= Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali =

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= Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali =
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Introduction
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The 'Yoga Sutras of Patañjali' (IAST: Patañjali yoga-sūtra) is a
compilation "from a variety of sources" of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms)
on the practice of yoga - 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and
Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS
Iyengar). The 'Yoga Sutras' were compiled in India in the early
centuries CE by the sage Patanjali, who collected and organized
knowledge about yoga from Samkhya, Buddhism, and older Yoga
traditions, and possibly another compiler who may have added the
fourth chapter. He may also be the author of the 'Yogabhashya', a
commentary on the 'Yoga Sutras', traditionally attributed to the
legendary Vedic sage Vyasa, but possibly forming a joint work of
Patanjali called the 'Pātañjalayogaśāstra'.

The 'Yoga Sutras' draw from three distinct traditions from the 2nd
century BCE to the 1st century CE, namely Samkhya, Buddhism
traditions, and "various older ascetic and religious strands of
speculation." The 'Yoga Sutras' built on Samkhya notions of 'purusha'
and 'prakriti', and is often seen as complementary to it. It is
closely related to Buddhism, incorporating some of its terminology.
While there is "an apparent lack of unity and coherence," according to
Larson there is a straightforward unity to the text, which focuses on
"one-pointed awareness" ('ekagrata') and "content-free awareness"
('nirvikalpa samadhi'); the means to acquire these, namely kriya yoga
("action yoga") and ashtanga yoga (eight-limb yoga); the results
acquired from the attainment of these levels of awareness; and the
final goal of yoga, namely 'kaivalya' and liberation.

The 'Yoga Sutras' is best known for its sutras on 'ashtanga yoga',
eight elements of practice culminating in 'samadhi'. The eight
elements, known as limbs, are 'yama' (abstinences), 'niyama'
(observances), 'asana' (yoga posture), 'pranayama' (breath control),
'pratyahara' (withdrawal of the senses), 'dharana' (concentration of
the mind), 'dhyana' (meditation) and 'samadhi' (absorption or
stillness). When the mind is stilled ('vritti nirodha') 'kaivalya'
("isolation") can be attained, the discenrment of 'purusha' (pure
consciousness, self, the witness-consciousness) as distinct from
'prakriti' (nature, the cognitive apparatus and the instincts).

The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the 'Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'
to be one of the foundational texts of classical Yoga philosophy.
However, the appropriation - and misappropriation - of the 'Yoga
Sutras' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been
questioned by David Gordon White, who argues that the text fell into
relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century,
and made a comeback in the late 19th century due to the efforts of
Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society and others. It gained
prominence as a classic in the 20th century.

Author
========
The colophons of manuscripts of the 'Yoga Sutras' attribute the work
to Patanjali, though according to Larson chapter 4 is a later
addition, and cannot be attributed to Patanjali.

The identity of Patañjali has been the subject of academic debate,
because an author of the same name is credited with the authorship of
the classic text on Sanskrit grammar named 'Mahābhāṣya', that is
firmly datable to the second century BCE. Although some scholars argue
that this is the same Patanjali who authored the 'Yoga Sutras', the
two works are completely different in subject matter, and Indologist
Louis Renou has shown that there are significant differences in
language, grammar and vocabulary. Before the time of Bhoja (11th
century), no known text conflates the identity of the two authors.

Dating
========
The text of the 'Yoga Sūtras' has been variously dated to be between
500 BCE and 450 CE, but latter dates are more commonly accepted by
scholars.

Philipp A. Maas assessed Patañjali's 'Pātañjalayogaśāstra''s date to
be about 400 CE, based on synchronisms between its arguments and those
of the Yogācāra Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu (4th-5th centuries
CE), on tracing the history of the commentaries on it published in the
1st millennium CE, on the opinions of earlier Sanskrit commentators,
on the testimony of manuscript colophons and on a review of extant
literature. This dating for the 'Pātañjalayogaśāstra' was proposed as
early as 1914 by Woods and has been accepted widely by academic
scholars of the history of Indian philosophical thought.

