to
develop "virtual racquetball" for the disabled, computer-aided
design systems that allow architects to walk through "virtual
buildings" and remodel them *before* they are built, "virtual
conferencing" for business meetings, or maybe someday even "virtual
day care centers" for latchkey children.  The user snaps on a pair
of goggles hooked up to a high-powered computer terminal, puts on
a special set of gloves (and perhaps other gear) wired into the
same computer system, and, looking a little bit like Darth Vader,
pretty much steps into a computer-driven, drug-free, 3-dimensional,
interactive, infinitely expandable hallucination complete with
sight, sound and touch -- allowing the user literally to move
through, and experience, information.
       I'm using the term "cyberspace" much more broadly, as many
have lately.  I'm using it to encompass the full array of
computer-mediated audio and/or video interactions that are already
widely dispersed in modern societies -- from things as ubiquitous
as the ordinary telephone, to things that are still coming on-line
like computer bulletin boards and networks like Prodigy, or like
the WELL ("Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link"), based here in San
Francisco. My topic, broadly put, is the implications of that
rapidly expanding array for our constitutional order.  It is a
constitutional order that tends to carve up the social, legal, and
political universe along lines of "physical place" or "temporal
proximity." The critical thing to note is that these very lines, in
cyberspace, either get bent out of shape or fade out altogether.
The question, then, becomes:  when the lines along which our
Constitution is drawn warp or vanish, what happens to the
Constitution itself?


Setting the Stage

       To set the stage with a perhaps unfamiliar example, consider
a decision handed down nine months ago, *Maryland v. Craig*, where
the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the power of a state to put an
alleged child abuser on trial with the defendant's accuser
testifying not in the defendant's presence but by one-way,
closed-circuit television.  The Sixth Amendment, which of course
antedated television by a century and a half, says:  "In all
criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right . . . to
be confronted with the witnesses against him."  Justice O'Connor
wrote for a bare majority of five Justices that the state's
procedures nonetheless struck a fair balance between costs to the
accused and benefits to the victim and to society as a whole.
Justice Scalia, joined by the three "liberals"  then on the Court
(Justices Brennan, Marshall and Stevens), dissented from that
cost-benefit approach to interpreting the Sixth Amendment.  He
wrote:

       The Court has convincingly proved that the Maryland
       procedure serves a valid interest, and gives the
       defendant virtually everything the Confrontation Clause
       guarantees (everything, that is, except confrontation).
       I am persuaded, therefore, that the Maryland procedure is
       virtually constitutional.  Since it is not, however,
       actually constitutional I [dissent].

       Could it be that the high-tech, closed-circuit TV context,
almost as familiar to the Court's youngest Justice as to his even
younger law clerks, might've had some bearing on Justice Scalia's
sly invocation of "virtual" constitutional reality?  Even if
Justice Scalia wasn't making a pun on "virtual reality," and I
suspect he wasn't, his dissenting opinion about the Confrontation
Clause requires *us* to "confront" the recurring puzzle of how
constitutional provisions written two centuries ago should be
construed and applied in ever-changing circumstances.
       Should contemporary society's technology-driven cost-benefit
fixation be allowed to water down the old-fashioned value of direct
confrontation that the Constitution seemingly enshrined as basic?
I would hope not.  In that respect, I find myself in complete
agreement with Justice Scalia.
       But new technological possibilities for seeing your accuser
clearly without having your accuser see you at all -- possibilities
for sparing the accuser any discomfort in ways that the accuser
couldn't be spared before one-way mirrors or closed-circuit TVs
were developed -- *should* lead us at least to ask ourselves whether
*two*-way confrontation, in which your accuser is supposed to be made
uncomfortable, and thus less likely to lie, really *is* the core
value of the Confrontation Clause.  If so, "virtual" confrontation
should be held constitutionally insufficient.  If not -- if the
core value served by the Confrontation Clause is just the ability
to *watch* your accuser say that you did it -- then "virtual"
confrontation should suffice.  New technologies should lead us to
look more closely at just *what values* the Constitution seeks to
preserve.  New technologies should *not* lead us to react reflexively
*either way* -- either by assuming that technologies the Framers
didn't know about make their concerns and values obsolete, or by
assuming that those new technologies couldn't possibly provide new
ways out of old dilemmas and therefore should be ignored
altogether.
       The one-way mirror yields a fitting metaphor for the task we
confront.  As the Supreme Court said in a different context several
years ago, "The mirror image presented [here] requires us to step
through an analytical looking glass to resolve it."  (*NCAA v.
Tarkanian*, 109 S. Ct. at 462.)  The world in which the Sixth
Amendment's Confrontation Clause was written and ratified was a
world in which "being confronted with" your accuser *necessarily*
meant a simultaneous physical confrontation so that your accuser
had to *perceive* you being accused by him.  Closed-circuit
television and one-way mirrors changed all that by *decoupling* those
two dimensions of confrontation, marking a shift in the conditions of
information-transfer that is in many ways typical of cyberspace.
       What does that sort of shift mean for constitutional analysis?
A common way to react is to treat the pattern as it existed *prior*
to the new technology (the pattern in which doing "A" necessarily
*included* doing "B") as essentially arbitrary or accidental.  Taking
this approach, once the technological change makes it possible to
do "A" *without* "B" -- to see your accuser without having him or her
see you, or to read someone's mail without her knowing it, to
switch examples -- one concludes that the "old" Constitution's
inclusion of "B" is irrelevant; one concludes that it is enough for
the government to guarantee "A" alone. Sometimes that will be the
case; but it's vital to understand that, sometimes, it won't be.
       A characteristic feature of modernity is the subordination of
purpose to accident -- an acute appreciation of just how contingent
and coincidental the connections we are taught to make often are.
We understand, as moderns, that many of the ways we carve up and
organize the world reflect what our social history and cultural
heritage, and perhaps our neurological wiring, bring to the world,
and not some irreducible "way things are."  A wonderful example
comes from a 1966 essay by Jorge Louis Borges, "Other
Inquisitions."  There, the essayist describes the following
taxonomy of the animal kingdom, which he purports to trace to an
ancient Chinese encyclopedia entitled *The Celestial Emporium of
Benevolent Knowledge*:

               On those remote pages it is written that animals are
       divided into:
               (a) those belonging to the Emperor
               (b) those that are embalmed
               (c) those that are trained
               (d) suckling pigs
               (e) mermaids
               (f) fabulous ones
               (g) stray dogs
               (h) those that are included in this classification
               (i) those that tremble as if they were mad
               (j) innumerable ones
               (k) those drawn with a very fine camel's hair brush
               (l) others
               (m) those that have just broken a water pitcher
               (n) those that, from a great distance, resemble flies