Edwin Bryant surveyed the major commentators in his translation of the
'Yoga Sūtras'. He observed that "Most scholars date the text shortly
after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century), but
that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that."
Bryant concluded that "A number of scholars have dated the 'Yoga
Sūtras' as late as the fourth or fifth century CE, but these arguments
have all been challenged [...] All such arguments [for a late date]
are problematic."

Michele Desmarais summarized a wide variety of dates assigned to the
'Yoga Sūtras', ranging from 500 BCE to the 3rd century CE, noting that
there is a paucity of evidence for any certainty. She stated the text
may have been composed at an earlier date given conflicting theories
on how to date it, but latter dates are more commonly accepted by
scholars.

Text - ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra''
================================
Scholars hold that the 'Yoga sutras' and the 'Yogabhasya', a
commentary on the sutras, were written by one person, and form an
integral work. According to Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the
original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled
'Pātañjalayogaśāstra' ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali")
and consisted of both 'Sūtras' 'and' 'Bhāṣya'. According to Maas and
Wujastyk, Patanjali compiled yoga from older traditions in
'Pātañjalayogaśāstra', and added his own explanatory passages to
create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the
work of two people. The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with
the author's own explanation was well known at the time of Patañjali,
as for example in Vasubandhu's 'Abhidharmakośabhāṣya' (that,
incidentally, Patañjali quotes). These research findings change the
historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to
take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of
his somewhat cryptic sūtras. This commentary is indispensable for the
understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study
of the sutras has always referred to the 'Yogabhashya'.

While the 'Yogabhashya' was probably written by Patanjali, it has
traditionally also attributed to the legendary Vedic sage Vyasa who is
said to have composed the Mahabharata. The 'bhasya' has also been
attributed by some to Vindhyavasin (late 4th century CE), who
reinterpreted the samkhya-philosophy due to his knowledge of Buddhist
philosophy; his reinterpretation is closely related to the
'Yogabhasya', which builts on this reinterpretation.

Compilation of sources
========================
The 'Yoga Sutras' are a compilation of sutras from various traditions
and sources, with "an apparent lack of unity and coherence."

Larson notes that Yoga, Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika share related
origins, and argues that the 'Yoga Sutras' draw from three distinct
traditions from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE, namely "(1)
one or more Samkhya traditions, (2) one or more Buddhist traditions,
and (3) an emerging philosophical Yoga tradition that is compiling
various older ascetic and religious strands of speculation."
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a "hybrid formulation, a conflation" of
these three traditions. From the old Samkhya philosophy the Yoga
Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" ('adhyavasaya') of 'prakrti'
and 'purusa', its metaphysical rationalism, and its three epistemic
methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Buddhism the sutras adopt
the 'nirodhasamadhi' philosophy, the pursuit of altered states of
awareness and an ontology of 'naive realism' (Sarvastivada) or
representationalism (Yogacara). Like Samkhya, the Yoga sutras are
physicalist or materialist, but unlike Samkhya, "it rigorusly rejects
any notion of substantive transcendence." The third stream that the
Yoga Sutras conflate are elements of older traditions of ascetic
meditation, including "the 'kriya yoga' sections of Book Two (YS
II.1-27), the 'yoganga' sections of Books II and III (YS
II.28-III.55), some 'karma yoga' sections in Book IV (YS IV.7-13), and
various sutras having to do with the issue of God
('isvara-pranidhana'). According to Larson, "many of these strands
come probably from contexts such as the 'Moksadharma' and
'Bhagavadgita' portions of the epic, some passages from the early
'Puranas', the socalled middle verse Upanisads (Katha, Svetasvata and
Maitri, and from oral traditions of regional teachers and any number
of local 'asramas'.

Structure of the text
=======================
Beginning in the early 20th century, scholars have dissceted the
sutras into the constitutive layers. Book I consists of two texts, I.1
or I.2 to I.16 or I.22, the remainder of the book forming a second
text. Book II.1-27 is the Kriya yoga text, while Book II.28-III.55
describes astanga yoga. Hauer regards Book IV as one text, treating
'nirmanacitta' ("individual mind"), while Deusse discerns four
"appendices," namely IV.1-6 ('nirmanacitta', "individual mind"),
IV.7-13 ('karman', action, and 'vasana', subtle traces), IV.14-23
('vastu', reality, 'citta', mind, and 'purusa') and IV.24-33
('kaivalya', release).

Frauwallner discerns two main traditions, namely the astangha yoga of
Book II and III, which aims to attain "mental alertness and clarity,"
and the "way of suppression of mental functioning" of Book I.
Frauwallner rejects Book IV as a later addition.

According to Feuerstein, presupposing an inherent homegeinity of the
text, the 'Yoga Sutras' are a condensation of two different
traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (aṣṭāṅga yoga) and action yoga
('Kriya yoga'). The 'kriya yoga' part is contained in chapter 1, which
forms an introduction, chapter 2 sutras 1-27, chapter 3 except sutra
54, and chapter 4. The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2
sutras 28-55, and chapter 3 sutras 3 and 54. According to Feuerstein,
the Yoga sutras main component is the Kriya yoga, with astangha yoga
forming a "long insert or quotation of an 'Eight-limbed Yoga'portion."
While Larson is appreciative of Feuerstein's attempt to treat the Yoga
sutras as an unifirm text, he also notes that "it is doubtfull that
most researchers would concede that the YS overal centers on
'kriyayoga'." Scholars seem to agree, though, that the
'yoganga'-portion, the eight-limb yoga, is a distinct unit, though
there is no agreement as how far it extends into Book III.

Larson takes into account the 'Yogabhasya' and Vacaspatimitra's
commentaries when describing the basic structure of the Yoga sutras.
Book I describes levels of awareness relevant for yoga, namely
"one-pointed or content-filled awareness and suppressed or
content-free awareness, and the means for attaining these levels of
awareness: 'practice' ('abhyasa') and 'renunciation' ('vaitagya').
Book II treats practical exercises "needed to train those who have not
yet reached" those levels of awareness; these exercises include kriya
yoga and the first five limbs of astangha yoga. Book III describes the
results acquired from the attainment of these levels of awareness,
resulting from 'dharana', 'dhyana' and 'samadhi'. Book IV treats the
final goal of yoga, namely 'kaivalya', content-free or seedless
samadhi, and liberation.

Other commentaries
====================
A well-known commentary on the 'Yoga Sutras' was written by Vachaspati
Mishra, who had also written commentaries on other schools of Indian
philosophy such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. After Vyasa,
it is believed that Vachaspati Mishra’s commentary is the "next most
authoritative." Other commentators include Bhoja Rāja, Vijñānabhikṣu,
and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī. Vijñānabhikṣu, according to Bryant, wrote the
"most insightful and useful commentary after that of Vyasa's." Bhoja
Rāja and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī's commentaries follow the previous
commentaries, without expanding much on what their predecessors have
said. Hariharānanda Āraṇya, in contrast to the above figures, is a
modern commentator on the text. Bryant explains that, even though "his
is a standpoint exposed to Western thought", it is still "thoroughly
grounded in tradition".

Contents
======================================================================
Patañjali divided his 'Yoga Sutras' into four chapters or books
(Sanskrit 'Pada'), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as
follows:

Book I: Samadhi Pada
======================
Book 1, 'Samadhi Pada', contains 51 sutras. The 'Yogabhashya' states
that 'yoga' in the 'Yoga Sutras' has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Samadhi
is a state of direct and reliable perception ('pramāṇa') where "the
seer" ('Purusha', pure consciousness, the Self) abides in itself.
Samadhi is the main technique the yogi learns by which to calm the
workings of the mind, whereafter Kaivalya, the isolation of 'the seer'
from the impurities of the mind, is attained. The author describes
yoga and then the nature and the means of attaining samādhi.
* YS 1.2-4: this chapter contains the famous definitional verse (YS
1.2): '"Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ"' ("Yoga is the restriction of the
fluctuations of mindstuff"). When the mind is stilled, the seer or
real Self is revealed:

::1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and
fundamental nature.
::1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the
modifications (of the mind).
* YS 1.12-15: 'abhyasa' (practice (of samadhi)) and 'vairagya'
(dispassion, renunciation) still the mind
* YS 1.17-22: samprajnata [samadhi] and asamprajnata-samadhi
* YS 1.23-26 offers an alternative, less arduous method to attain
samadhi via the path of bhakti, or surrender to Ishvara. Some scholars
believe this to be Patanjali's "favored" approach.
* YS 1.27-32: the syllable 'om' and the elimination of distractions
* YS 1.33-39 mentions seven practices to still the mind, the seventh
being meditative absorption (YS 1.39), which is further explained in
YS 1.40-51 and YS 3.1-12.