       Contemporary writers from Michel Foucault, in *The Archaeology
of Knowledge*, through George Lakoff, in *Women, Fire, and Dangerous
Things*, use Borges' Chinese encyclopedia to illustrate a range of
different propositions, but the *core* proposition is the supposed
arbitrariness -- the political character, in a sense -- of all
culturally imposed categories.
       At one level, that proposition expresses a profound truth and
may encourage humility by combating cultural imperialism.   At
another level, though, the proposition tells a dangerous lie:  it
suggests that we have descended into the nihilism that so obsessed
Nietzsche and other thinkers -- a world where *everything* is
relative, all lines are up for grabs, all principles and
connections are just matters of purely subjective preference or,
worse still, arbitrary convention.  Whether we believe that killing
animals for food is wrong, for example, becomes a question
indistinguishable from whether we happen to enjoy eating beans,
rice and tofu.
       This is a particularly pernicious notion in a era when we pass
more and more of our lives in cyberspace, a place where, almost by
definition, our most familiar landmarks are rearranged or disappear
altogether -- because there is a pervasive tendency, even (and
perhaps especially) among the most enlightened, to forget that the
human values and ideals to which we commit ourselves may indeed be
universal and need not depend on how our particular cultures, or
our latest technologies, carve up the universe we inhabit.  It was
my very wise colleague from Yale, the late Art Leff, who once
observed that, even in a world without an agreed-upon God, we can
still agree -- even if we can't "prove" mathematically -- that
"napalming babies is wrong."
       The Constitution's core values, I'm convinced, need not be
transmogrified, or metamorphosed into oblivion, in the dim recesses
of cyberspace.  But to say that they *need* not be lost there is
hardly to predict that they *will* not be.  On the contrary, without
further thought and awareness of the kind this conference might
provide, the danger is clear and present that they *will* be.
       The "event horizon" against which this transformation might
occur is already plainly visible:
       Electronic trespassers like Kevin Mitnik don't stop with
cracking pay phones, but break into NORAD -- the North American
Defense Command computer in Colorado Springs -- not in a *WarGames*
movie, but in real life.
       Less challenging to national security but more ubiquitously
threatening, computer crackers download everyman's credit history
from institutions like TRW; start charging phone calls (and more)
to everyman's number; set loose "worm" programs that shut down
thousands of linked computers; and spread "computer viruses"
through everyman's work or home PC.
       It is not only the government that feels threatened by
"computer crime";  both the owners and the users of private
information services, computer bulletin boards, gateways, and
networks feel equally vulnerable to this new breed of invisible
trespasser.  The response from the many who sense danger has been
swift, and often brutal, as a few examples illustrate.
       Last March, U.S. Secret Service agents staged a surprise raid
on Steve Jackson Games, a small games manufacturer in
Austin, Texas, and seized all paper and electronic drafts of its
newest fantasy role-playing game, *GURPS[reg.t.m.] Cyberpunk*,
calling the game a "handbook for computer crime."
       By last Spring, up to one quarter of the U.S. Treasury
Department's investigators had become involved in a project of
eavesdropping on computer bulletin boards, apparently tracking
notorious hackers like "Acid Phreak" and "Phiber Optik" through
what one journalist dubbed "the dark canyons of cyberspace."
       Last May, in the now famous (or infamous) "Operation Sun Devil,"
more than 150 secret service agents teamed up with state
and local law enforcement agencies, and with security personnel
from AT&T, American Express, U.S. Sprint, and a number of the
regional Bell telephone companies, armed themselves with over two
dozen search warrants and more than a few guns, and seized 42
computers and 23,000 floppy discs in 14 cities from New York to
Texas.  Their target:  a loose-knit group of people in their teens
and twenties, dubbed the "Legion of Doom."
       I am not describing an Indiana Jones movie.  I'm talking about
America in the 1990s.


The Problem

       The Constitution's architecture can too easily come to seem
quaintly irrelevant, or at least impossible to take very seriously,
in the world as reconstituted by the microchip.  I propose today to
canvass five axioms of our constitutional law -- five basic
assumptions that I believe shape the way American constitutional
scholars and judges view legal issues -- and to examine how they
can adapt to the cyberspace age.  My conclusion (and I will try not
to give away too much of the punch line here) is that the Framers
of our Constitution were very wise indeed.  They bequeathed us a
framework for all seasons, a truly astonishing document whose
principles are suitable for all times and all technological
landscapes.


Axiom 1:
There is a Vital Difference
*Between Government and Private Action*

       The first axiom I will discuss is the proposition that the
Constitution, with the sole exception of the Thirteenth Amendment
prohibiting slavery, regulates action by the *government* rather than
the conduct of *private* individuals and groups.  In an article I
wrote in the Harvard Law Review in November 1989 on "The Curvature
of Constitutional Space," I discussed the Constitution's
metaphor-morphosis from a Newtonian to an Einsteinian and
Heisenbergian paradigm.  It was common, early in our history, to
see the Constitution as "Newtonian in design with its carefully
counterpoised forces and counterforces, its [geographical and
institutional] checks and balances." (103 *Harv. L. Rev.* at 3.)
       Indeed, in many ways contemporary constitutional law is still
trapped within and stunted by that paradigm.  But today at least
some post-modern constitutionalists tend to think and talk in the
language of relativity, quantum mechanics, and chaos theory. This
may quite naturally suggest to some observers that the
Constitution's basic strategy of decentralizing and diffusing power
by constraining and fragmenting governmental authority in
particular has been rendered obsolete.
       The institutional separation of powers among the three federal
branches of government, the geographical division of authority
between the federal government and the fifty state governments, the
recognition of national boundaries, and, above all, the sharp
distinction between the public and private spheres, become easy to
deride as relics of a simpler, pre-computer age.  Thus Eli Noam, in
the First Ithiel de Sola Pool Memorial Lecture, delivered last
October at MIT, notes that computer networks and network
associations acquire quasi-governmental powers as they necessarily
take on such tasks as mediating their members' conflicting
interests, establishing cost shares, creating their own rules of
admission and access and expulsion, even establishing their own *de
facto* taxing mechanisms.  In Professor Noam's words, "networks
become political entities,"   global nets that respect no state or
local boundaries. Restrictions on the use of information in one
country (to protect privacy, for example) tend to lead to export of
that information to other countries, where it can be analyzed and
then used on a selective basis in the country attempting to
restrict it.  "Data havens" reminiscent of the role played by the
Swiss in banking may emerge, with few restrictions on the storage
and manipulation of information.
       A tempting conclusion is that, to protect the free speech and
other rights of *users* in such private networks, judges must treat
these networks not as associations that have rights of their own
*against* the government but as virtual "governments" in themselves
-- as entities against which individual rights must be defended in
the Constitution's name.  Such a conclusion would be misleadingly
simplistic.  There are circumstances, of course, when
non-governmental bodies like privately owned "company towns" or
even huge shopping malls should be subjected to legislative and
administrative controls by democratically accountable entities, or
even to judicial controls as though they were arms of the state --
but that may be as true (or as false) of multinational corporations
or foundations, or transnational religious organizations, or even
small-town communities, as it is of computer-mediated networks.
It's a fallacy to suppose that, just because a computer bulletin
board or network or gateway is *something like* a shopping mall,
government has as much constitutional duty -- or even authority --
to guarantee open public access to such a network as it has to
guarantee open public access to a privately owned shopping center
like the one involved in the U.S. Supreme Court's famous *PruneYard
Shopping Center* decision of 1980, arising from nearby San Jose.
       The rules of law, both statutory and judge-made, through which
each state *allocates* private powers and responsibilities themselves
represent characteristic forms of government action.  That's why a
state's rules for imposing liability on private publishers, or for
deciding which private contracts to enforce and which ones to
invalidate, are all subject to scrutiny for their consistency with
the federal Constitution.  But as a general proposition it is only
what *governments* do, either through such rules or through the
actions of public officials, that the United States Constitution
constrains.  And nothing about any new technology suddenly erases
the Constitution's enduring value of restraining *government* above
all else, and of protecting all private groups, large and small,
from government.
       It's true that certain technologies may become socially
indispensable -- so that equal or at least minimal access to basic
computer power, for example, might be as significant a
constitutional goal as equal or at least minimal access to the
franchise, or to dispute resolution through the judicial  system,
or to elementary and secondary education.  But all this means (or
should mean) is that the Constitution's constraints on government
must at times take the form of imposing *affirmative duties* to
assure access rather than merely enforcing *negative prohibitions*
against designated sorts of invasion or intrusion.
       Today, for example, the government is under an affirmative
obligation to open up criminal trials to the press and the public,
at least where there has not been a particularized finding that
such openness would disrupt the proceedings.  The government is
also under an affirmative obligation to provide free legal
assistance for indigent criminal defendants, to assure speedy
trials, to underwrite the cost of counting ballots at election
time, and to desegregate previously segregated school systems.  But
these occasional affirmative obligations don't, or shouldn't, mean
that the Constitution's axiomatic division between the realm of
public power and the realm of private life should be jettisoned.
       Nor would the "indispensability" of information technologies
provide a license for government to impose strict content, access,
pricing, and other types of regulation.  *Books* are indispensable to
most of us, for example -- but it doesn't follow that government
should therefore be able to regulate the content of what goes onto
the shelves of *bookstores*.  The right of a private bookstore owner
to decide which books to stock and which to discard, which books to
display openly and which to store in limited access areas, should
remain inviolate.  And note, incidentally, that this needn't make
the bookstore owner a "publisher" who is liable for the words
printed in the books on her shelves.  It's a common fallacy to
imagine that the moment a computer gateway or bulletin board begins
to exercise powers of selection to control who may be on line, it
must automatically assume the responsibilities of a newscaster, a
broadcaster, or an author.  For computer gateways and bulletin
boards are really the "bookstores" of cyberspace; most of them
organize and present information in a computer format, rather than
generating more information content of their own.


Axiom 2:
The Constitutional Boundaries of Private Property
and Personality Depend on Variables Deeper Than
*Social Utility and Technological Feasibility*

       The second constitutional axiom, one closely related to the
private-public distinction of the first axiom, is that a person's
mind, body, and property belong *to that person* and not to the
public as a whole.  Some believe that cyberspace challenges that
axiom because its entire premise lies in the existence of computers
tied to electronic transmission networks that process digital
information.  Because such information can be easily replicated in
series of "1"s and "0"s, anything that anyone has come up with in
virtual reality can be infinitely reproduced.  I can log on to a
computer library, copy a "virtual book" to my computer disk, and
send a copy to your computer without creating a gap on anyone's
bookshelf.  The same is true of valuable computer programs, costing
hundreds of dollars, creating serious piracy problems.  This
feature leads some, like Richard Stallman of the Free Software
Foundation, to argue that in cyberspace everything should be free
-- that information can't be owned.  Others, of course, argue that
copyright and patent protections of various kinds are needed in
order for there to be incentives to create "cyberspace property" in
the first place.
       Needless to say, there are lively debates about what the
optimal incentive package should be as a matter of legislative and
social policy.  But the only *constitutional* issue, at bottom, isn't
the utilitarian or instrumental selection of an optimal policy.
Social judgments about what ought to be subject to individual
appropriation, in the sense used by John Locke and Robert Nozick,
and what ought to remain in the open public domain, are first and
foremost *political* decisions.
       To be sure, there are some constitutional constraints on these
political decisions.  The Constitution does not permit anything and
everything to be made into a *private commodity*.  Votes, for
example, theoretically cannot be bought and sold.  Whether the
Constitution itself should be read (or amended) so as to permit all
basic medical care, shelter, nutrition, legal assistance and,
indeed, computerized information services, to be treated as mere
commodities, available only to the highest bidder, are all terribly
hard questions -- as the Eastern Europeans are now discovering as
they attempt to draft their own constitutions.  But these are not
questions that should ever be confused with issues of what is
technologically possible, about what is realistically enforceable,
or about what is socially desirable.
       Similarly, the Constitution does not permit anything and
everything to be *socialized* and made into a public good available
to whoever needs or "deserves" it most.  I would hope, for example,
that the government could not use its powers of eminent domain to
"take" live body parts like eyes or kidneys or brain tissue for
those who need transplants and would be expected to lead
particularly productive lives.  In any event, I feel certain that
whatever constitutional right each of us has to inhabit his or her
own body and to hold onto his or her own thoughts and creations
should not depend solely on cost-benefit calculations, or on the
availability of technological methods for painlessly effecting
transfers or for creating good artificial substitutes.


Axiom 3:
*Government May Not Control Information Content*

       A third constitutional axiom, like the first two, reflects a
deep respect for the integrity of each individual and a healthy
skepticism toward government.  The axiom is that, although
information and ideas have real effects in the social world, it's
not up to government to pick and choose for us in terms of the
*content* of that information or the *value* of those ideas.
       This notion is sometimes mistakenly reduced to the naive
child's ditty that "sticks and stones may break my bones, but words
can never hurt me."  Anybody who's ever been called something awful
by children in a schoolyard knows better than to believe any such
thing.  The real basis for First Amendment values isn't the false
premise that information and ideas have no real impact, but the
belief that information and ideas are *too important* to entrust to
any government censor or overseer.
       If we keep that in mind, and *only* if we keep that in mind,
will we be able to see through the tempting argument that, in the
Information Age, free speech is a luxury we can no longer afford.
That argument becomes especially tempting in the context of
cyberspace, where sequences of "0"s and "1"s may become virtual
life forms.  Computer "viruses" roam the information nets,
attaching themselves to various programs and screwing up computer
facilities.  Creation of a computer virus involves writing a
program; the program then replicates itself and mutates.  The
electronic code involved is very much like DNA.  If information
content is "speech," and if the First Amendment is to apply in
cyberspace, then mustn't these viruses be "speech" -- and mustn't
their writing and dissemination be  constitutionally protected?  To
avoid that nightmarish outcome, mustn't we say that the First
Amendment is *inapplicable* to cyberspace?
       The answer is no.  Speech is protected, but deliberately
yelling "Boo!" at a cardiac patient may still be prosecuted as
murder.  Free speech is a constitutional right, but handing a bank
teller a hold-up note that says, "Your money or your life," may
still be punished as robbery. Stealing someone's diary may be
punished as theft -- even if you intend to publish it in book form.
And the Supreme Court, over the past fifteen years, has gradually
brought advertising within the ambit of protected expression
without preventing the government from protecting consumers from
deceptive advertising.  The lesson, in short, is that
constitutional principles are subtle enough to bend to such
concerns.  They needn't be broken or tossed out.


Axiom 4:
The Constitution is Founded on Normative
Conceptions of Humanity That Advances
*in Science and Technology Cannot "Disprove"*

       A fourth constitutional axiom is that the human spirit is
something beyond a physical information processor.  That axiom,
which regards human thought processes as not fully reducible to the
operations of a computer program, however complex, must not be
confused with the silly view that, because computer operations
involve nothing more than the manipulation of "on" and "off" states
of myriad microchips, it somehow follows that government control or
outright seizure of computers and computer programs threatens no
First Amendment rights because human thought processes are not
directly involved.  To say that would be like saying that
government confiscation of a newspaper's printing press and
tomorrow morning's copy has nothing to do with speech but involves
only a taking of metal, paper, and ink. Particularly if the seizure
or the regulation is triggered by the content of the information
being processed or transmitted, the First Amendment is of course
fully involved.  Yet this recognition that information processing
by computer entails something far beyond the mere sequencing of
mechanical or chemical steps still leaves a potential gap between
what computers can do internally and in communication with one
another -- and what goes on within and between human minds.  It is
that gap to which this fourth axiom is addressed; the very
existence of any such gap is, as I'm sure you know, a matter of
considerable controversy.
       What if people like the mathematician and physicist Roger
Penrose, author of *The Emperor's New Mind*, are wrong about human
minds?  In that provocative recent book, Penrose disagrees with
those Artificial Intelligence, or AI, gurus who insist that it's
only a matter of time until human thought and feeling can be
perfectly simulated or even replicated by a series of purely
physical operations -- that  it's all just neurons firing and
neurotransmitters flowing, all subject to perfect modeling in
suitable computer systems.  Would an adherent of that AI orthodoxy,
someone whom Penrose fails to persuade, have to reject as
irrelevant for cyberspace those constitutional protections that
rest on the anti-AI premise that minds are *not* reducible to really
fancy computers?
       Consider, for example, the Fifth Amendment, which provides
that "no person shall be  . . .  compelled in any criminal case to
be a witness against himself."  The Supreme Court has long held
that suspects may be required, despite this protection, to provide
evidence that is not "testimonial" in nature -- blood samples, for
instance, or even exemplars of one's handwriting or voice.  Last
year, in a case called *Pennsylvania v. Muniz*, the Supreme Court
held that answers to even simple questions like "When was your
sixth birthday?" are testimonial because such a question, however
straightforward, nevertheless calls for the product of mental
activity and therefore uses the suspect's mind against him.  But
what if science could eventually describe thinking as a process no
more complex than, say, riding a bike or digesting a meal?  Might
the progress of neurobiology and computer science eventually
overthrow the premises of the *Muniz* decision?
       I would hope not.  For the Constitution's premises, properly
understood, are *normative*  rather than *descriptive*. The philosopher
David Hume was right in teaching that no "ought" can ever be
logically derived from an "is."  If we should ever abandon the
Constitution's protection for the distinctively and universally
human, it won't be because robotics or genetic engineering or
computer science have led us to deeper truths, but rather because
they have seduced us into more profound confusions.  Science and
technology open options, create possibilities, suggest
incompatibilities, generate threats.  They do not alter what is
"right" or what is "wrong."  The fact that those notions are
elusive and subject to endless debate need not make them totally
contingent on contemporary technology.