Book II: Sadhana Pada
=======================
Book 2, 'Sadhana Pada' contains 55 sutras. Sadhana is the Sanskrit
term for "practice" or "discipline," aiming at preparing and calming
the mind. Here the author outlines two systems of Yoga: 'Kriyā Yoga'
and 'Aṣṭāṅga Yoga' ('Eightlimbed Yoga'). Both are outer or preparatory
aspects, which precede the true aim of yoga, namely the development of
one-pointedness and samadhi capable of the discriminative discernment
of the Seer (consciousness) from the objects desires of common
consciousness.

Kriya Yoga (II.1-27)
======================
'Kriya yoga', or 'bhakti'-centered karma yoga, are action-oriented
practices, more specific ritual or worship acts, aimed to develop the
'sattva'-qualities of the mind, as a preparation for 'abhyasa'
(practice [of samadhi]) and 'vairagya' (dispassion, renunciation).
though Larson notes that most scholars would not agree with this
assessment. According to Feuerstein, 'Kriyā Yoga' is the main
component of the Yoga Sūtras, Others see it as a preparation for
'Aṣṭāṅga Yoga' (with three special elements of the Niyamas (2nd
limb)). It consists of:

* 2.3 'tapas' - austerity
* 2.4 'svādhyāya' - self-study of the scriptures
* 2.5 'īśvara praṇidhāna' - devotion to god or pure consciousness

While comparable to karma-yoga, it is broader than the karma-yoga of
the Bhagavad Gita, as it also includes 'bhakti' in the form of 'īśvara
praṇidhāna', and 'jnana-yoga', in the form of 'svādhyāya'.

Ashtanga Yoga (II.29-III.55)
==============================
'Aṣṭānga Yoga' is the yoga of eight limbs, meaning the elements of the
practice. In chapter 2, five "indirect aids" for purification and
aiding insight are outlined:

:1. 'Yama' - restraints or ethics of behaviour; Yama consists of:
::1.1 'Ahimsa' (Non violence)
::1.2 'Satya' (Truthfulness)
::1.3 'Asteya' (Non stealing)
::1.4 'Brahmacharya' (Chastity)
::1.5 'Aparigraha' (Non possession)
:2. 'Niyama' - observances; Niyama consists of:
::2.1 'Saucha' (Cleanliness)
::2.2 'Santosha' (Contentment)
::2.3 'Tapas' (Austerity)
::2.4 'Svadhyaya' (Selfstudy)
::2.5 'Ishvara Pranidhana' (Devotion to the Lord)
:3. 'Āsana' - A physical posture in which one can be steady and
comfortable.
:4. 'Prāṇāyāma' - control of the prana (breath)
:5. 'Pratyahara' - withdrawal of the senses
:6. 'Dhāraṇā' - concentration
:7. 'Dhyāna' - meditation
:8. 'Samādhi' - absorption

Book III: Vibhuti Pada
========================
* Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras). Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power"
or "manifestation". In chapter 3, the last three limbs of 'Aṣṭānga
Yoga', known as samyama, are outlined:
::6. 'Dhāraṇā' - concentration
::7. 'Dhyāna' - meditation
::8. 'Samādhi' - absorption
Besides insight into pure awareness (purusha), samyama gives
'supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: 'siddhi'), as the yogi gains access
to and unites with the tattvas, the constituents of 'prakriti'. The
text warns (III.38) that these powers can become an obstacle to the
yogi who seeks liberation.

Book IV: Kaivalya Pada
========================
Book 4, 'Kaivalya Pada', containing 34 sutras, is often regarded as an
extraneous addition. Kaivalya is "isolation" of the Seer from the
contents of the mind so it is no longer disturbed by the movements of
the mind. It stands for emancipation or liberation, and is used where
other texts often employ the term moksha (liberation). The Kaivalya
Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the Seer.