Axiom 5:
Constitutional Principles Should Not
*Vary With Accidents of Technology*

       In a sense, that's the fifth and final constitutional axiom I
would urge upon this gathering:  that the Constitution's norms, at
their deepest level, must be invariant under merely *technological*
transformations.  Our constitutional law evolves through judicial
interpretation, case by case, in a process of reasoning by analogy
from precedent.  At its best, that process is ideally suited to
seeing beneath the surface and extracting deeper principles from
prior decisions.  At its worst, though, the same process can get
bogged down in superficial aspects of preexisting examples,
fixating upon unessential features while overlooking underlying
principles and values.
       When the Supreme Court in 1928 first confronted wiretapping
and held in *Olmstead v. United States* that such wiretapping
involved no "search" or "seizure" within the meaning of the Fourth
Amendment's prohibition of "unreasonable searches and seizures,"
the majority of the Court reasoned that the Fourth Amendment
"itself shows that the search is to be of material things -- the
person, the house, his papers or his effects," and said that "there
was no searching" when a suspect's phone was tapped because the
Constitution's language "cannot be extended and expanded to include
telephone wires reaching to the whole world from the defendant's
house or office."  After all, said the Court, the intervening wires
"are not part of his house or office any more than are the highways
along which they are stretched."  Even to a law student in the
1960s, as you might imagine, that "reasoning" seemed amazingly
artificial.  Yet the *Olmstead* doctrine still survived.
       It would be illuminating at this point to compare the Supreme
Court's initial reaction to new technology in *Olmstead* with its
initial reaction to new technology in *Maryland v. Craig*, the 1990
closed-circuit television case with which we began this discussion.
In *Craig*, a majority of the Justices assumed that, when the 18th-
century Framers of the Confrontation Clause included a guarantee of
two-way *physical* confrontation, they did so solely because it had
not yet become technologically feasible for the accused to look his
accuser in the eye without having the accuser simultaneously watch
the accused.  Given that this technological obstacle has been
removed, the majority assumed, one-way confrontation is now
sufficient.  It is enough that the accused not be subject to
criminal conviction on the basis of statements made outside his
presence.
       In *Olmstead*, a majority of the Justices assumed that, when the
18th-century authors of the Fourth Amendment used language that
sounded "physical" in guaranteeing against invasions of a person's
dwelling or possessions, they did so not solely because *physical*
invasions were at that time the only serious threats to personal
privacy, but for the separate and distinct reason that *intangible*
invasions simply would not threaten any relevant dimension of
Fourth Amendment privacy.
       In a sense, *Olmstead* mindlessly read a new technology *out* of
the Constitution, while *Craig* absent-mindedly read a new technology
*into* the Constitution.  But both decisions -- *Olmstead* and *Craig* --
had the structural effect of withholding the protections of the
Bill of Rights from threats made possible by new information
technologies.  *Olmstead* did so by implausibly reading the
Constitution's text as though it represented a deliberate decision
not to extend protection to threats that 18th-century thinkers
simply had not foreseen.  *Craig* did so by somewhat more plausibly
-- but still unthinkingly -- treating the Constitution's seemingly
explicit coupling of two analytically distinct protections as
reflecting a failure of technological foresight and imagination,
rather than a deliberate value choice.
       The *Craig* majority's approach appears to have been driven in
part by an understandable sense of how a new information technology
could directly protect a particularly sympathetic group, abused
children, from a traumatic trial experience.  The *Olmstead*
majority's approach probably reflected both an exaggerated estimate
of how difficult it would be to obtain wiretapping warrants even
where fully justified, and an insufficient sense of how a new
information technology could directly threaten all of us.  Although
both *Craig* and *Olmstead* reveal an inadequate consciousness about
how new technologies interact with old values, *Craig* at least seems
defensible even if misguided, while *Olmstead* seems just plain
wrong.
       Around 23 years ago, as a then-recent law school graduate
serving as law clerk to Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, I
found myself working on a case involving the government's
electronic surveillance of a suspected criminal -- in the form of
a tiny device attached to the outside of a public telephone booth.
Because the invasion of the suspect's privacy was accomplished
without physical trespass into a "constitutionally protected area,"
the Federal Government argued, relying on *Olmstead*, that there had
been no "search" or "seizure," and therefore that the Fourth
Amendment "right of the people to be secure in their persons,
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures," simply did not apply.
       At first, there were only four votes to overrule *Olmstead* and
to hold the Fourth Amendment applicable to wiretapping and
electronic eavesdropping.  I'm proud to say that, as a 26-year-old
kid, I had at least a little bit to do with changing that number
from four to seven -- and with the argument, formally adopted by a
seven-Justice majority in December 1967, that the Fourth Amendment
"protects people, not places."  (389 U.S. at 351.)  In that
decision, *Katz v. United States*, the Supreme Court finally
repudiated *Olmstead* and the many decisions that had relied upon it
and reasoned that, given the role of electronic telecommunications
in modern life, the First Amendment purposes of protecting *free
speech* as well as the Fourth Amendment purposes of protecting
*privacy* require treating as a "search" any invasion of a person's
confidential telephone communications, with or without physical
trespass.
       Sadly, nine years later, in *Smith v. Maryland*, the Supreme
Court retreated from the *Katz* principle by holding that no search
occurs and therefore no warrant is needed when police, with the
assistance of the telephone company, make  use of a "pen register",
a mechanical device placed on someone's phone line that records all
numbers dialed from the phone and the times of dialing.  The
Supreme Court, over the dissents of Justices Stewart, Brennan, and
Marshall, found no legitimate expectation of privacy in the numbers
dialed, reasoning that the digits one dials are routinely recorded
by the phone company for billing purposes.  As Justice Stewart, the
author of *Katz*, aptly pointed out, "that observation no more than
describes the basic nature of telephone calls . . . .  It is simply
not enough to say, after *Katz*, that there is no legitimate
expectation of privacy in the numbers dialed because the caller
assumes the risk that the telephone company will expose them to the
police."  (442 U.S. at 746-747.)  Today, the logic of *Smith* is
being used to say that people have no expectation of privacy when
they use their cordless telephones since they know or should know
that radio waves can be easily monitored!
       It is easy to be pessimistic about the way in which the
Supreme Court has reacted to technological change.  In many
respects, *Smith* is unfortunately more typical than *Katz* of the way
the Court has behaved.  For example, when movies were invented, and
for several decades thereafter, the Court held that movie
exhibitions were not entitled to First Amendment protection. When
community access cable TV was born, the Court hindered municipal
attempts to provide it at low cost by holding that rules requiring
landlords to install small cable boxes on their apartment buildings
amounted to a compensable taking of property.  And in *Red Lion v.
FCC*, decided twenty-two years ago but still not repudiated today,
the Court ratified government control of TV and radio broadcast
content with the dubious logic that the scarcity of the
electromagnetic spectrum justified not merely government policies
to auction off, randomly allocate, or otherwise ration the spectrum
according to neutral rules, but also much more intrusive and
content-based government regulation in the form of the so-called
"fairness doctrine."
       Although the Supreme Court and the lower federal courts have
taken a somewhat more enlightened approach in dealing with cable
television, these decisions for the most part reveal a curious
judicial blindness, as if the Constitution had to be reinvented
with the birth of each new technology.  Judges interpreting a late
18th century Bill of Rights tend to forget that, unless its *terms*
are read in an evolving and dynamic way, its *values* will lose even
the *static* protection they once enjoyed. Ironically, *fidelity* to
original values requires *flexibility* of textual interpretation.  It
was Judge Robert Bork, not famous for his flexibility, who once
urged this enlightened view upon then Judge (now Justice) Scalia,
when the two of them sat as colleagues on the U.S. Court of Appeals
for the D.C. Circuit.
       Judicial error in this field tends to take the form of saying
that, by using modern technology ranging from the telephone to the
television to computers, we "assume the risk."  But that typically
begs the question.  Justice Harlan, in a dissent penned two decades
ago, wrote: "Since it is the task of the law to form and project,
as well as mirror and reflect, we should not . . . merely recite .
. risks without examining the *desirability* of saddling them upon
society."  (*United States v. White*, 401 U.S. at 786).  And, I would
add, we should not merely recite risks without examining how
imposing those risks comports with the Constitution's fundamental
values of *freedom*, *privacy*, and *equality*.
       Failing to examine just that issue is the basic error I
believe federal courts and Congress have made:

       *  in regulating radio and TV broadcasting without
          adequate sensitivity to First Amendment values;

       *  in supposing that the selection and editing of
          video programs by cable operators might be less
          than a form of expression;

       *  in excluding telephone companies from cable and
          other information markets;

       *  in assuming that the processing of "O"s and "1"s
          by computers as they exchange data with one
          another is something less than "speech"; and

       *  in generally treating information processed
          electronically as though it were somehow less
          entitled to protection for that reason.

       The lesson to be learned is that these choices and these
mistakes are not dictated by the Constitution.  They are decisions
for us to make in interpreting that majestic charter, and in
implementing the principles that the Constitution establishes.


*Conclusion*

       If my own life as a lawyer and legal scholar could leave just
one legacy, I'd like it to be the recognition that the Constitution
*as a whole* "protects people, not places."  If that is to come
about, the Constitution as a whole must be read through a
technologically transparent lens.  That is, we must embrace, as a
rule of construction or interpretation, a principle one might call
the "cyberspace corollary."  It would make a suitable
Twenty-seventh Amendment to the Constitution, one befitting the
200th anniversary of the Bill of Rights.  Whether adopted all at
once as a constitutional amendment, or accepted gradually as a
principle of interpretation that I believe should obtain even
without any formal change in the Constitution's language, the
corollary I would propose would do for *technology* in 1991 what I
believe the Constitution's Ninth Amendment, adopted in 1791, was
meant to do for *text*.
       The Ninth Amendment says:  "The enumeration in the
Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or
disparage others retained by the people."  That amendment provides
added support for the long-debated, but now largely accepted,
"right of privacy" that the Supreme Court recognized in such
decisions as the famous birth control case of 1965, *Griswold v.
Connecticut*.  The Ninth  Amendment's simple message is:  The *text*
used by the Constitution's authors and ratifiers does not exhaust
the values our Constitution recognizes.  Perhaps a Twenty-seventh
Amendment could convey a parallel and equally simple message:  The
*technologies* familiar to the Constitution's authors and ratifiers
similarly do not exhaust the *threats* against which the
Constitution's core values must be protected.
       The most recent amendment, the twenty-sixth, adopted in 1971,
extended the vote to 18-year-olds.  It would be fitting, in a world
where youth has been enfranchised, for a twenty-seventh amendment
to spell a kind of "childhood's end" for constitutional law.  The
Twenty-seventh Amendment, to be proposed for at least serious
debate in 1991, would read simply:

"This Constitution's protections for the freedoms of
speech, press, petition, and assembly, and its
protections against unreasonable searches and seizures
and the deprivation of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law, shall be construed as fully
applicable without regard to the technological method or
medium through which information content is generated,
stored, altered, transmitted, or controlled."


[Note:  The machine-readable original of this was provided by the
author on a PC diskette in WordPerfect.  It was reformatted to
ASCII, appropriate for general network and computer access, by Jim Warren.
Text that was underlined or boldface in the original copy was delimited
by asterisks, and a registered trademark symbol was replaced by
"reg.t.m.".  Other than that, the text was as provided by the author.]


Civil Liberties in Cyberspace:
When does hacking turn from an exercise
of civil liberties into crime?

by Mitchell Kapor

published in Scientific American,
September, 1991.


On March 1, 1990, the U.S. Secret Service raided the offices of Steve
Jackson, an entrepreneurial publisher in Austin, Tex. Carrying a
search warrant, the authorities confiscated computer hardware and
software, the drafts of his about-to-be-released book and many business
records of his company, Steve Jackson Games. They also seized the
electronic bulletin-board system used by the publisher to communicate
with customers and writers, thereby seizing all the private electronic
mail on the system.


The Secret Service held some of the equipment and material for months,
refusing to discuss their reasons for the raid. The publisher was forced
to reconstruct his book from old manuscripts, to delay filling orders
for it and to lay off half his staff. When the warrant application was
finally unsealed months later, it confirmed that the publisher was
never suspected of any crime.


Steve Jackson's legal difficulties are symptomatic of a widespread
problem.  During the past several years, dozens of individuals have been
the subject of similar searches and seizures. In any other context, this
warrant might never have been issued. By many interpretations, it
disregarded the First and Fourth Amendments to the U. S. Constitution,
as well as several existing privacy laws. But the government proceeded
as if civil liberties did not apply. In this case, the government was
investigating a new kind of crime -- computer crime.


The circumstances vary, but a disproportionate number of cases share a
common thread: the serious misunderstanding of computer-based communi-
cation and its implications for civil liberties. We now face the task
of adapting our legal institutions and societal expectations to the
cultural phenomena that even now are springing up from communications
technology.


Our society has made a commitment to openness and to free
communication. But if our legal and social institutions fail to adapt
to new technology, basic access to the global electronic media could be
seen as a privilege, granted to those who play by the strictest rules,
rather than as a right held by anyone who needs to communicate. To
assure that these freedoms are not compromised, a group of computer
experts, including myself, founded the Electronic Frontier Foundation
(EFF) in 1990.


In many respects, it was odd that Steve Jackson Games got caught up in a
computer crime investigation at all. The company publishes a popular,
award-winning series of fantasy roleplaying games, produced in the
form of elaborate rule books. The raid took place only because law
enforcement officials misunderstood the technologies -- computer
bulletin-board systems (BBSs) and on-line forums -- and misread the
cultural phenomena that those technologies engender.


Like a growing number of businesses, Steve Jackson Games operated an
electronic bulletin board to facilitate contact between players of its
games and their authors. Users of this bulletin-board system dialed in
via modem from their personal computers to swap strategy tips, learn
about game upgrades, exchange electronic mail and discuss games and
other topics.


Law enforcement officers apparently became suspicious when a Steve
Jackson Games employee -- on his own time and on a BBS he ran from his
house -- made an innocuous comment about a public domain protocol for
transferring computer files called Kermit. In addition, officials
claimed that at one time the employee had had on an electronic
bulletin board a copy of Phrack, a widely disseminated electronic publi-
cation, that included information they believed to have been stolen from
a BellSouth computer.