Soteriology
======================================================================
According to Bryant, the purpose of yoga is liberation from suffering,
by means of discriminative discernment. The eight limbs are "the means
of achieving discriminative discernment," the "uncoupling of puruṣa
from all connection with prakṛti and all involvement with the citta."
Bryant states that, to Patanjali, Yoga-practice "essentially consists
of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of
consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and
of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any
object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as
consciousness unmixed with any other object."

While the Samkhya school suggests that 'jnana' (knowledge) is a
sufficient means to 'moksha', Patanjali suggests that systematic
techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's
approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Patanjali holds that
'avidya', ignorance is the cause of all five kleshas, which are the
cause of suffering and saṁsāra. Liberation, like many other schools,
is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminating
discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The 'Yoga Sūtras' is the
Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this. 'Samādhi' is the
state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this
is how one starts the process of becoming aware of 'Purusa' and true
Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this
awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is
moksha, the soteriological goal in Hinduism.

Book 3 of Patanjali's 'Yogasutra' is dedicated to soteriological
aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs
of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of
self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last
limbs of yoga as 'samyama', in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the
technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of 'citta' and
self-knowledge. In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this
discerning principle then empowers one to perfect 'sant' (tranquility)
and 'udita' (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness.
This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between 'sabda'
(word), 'artha' (meaning) and 'pratyaya' (understanding), and this
ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of
all living beings. Once a yogi reaches this state of 'samyama', it
leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and
kaivalya, the redemptive goal of the yogi.

Epistemology
==============
The epistemology in Patanjali's system of Yoga, like the Sāmkhya
school of Indian philosophy, relies on three of six 'Pramanas', as the
means of gaining reliable knowledge. These included 'Pratyakṣa'
(perception), 'Anumāṇa' (inference) and 'Sabda' ('Āgama or
Āptavacana', word/testimony of reliable sources).
* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian
Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245-248;
* John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit
Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page
238

Patanjali's system, like the Samkhya school, considers 'Pratyakṣa' or
'Dṛṣṭam' (direct sense perception), 'Anumāna' (inference), and 'Śabda'
or 'Āptavacana' (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the
only valid means of knowledge or 'Pramana'. Unlike few other schools
of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following
three 'Pramanas': 'Upamāṇa' (comparison and analogy), 'Arthāpatti'
(postulation, deriving from circumstances) or 'Anupalabdi'
(non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

Of the three 'pramanas' that it accepts as valid, 'pratyakṣa'
(perception) is the most important according to 'Yoga Sutras'. It is
superior to the other two sources because testimony ('sabda') and
inference ('anumāna') are ultimately dependent on a prior perception.
Bryant distinguishes Yoga school from the 'Vedānta', 'Nyaya' and
'Mīmāṃsā' in their prioritizing of different 'pramanas'. The 'Mīmāṃsā'
school prioritizes testimony and the 'Nyaya' school prioritizes
inference. The 'Vedānta' school has as its main source testimony from
the 'Upaniṣads', whereas the Yoga school ascribes supreme
authoritativeness to "direct, personal experience". Bryant argues that
because of its favoring of direct experience the 'Yoga Sutras' will
"remain a perennial source of interest to the empirical dispositions
of the modern world".

Samkhya-dualism
=================
The metaphysics of Patanjali is built on the same dualist foundation
as the Samkhya school. The universe is conceptualized as of two
realities in Samkhya-Yoga schools: 'Puruṣa' (consciousness) and
'prakriti' (mind, cognition, emotions, and matter). It considers
consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different
realities. 'Jiva' (a living being) is considered as a state in which
'puruṣa' is bonded to 'prakriti' in some form, in various permutations
and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and
mind. During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more
constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end
of this bondage is called Kaivalya, liberation, or 'moksha' by both
Yoga and Samkhya school. The ethical theory of Yoga school is based on
Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of Samkhya.

Patanjali adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya. Guṇas theory states
that three 'gunas' (innate tendency, attributes) are present in
different proportions in all beings, and these three are 'sattva' guna
(goodness, constructive, harmonious), 'rajas' guna (passion, active,
confused), and 'tamas' guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic). These
three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the
fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a
consequence of the relative proportion of these three 'gunas'. When
'sattva' guna predominates in an individual, the qualities of
lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness manifest
themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving,
passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas
predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive
behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifest. The theory underpins the
philosophy of mind in the Yoga school of Hinduism.

God
=====
Patanjali differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic
Samkhya school by incorporating what some scholars have called a
"personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god"
(Ishvara). Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well
as many modern academic scholars describe Yoga school as "Samkhya
school with God."

The 'Yogasutras of Patanjali' use the term 'Isvara' in 11 verses: I.23
through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's
release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is
'Isvara'? These commentaries range from defining 'Isvara' from a
"personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual
significance to the individual".*Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007),
Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A
Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil
Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93;
*Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa
Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil
Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129 Whicher states that while
Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or
non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of 'Isvara' in Yoga philosophy
functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin
on the path to spiritual emancipation". Whereas the purusa (spirit,
or true self) of the yogin is bound to the prakriti - the material
body subject to karmas and kleshas, the special 'purusa' called
'Isvara' is immaterial and ultimately free.

Patanjali defines 'Isvara' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as
"a special Self/Spirit (पुरुषविशेष, 'puruṣa-viśeṣa')."

* Sanskrit Original with Translation 1:
[https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up
The Yoga Philosophy] TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary;
Harvard University Archives;
* Translation 2:
[https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up
The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa] GN
Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives;
* Translation 3:
[https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/mode/2up
'The Yogasutras of Patanjali'] Charles Johnston (Translator)} This
sutra adds the characteristics of 'Isvara' as that special Self/Spirit
which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, 'aparamrsta') by one's
obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, 'klesha'), one's circumstances created by
past or one's current actions (कर्म, 'karma'), one's life fruits
(विपाक, 'vipâka'), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions
(आशय, ashaya).

Philosophical roots and influences
======================================================================
The 'Yoga Sutras' incorporated the teachings of many other Indian
philosophical systems prevalent at the time. According to Zimmer,
Samkhya and Yoga are two of several schools of philosophy that
originated over the centuries that had common roots in the pre-Aryan
cultures and traditions of India. Yet, the orthodox Hindu philosophies
of Samkhya, Yoga, Vedānta, as well as the non-orthodox Nastika systems
of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of
spiritual activity in ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti
traditions and Vedic ritualism which were also prevalent at the same
time. The Vedanta-Sramana traditions, iconolatry and Vedic rituals can
be identified with the Jnana marga, Bhakti marga and the Karma marga
respectively that are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita.

Samkhya
=========
The 'Yoga Sutras' are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy, and
are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The
influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian
Surendranath Dasgupta went so far as to deny independent
categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring to refer to it as
'Patanjala Samkhya', similar to the position taken by the Jain writer
Haribhadra in his commentary on Yoga. Patañjali's 'Yoga Sutras' accept
the Samkhya's division of the world and phenomena into twenty-five
tattvas or principles, of which one is 'Purusha' meaning Self or
consciousness, the others being 'Prakriti' (primal nature), 'Buddhi'
(intellect or will), 'Ahamkara' (ego), 'Manas' (mind), five
'buddhindriyas' (sensory capabilities), five 'karmendriyas'
(action-capabilities) and ten elements. The second part of the Sutras,
the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives about all seen
activity lying within the realm of the three 'Gunas' of 'Sattva'
(illumination), 'Rajas' (passion) and 'Tamas' (lethargy).

The 'Yoga Sutras' diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the
principle of Isvara or God, as exemplified by Sutra 1.23 - "Iśvara
pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is
one way to liberation. 'Isvara' is defined here as "a distinct
Consciousness, untouched by afflictions, actions, fruitions or their
residue". In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to 'Isvara',
represented by the mystical syllable Om may be the most efficient
method of achieving the goal of Yoga. This syllable Om is a central
element of Hinduism, appearing in all the Upanishads, including the
earliest Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, and expounded upon
in the Mandukya Upanishad.

Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that
knowledge is the means to liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the
methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is to
free the individual from the clutches of the matter, and considers
intellectual knowledge alone to be inadequate for the purpose - which
is different from the position taken by Samkhya.