The law enforcement officials interpreted these facts as unusual
enough to justify not only a search and seizure at the employee's
residence but also the search of Steve Jackson Games and the seizure of
enough equipment to disrupt the business seriously. Among the items
confiscated were all the hard copies and electronically stored copies of
the manuscript of a rule book for a role-playing game called GURPS
Cyberpunk, in which inhabitants of so-called cyberspace invade
corporate and government computer systems and steal sensitive data.
Law enforcement agents regarded the book, in the words of one, as "a
handbook for computer crime."


A basic knowledge of the kinds of computer intrusion that are
technically possible would have enabled the agents to see that GURPS
Cyberpunk was nothing more than a science fiction creation and that
Kermit was simply a legal, frequently used computer program.
Unfortunately, the agents assigned to investigate computer crime did not
know what -- if anything -- was evidence of criminal activity.
Therefore, they intruded on a small business without a reasonable
basis for believing that a crime had been committed and conducted a
search and seizure without looking for "particular" evidence, in vi-
olation of the Fourth Amendment of the Constitution.


Searches and seizures of such computer systems affect the rights of
not only their owners and operators but also the users of those systems.
Although most BBS users have never been in the same room with the
actual computer that carries their postings, they legitimately expect
their electronic mail to be private and their lawful associations to
be protected.


The community of bulletin-board users and computer networkers may be
small, but precedents must be understood in a greater context. As
forums for debate and information exchange, computer-based bulletin
boards and conferencing systems support some of the most vigorous
exercise of the First Amendment freedoms of expression and association
that this country has ever seen. Moreover, they are evolving rapidly
into large-scale public information and communications utilities.


These utilities will probably converge into a digital national public
network that will connect nearly all homes and businesses in the U.S.
This network will serve as a main conduit for commerce, learning,
education and entertainment in our society, distributing images and
video signals as well as text and voice.  Much of the content of this
network will be private messages serving as "virtual" town halls,
village greens and coffeehouses, where people post their ideas in public
or semipublic forums.


Yet there is a common perception that a defense of electronic civil
liberties is somehow opposed to legitimate concerns about the
prevention of computer crime. The conflict arises, in part, because
the popular hysteria about the technically sophisticated youths known as
hackers has drowned out reasonable discussion.


Perhaps inspired by the popular movie _WarGames_, the general public
began in the 1980s to perceive computer hackers as threats to the
safety of this country's vital computer systems. But the image of
hackers as malevolent is purchased at the price of ignoring the
underlying reality -- the typical teenage hacker is simply tempted by
the prospect of exploring forbidden territory. Some are among our best
and brightest technological talents: hackers of the 1960s and 1970s,
for example, were so driven by their desire to master, understand and
produce new hardware and software that they went on to start companies
called Apple, Microsoft and Lotus.


How do we resolve this conflict? One solution is ensure that our scheme
of civil and criminal laws provides sanctions in proportion to the
offenses. A system in which an exploratory hacker receives more time in
jail than a defendant convicted of assault violates our sense of
justice. Our legal tradition historically has shown itself capable of
making subtle and not-so-subtle distinctions among criminal offenses.


There are, of course, real threats to network and system security. The
qualities that make the ideal network valuableQits popularity, its
uniform commands, its ability to handle financial transactions and its
international access -- also make it vulnerable to a variety of
abuses and accidents. It is certainly proper to hold hackers
accountable for their offenses, but that accountability should never
entail denying defendants the safeguards of the Bill of Rights,
including the rights to free expression and association and to free-
dom from unreasonable searches and seizures.


We need statutory schemes that address the acts of true computer crim-
inals (such as those who have created the growing problem of toll and
credit-card fraud) while distinguishing between those criminals and
hackers whose acts are most analogous to noncriminal trespass. And we
need educated law enforcement officials who will be able to recognize
and focus their efforts on the real threats.


The question then arises: How do we help our institutions, and
perceptions, adapt? The first step is to articulate the kinds of values
we want to see protected in the electronic society we are now shaping
and to make an agenda for preserving the civil liberties that are
central to that society. Then we can draw on the appropriate legal
traditions that guide other media. The late Ithiel de Sola Pool argued
in his influential book Technologies of Freedom that the medium of
digital communications is heir to several traditions of control: the
press, the common carrier and the broadcast media.


The freedom of the press to print and distribute is explicitly
guaranteed by the First Amendment. This freedom is somewhat limited,
particularly by laws governing obscenity and defamation, but the thrust
of First Amendment law, especially in this century, prevents the
government from imposing "prior restraint" on publications.


Like the railroad networks, the telephone networks follow common-car-
rier principles -- they do not impose content restrictions on the
"cargo" they carry. It would be unthinkable for the telephone company to
monitor our calls routinely or cut off conversations because the
subject matter was deemed offensive.


Meanwhile the highly regulated broadcast media are grounded in the
idea, arguably mistaken, that spectrum scarcity and the pervasiveness
of the broadcast media warrant government allocation and control of
access to broadcast frequencies (and some control of content). Access
to this technology is open to any consumer who can purchase a radio or
television set, but it is nowhere near as open for information
producers.


Networks as they now operate contain elements of publishers,
broadcasters, bookstores and telephones, but no one model fits. This
hybrid demands new thinking or at least a new application of the old
legal principles. As hybrids, computer networks also have some features
that are unique among the communications media. For example, most
conversations on bulletin boards, chat lines and conferencing systems
are both public and private at once. The electronic communicator speaks
to a group of individuals, only some of whom are known personally, in a
discussion that may last for days or months.


But the dissemination is controlled, because the membership is limited
to the handful of people who are in the virtual room, paying attention.
Yet the result may also be "published" -- an archival textual or voice
record can be automatically preserved, and newcomers can read the
backlog. Some people tend to equate on-line discussions with party (or
party-line) conversations, whereas others compare them to newspapers
and still others think of citizens band radio.


In this ambiguous context, freespeech controversies are likely to
erupt. Last year an outcry went up against the popular Prodigy comput-
er service, a joint venture of IBM and Sears, Roebuck and Co. The
problem arose because Prodigy management regarded their service as
essentially a newspaper" or "magazine," for which a hierarchy of
editorial control is appropriate. Some of Prodigy's customers, in
contrast, regarded the service as more of a forum or meeting place.


When users of the system tried to protest Prodigy's policy, its editors
responded by removing the discussion.  then the protestors tried to
use electronic mail as a substitute for electron- assembly,
communicating through huge mailing lists. Prodigy placed a limit on the
number of messages each individual could send.


The Prodigy controversy illustrates important principle that belongs on
civil liberties agenda for the future: freedom-of-speech issues will not
disappear simply because a service provider has tried to impose a
metaphor on its service. Subscribers sense, I believe, that freedom of
speech on the networks is central for individuals to use electronic
communications. Science fiction writer William Gibson once remarked
that "the street finds its own uses for things." Network service pro-
viders will continue to discover that their customers will always find
their own best uses for new media.


Freedom of speech on networks will be promoted by limiting content-based
regulations and by promoting competition among providers of network
services. The first is necessary because governments will be tempted
to restrict the content of any information service they subsidize or
regulate. The second is necessary because market competition is the
most efficient means of ensuring that needs of network users will be
met.


The underlying network should essentially be a "carrier" -- it should
operate under a content-neutral regime in which access is available to
any entity that can pay for it. The information and forum services would
be "nodes" on this network. (Prodigy, like GEnie and CompuServe,
currently maintains its own proprietary infrastructure, but a future
version of Prodigy might share the same network with services like
CompuServe.)


Each service would have its own unique character and charge its own
rates. If a Prodigy-like entity correctly perceives a need for an
electronic "newspaper" with strong editorial control, it will draw an
audience. Other less hierarchical services will share the network with
that "newspaper" yet find their own market niches, varying by format and
content.


The prerequisite for this kind of competition is a carrier capable of
highbandwidth traffic that is accessible to individuals in every
community. Like common carriers, these network carriers should be seen
as conduits for the distribution of electronic transmissions.  They
should not be allowed to change the content of a message or to discrim-
inate among messages.