However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and
Patañjali's system remained even after the addition of the 'Isvara'
principle, with Max Müller noting that "the two philosophies were in
popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and
Samkhya without a Lord...." The Bhagavad Gita, one of the chief
scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic
Samkhya-Yoga system.

The 'Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali' is a foundational text of the Yoga
philosophy school of Hinduism.

Buddhism
==========
While there are differences between Buddhist tenets and the views
presented in the Yoga Sutras, scholars have noted striking
similarities between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and the teachings in
Buddhist texts. The levels of samādhi taught in the text resemble the
Buddhist 'jhanas'.

Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without
Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the 'Yoga
Sutras' that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon
and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from
Sautrāntika." He adds, "upon the whole it [Patanjali's Yoga sutras] is
more elaborate and summarizes the actual technique of Yoga procedures
more exactly than the Buddhist exposition". However, states Werner,
"The Buddha was the founder of his system, even though, admittedly, he
made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under
various Yoga teachers of his time. Patanjali is neither a founder nor
a leader of a new movement. (...) The ingenuity of his [Patanjali's]
achievement lies in the thoroughness and completeness with which all
the important stages of Yoga practice and mental experiences are
included in his scheme, and in their systematic presentation in a
succinct treatise." Werner adds that the ideas of existence and the
focus on "Self, Soul" in Patajali's Yogasutra are different from the
"no Self" precepts of Buddhism.

According to David Gordon White, the language of the 'Yoga Sutras' is
often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early
Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other
Hindu scriptures". He adds, historical evidence suggests that yoga
philosophical systems influenced, and were influenced by, other
philosophical systems in India such as early Buddhism and Jainism.
White mentions controversies about the Yoga Sutras. A significant
minority of scholars, notes White for example, believes that Vyasa
lived a few centuries after Patanjali and his "Hindu-izing" commentary
subverted Yoga Sutras' original "Buddhist" teachings; while the
majority scholarly view disagrees with this view.

Scholars also note differences between the conceptual frameworks of
the Yoga Sutras and those in Buddhist texts. Robert Thurman writes
that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist monastic
system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he
considered orthodox. The Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of
Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism,
particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.

Barbara Miller also notes numerous similarities the difference between
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts:

Miller also notes differences between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and
teachings in Buddhist texts:

According to Michele Desmarias, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras accept the
concept of a Self or soul behind the operational mind, while Buddhists
do not accept such a Self exists. The role of Self is central to the
idea of 'Saṃyoga', 'Citta', Self-awareness and other concepts in
Chapters 2 through 4 of the Yoga sutras, according to Desmarias.

Jainism
=========
The five yamas or the constraints of the 'Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'
bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism,
indicating influence of Jainism. Three other teachings closely
associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine
of "colours" in karma (lesya); the 'Telos' of isolation (kevala in
Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence
(ahimsa), though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in
Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the Hindu texts known as the
Upanishads [the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century
BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the
use of the word 'Ahimsa' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of
conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" ('sarvabhuta') and
the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of
metempsychosis/reincarnation (CU 8.15.1). It also names Ahimsa as one
of five essential virtues].

Influence
======================================================================
The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the 'Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'
to be one of the foundational texts of classical Yoga philosophy.
However, the appropriation - and misappropriation - of the 'Yoga
Sutras' and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been
questioned by David Gordon White, who has argued that the text fell
into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th
century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts
of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society and others. It gained
prominence as a classic in the 20th century. Its influence was
reaffirmed by James Mallinson.

Before the 20th century, history indicates that the medieval Indian
yoga scene was dominated by the various other texts such as the
Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha, texts attributed to Yajnavalkya
and Hiranyagarbha, as well as literature on hatha yoga, tantric yoga
and Pashupata Shaivism yoga rather than the 'Yoga Sutras of
Patañjali'. Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of
the epic 'Mahābhārata'. The members of the Jaina faith had their own,
different literature on yoga, and Buddhist yoga stems from
pre-Patanjali sources.