This kind of restriction will require shielding the carriers from legal
liabilities for libel, obscenity and plagiarism.  Today the ambiguous
state of liability law has tempted some computer network carriers to
reduce their risk by imposing content restrictions. This could be
avoided by appropriate legislation. Our agenda requires both that the
law shield carriers from liability based on content and that carriers
not be allowed to discriminate.


All electronic "publishers" should be allowed equal access to networks.
Ultimately, there could be hundreds of thousands of these information
providers, as there are hundreds of thousands of print publishers
today. As "nodes," they will be considered the conveners of the
environments within which on-line assembly takes place.


None of the old definitions will suffice for this role. For example,
to safeguard the potential of free and open inquiry, it is desirable
to preserve each electronic publisher's control over the general flow
and direction of material under his or her imprimaturQin effect, to give
the "sysop," or system operator, the prerogatives and protections of a
publisher.


But it is unreasonable to expect the sysop of a node to review every
message or to hold the sysop to a publish er's standard of libel.
Message traffic on many individually owned services is already too
great for the sysop to review.  We can only expect the trend to grow.
Nor is it appropriate to compare nodes to broadcasters (an analogy
likely to lead to licensing and content-based regulation). Unlike the
broadcast media, nodes do not dominate the shared resource of a public
community, and they are not a pervasive medium. To take part in a
controversial discussion, a user must actively seek entry into the
appropriate node, usually with a subscription and a password.


Anyone who objects to the content of a node can find hundreds of other
systems where they might articulate their ideas more freely. The danger
is if choice is somehow restricted: if all computer networks in the
country are restrained from allowing discussion on particular subjects
or if a publicly sponsored computer network limits discussion.


This is not to say that freedom-of-speech principles ought to protect
all electronic communications. Exceptional cases, such as the BBS used
primarily to traffic in stolen long-distance access codes or credit-card
numbers, will always arise and pose problems of civil and criminal
liability. We know that electronic freedom of speech, whether in public
or private systems, cannot be absolute. In face-to-face conversation and
printed matter today, it is commonly agreed that freedom of speech
does not cover the communications inherent in criminal conspiracy,
fraud, libel, incitement to lawless action and copyright infringement.


If there are to be limits on electronic freedom of speech, what
precisely should those limits be? One answer to this question is the
U.S. Supreme Court's 1969 decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio.  The court
ruled that no speech should be subject to prior restraint or criminal
prosecution unless it is intended to incite and is likely to cause
imminent lawless action.


In general, little speech or publication falls outside of the
protections of the Brandenburg case, since most people are able to
reflect before acting on a written or spoken suggestion. As in
traditional media, any on-line messages should not be the basis of
criminal prosecution unless the Brandenburg standard is met.


Other helpful precedents include cases relating to defamation and
copyright infringement. Free speech does not mean one can damage a
reputation or appropriate a copyrighted work without being called to
account for it. And it probably does not mean that one can release a
virus across the network in order to "send a message" to network
subscribers. Although the distinction is trickier than it may first
appear, the release of a destructive program, such as a virus, may be
better analyzed as an act rather than as speech.


Following freedom of speech on our action agenda is freedom from unrea-
sonable searches and seizures. The Steve Jackson case was one of many
cases in which computer equipment and disks were seized and held some-
times for months -often without a specific charge being filed. Even when
only a few files were relevant to an investigation, entire computer
systems, including printers, have been removed with their hundreds of
files intact.


Such nonspecific seizures and searches of computer data allow "rummag-
ing," in which officials browse through private files in search of
incriminating evidence. In addition to violating the Fourth Amendment
requirement that searches and seizures be "particular," these searches
often run afoul of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986.
This act prohibits the government from seizing or intercepting elec-
tronic communications without proper authorization. They also contravene
the Privacy Protection Act of 1980, which prohibits the government from
searching the offices of Dublishers for documents, including
materials that are electronically stored.


We can expect that law enforcement agencies and civil libertarians
will agree over time about the need to establish procedures for
searches and seizures of "particular" computer data and hardware. Law
enforcement officials will have to adhere to guidelines in the above
statutes to achieve Fourth Amendment "particularity" while maximizing
the efficiency of their searches. They also will have to be trained to
make use of software tools that allow searches for particular files or
particular information within files on even the most capacious hard
disk or optical storage device.


Still another part of the solution will be law enforcement's abandonment
of the myth of the clever criminal hobbyist. Once law enforcement no
longer assumes worst-case behavior but looks instead for real evidence
of criminal activity, its agents will learn to search and seize only
what they need.


Developing and implementing a civil liberties agenda for computer net-
works will require increasing participation by technically trained
people. Fortunately, there are signs that this is begining to happen.
The Computers, Freedom and Privacy Conference, held last spring in San
Francisco, along with electronic conferences on the WELL (Whole Earth
'Lectronic Link) and other computer networks, have brought law
enforcement officials, supposed hackers and interested members of the
computer community together in a spirit of free and frank discussion.
Such gatherings are beginning to work out the civil liberties guidelines
for a networked society.


There is general agreement, for example, that a policy on electronic
crime should offer protection for security and privacy on both
individual and institutional systems. Defining a measure of damages
and setting proportional punishment will require further goodfaith
deliberations by the community involved with electronic freedoms, in-
cluding the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Secret Service, the
bar associations, technology groups, telephone companies and civil
libertarians.  It will be especially important to represent the damage
caused by electronic crime accurately and to leave room for the valuable
side of the hacker spirit: the interest in increasing legitimate under-
standing through exploration.


We hope to see a similar emerging consensus on security issues. Network
systems should be designed not only to provide technical solutions to
security problems but also to allow system operators to use them
without infringing unduly on the rights of users. A security system
that depends on wholesale monitoring of traffic, for example, would
create more problems than it would solve.


Those parts of a system where damage would do the greatest harm --
financial records, electronic mail, military data -- should be
protected. This involves installing more effective computer security
measures, but it also means redefining the legal interpretations of
copyright, intellectual property, computer crime and privacy so that
system users are protected against individual criminals and abuses by
large institutions. These policies should balance the need for civil
liberties against the need for a secure, orderly, protected electronic
society.


As we pursue that balance, of course, confrontations will continue to
take place. In May of this year, Steve Jackson Games, with the support
of the EFF, filed suit against the Secret Service, two individual Secret
Service agents, an assistant U.S. attorney and others.


The EFF is not seeking confrontation for its own sake. One of the
realities of our legal system is that one often has to fight for a legal
or constitutional right in the courts in order to get it recognized
outside the courts. One goal of the lawsuit is to establish clear
grounds under which search and seizure of electronic media is
"unreasonable" and unjust. Another is to establish the clear
applicability of First Amendment principles to the new medium.


But the EFF's agenda extends far beyond liagation. Our larger agenda
includes sponsoring a range of educational initiatives aimed at the
public's general lack of familiarity with the technology and its
potential. That is why there is an urgent need for technologically
knowledgeable people to take part in the public debate over communica-
tions policy and to help spread their understanding of these issues.
Fortunately, the very technology at stake -- electronic conferencing
-- makes it easier than ever before to get involved in the debate.




C.U.H.S. Flash Reports:

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EFF Sections Revised by CUHS
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EFF Action Alerts and Special Announcements Archive


  What's HOT
    * EFF & Bernstein File Suit to Overturn Cryptography Restrictions
      (Feb. 21, 1995)
         + UPDATE: Bernstein case goes to trial, come on down, and show
           your support! (Oct. 14, expires Oct 21, 1995)
         + What YOU can do: Support the EFF Cyberspace Legal Defense
           Fund
         + The Complaint (charges) filed by EFF & Dan Bernstein against
           the State Dept. et al. (Feb. 21, 1995)
         + The Dept. of State's (weak, and dull) respose to the
           EFF/Bernstein suit (May, 1995)
         + UPDATE: Phil Karn has also filed suit against the Dept. of
           State for First Amendment violations via ITAR crypto export
           restrictions (Sep. 21, 1995)
         + More documents related to the Bernstein case and the
           Karn/Schneier case
         + Detailed analysis of the problems posed by US crypto export
           restrictions
         + The EFF ITAR & Crypto Export Archive


    * EFF Opposes Censorship Bills (UPDATED June 19) - Exon's
      "Communications Decency" legislation would criminalize users and
      system operators for Constitutionally-protected speech. Full
      analysis of Internet censorship bill passed by Senate; includes
      text of bill. Info on other bills by Feinstein, Dole, etc. below.
         + What YOU can do - ACTION ALERT! (NEW - UPDATED Oct. 1)
         + ALERT for sysops, ISPs and online business providers (NEW
           Oct. 20)
       Mail for latest update on status of the Comm. Decency Act (just
           send empty message - it's an infobot - but be sure it
           includes a return address in headers.) NOTE! The Exon/Coats
           Comm. Decency Act PASSED the Senate June 14, by an
           overwhelming majority. Action now moves to the House of
           Representatives, action expected in July.
       The full text of the Exon/Coats CDA as it passed the Senate.
       Editorial examining online content regulation issues by EFF Board
           member David Johnson
       Leahy's counter-legislation to the Exon bill. The Leahy bill,
           ex-S.714, is called the "Child Protection, User Empowerment,
           and Free Expression in Interactive Media Study" bill).
           UPDATE: This bill was proposed as an amendment to the Senate
           telecom bill, S.652, as Amendment 1288. It was accepted,
           removing the Exon bill, but then was replaced by the new
           Exon/Coats Comm. Decency Act. Dark days indeed. BUT: Leahy's
           bill, sponsored in the House by Rep. Ron Klink, is already in
           the House Telecom Reform Bill, so we have a fighting chance
           at stoping the CDA. (June 15 95).
       US House of Representatives Bill HR1004 (full text of House
           version of the CDA, currently going nowhere, fortunately.
           Expected to be introduced in modfied form, however, as an
           amendment to the House telecom bill in opposition to the
           Leahy/Klink legislation.)
       Clinton Administration Statement on Senate Telecom Reform Bill
           S.652 (incl. the Comm. Decency Act.) (Apr. 1995)
       Dept. of Justice Letter Condemning the Comm. Decency bill, but
           calling for "better" DoJ-authored legislation. (May 3, 1995)
       Cato Institute Paper on the Exon bill, the Comstock Law and
           Censorship (June 28 1995)
       EFF S314/HR1004/S652 Archive - more analysis and related material
       VTW Internet Censorship Legislation Archive - more analysis and
           related material
       CDT Internet Censorship Legislation Archive - more analysis and
           related material
       Pathfinder Internet Censorship Legislation Page (provides links
           to many items of interest on this issue.)
       Paul Ste. Marie's Internet Censorship Legislation Archive -
           particularly geared for Ohio residents


    * Senators Dole & Grassley to Introduce Worst Internet Censorship
      Legislation Yet (June 6). UPDATE: This bill was introduced on
      the 8th as S.892. Currently in commitee.(June 9)
         + Full text of Draconian legislation introduced by Dole &
           Grassley (June 6)


    * Sen. Feinstein in On It Too: New Draft Legislation to Censor
      Internet Bomb-Related Speech (June 4) UPDATE: The Terrorism bill
      with a version of this amendment PASSED the Senate on June 8.
         + Full text of draft Feinstein censorship amendment to
           anti-terrorism bill (June 4) UPDATE: Please note that this is
           NOT the version of the bill that passed. It passed with very
           substantive amendments. Check back later, we expect to get
           the passed version soon. (June 9).


    * EFF Opposes Church of Scientology Usenet Censorship and Legal
      Harassment of Sysops & Admins (Jan. 23, 1995)
         + What YOU can do: Support the EFF Cyberspace Legal Defense
           Fund
         + BBS Sysop Tom Klemesrud's court declaration against CoS
           restraining order (Feb. 21, 1995) - the judge removed the
           restraining order against both Klemesrud and Netcom.
         + CoS Press release in response to the above (Feb. 21, 1995) -
           makes many fantastic claims about one of the defendants,
           Dennis Erlich. (Includes a sound critique, showing just how
           bogus much of this release really is.)
         + More documents related to the CoS cases


    * EFF Submits Amicus Brief in Support of SysOps in AABBS Appeal
      (Apr. 19, 1995)
         + What YOU can do: Support the EFF Cyberspace Legal Defense
           Fund
         + More information on the AABBS case


    * EFF Announces Steps to Defend PGP Author Phil Zimmermann
         + What YOU can do: Support the Phil Zimmermann Legal Defense
           Fund
         + More information on Zimmermann's plight
         + More information on PGP (the 'Pretty Good Privacy' encryption
           program)


    * EFF & Other Non-Profits Urge VP Gore to Add Free Speech to G-7 GII
      Priorities (Feb. 16, 1995)
         + The Letter to VP Gore (Feb. 16, 1995) - signatories: EFF,
           HRW, CDT, EPIC, ACLU, ALA, Article 19, PFAW, and PI
         + The EFF Censorship and Free Expression Archive
         + The EFF Information Infrastructure Archive


    * EFF For-Sale & Wanted Page
      (EFF needs to get rid of some items, and needs to obtain various
      pieces of hardware and software. Here's our virtual swapmeet.)



    _________________________________________________________________


Links to Related Off-Site Resources

    * Center for Democracy & Technology's Action Items Page
    * FACT's First Amendment and Censorship Alerts



    _________________________________________________________________


  [email protected]
12/13/88
--------

DARPA ESTABLISHES COMPUTER EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM


The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) announced today
that it has established a Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) to
address computer security concerns of research users of the InterNet,
which includes ARPANET.  The Coordination Center for the CERT is located
at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI), Carnegie Mellon University,
Pittsburgh, PA.

In providing direct service to the InterNet community, the CERT will
focus on the special needs of the research community and serve as a
prototype for similar operations in other computer communities.  The
National Computer Security Center and the National Institute of Standards
and Technology will have a leading role in coordinating the creation
of these emergency response activities.

The CERT is intended to respond to computer security threats such as the
recent self-replicating computer program ("computer virus") that invaded
many defense and research computers.

The CERT will assist the research network communities in responding to
emergency situations.  It will have the capability to rapidly establish
communications with experts working to solve the problems, with the
affected computer users and with government authorities as appropriate.
Specific responses will be taken in accordance with DARPA policies.

It will also serve as a focal point for the research community for
identification and repair of security vulnerabilities, informal
assessment of existing systems in the research community, improvement
to emergency response capability, and user security awareness.  An
important element of this function is the development of a network of
key points of contact, including technical experts, site managers,
government action officers, industry contacts, executive-level decision
makers and investigative agencies, where appropriate.

Because of the many network, computer, and systems architectures and
their associated vulnerabilities, no single organization can be
expected to maintain an in-house expertise to respond on its own to
computer security threats, particularly those that arise in the
research community.  As with biological viruses, the solutions must
come from an organized community response of experts.  The role of
the CERT Coordination Center at the SEI is to provide the supporting
mechanisms and to coordinate the activities of experts in DARPA and
associated communities.

The SEI has close ties to the Department of Defense, to defense and
commercial industry, and to the research community.  These ties place
the SEI in a unique position to provide coordination support to the
software experts in research laboratories and in industry who will
be responding in emergencies and to the communities of potentially
affected users.

The SEI is a federally-funded research and development center, operating
under DARPA sponsorship with the Air Force Systems Command (Electronic
Systems Division) serving as executive agent.  Its goal is to accelerate
the transition of software technology to defense systems.  Computer
security is primarily a software problem, and the presence of CERT
at the SEI will enhance the technology transfer mission of the SEI
in security-related areas.

END
C.U.H.S. 11/95
Volume 1 Number 1

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