Some of the major commentaries on the 'Yoga Sutras' were written
between the ninth and sixteenth century. After the twelfth century,
the school started to decline, and commentaries on Patanjali's Yoga
philosophy were few. By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga
philosophy had virtually become extinct. The manuscript of the 'Yoga
Sutras' was no longer copied, since few read the text, and it was
seldom taught.

According to David Gordon White, the popularity of the 'Yoga Sutras'
is recent, "miraculously rehabilitated" by Swami Vivekananda after
having been ignored for seven centuries. It was with the rediscovery
by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that wider interest in the
'Yoga Sutras' arose in the West. Popular interest arose in the 19th
century, when the practice of yoga according to the 'Yoga Sutras'
became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative
path to self-realization" by Swami Vivekananda, following Helena
Blavatsky, president of the Theosophical Society. It has become a
celebrated text in the West, states White, because of "Big Yoga - the
corporate yoga subculture".

Translations and commentaries
======================================================================
The 'Yoga Sutras of Patanjali' was the most translated ancient Indian
text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty
Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and
Arabic.

* In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni (973-1050 CE)
visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help
translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian
languages. One of these was Patanjali's 'Yogasutras'. His translation
included the text and a thitherto unknown Sanskrit commentary. Al
Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga
philosophy of Hinduism, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries
were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic
theology. Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and
Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD.
* The 'Yoga Sutras of Patanjali' was translated into Old Javanese by
Indonesian Hindus, and the text was called 'Dharma Patanjala'. The
surviving text has been dated to about 1450 CE; however, it is unclear
if this text is a copy of an earlier translation and whether other
translations existed in Indonesia. This translation shares ideas found
in other Indian translations particularly those in the Śaiva
traditions, and some in Al Biruni translation, but it is also
significantly different in parts from the 11th century Arabic
translation. The most complete copy of the 'Dharma Patañjala'
manuscript is now held at the Staatsbibliothek in Berlin.

By the early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions of
Patanjali's 'Yoga Sutras' published between 1874 and 1992, and 82
different manuscripts, from various locations in India, Nepal,
Pakistan, Europe and the United States, many in Sanskrit, some in
different North and South Indian languages. The numerous historical
variants show that the text was a living document and it was changed
as these manuscripts were transmitted or translated, with some ancient
and medieval manuscripts marked with "corrections" in the margin of
the pages and elsewhere by unknown authors and for unclear reasons.
This has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a
difficult task.

Many commentaries have been written on the 'Yoga Sutras'.

Medieval commentaries
=======================
Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include:
* Vyasa (AD 4th or 5th Century), as mentioned above, has been
attributed authorship of the commentary 'Yogabhāṣya', the first
medieval commentary on the Yoga Sutras, and the one upon which all
subsequent medieval commentaries were based. However, some scholars
have argued that this commentary was written by Patanjali himself.
* Adi Shankara (AD 8th Century) is said to have authored the
commentary 'Vivaraṇa', although the authorship of this commentary is
debated.
* Vācaspati Miśra (AD 900-980) who composed the commentary
'Tattvavaiśāradī', described as the "most significant early
subcommentary".
* Bhoja Raja's 'Raja-Martanda', 11th century.
* Vijnanabhiksu's 16th century 'Yogabhashyavarttika' or simply
'Yogavarttika' ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of
Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher and exegete who tried
to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the Bhedabheda view.
* Ramananda Sarasvati's 'Yogamani-Prabha' (16th century).

Modern translations and commentary
====================================
Countless commentaries on the 'Yoga Sutras' are available today. The
'Sutras', with commentaries, have been published by a number of
successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to
clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions
from a variety of sources available on the Internet. The many versions
display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has
not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis,
and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases
remains a matter of some dispute. Modern translations and
interpretations
include:

* 1852, 1853: First translation of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in English
containing first two chapters by J.R. Ballantyne published by The
Benaras College, in 1872 Govind Deva Shastri completed remaining two
chapters.
* 1882, 1885:The whole complete book was published in 1882 and final
revised edition published in 1885. The Yoga Philosophy with comments
of Bhojaraja, J.R Ballantyne, Govind Shastri Deva, edited by Tookaram
Tatya, Bombay Theosophical publication fund.
* 1883: Yoga Aporhism of Patanjali with the commentary of Bhoja Raja
by Rajendra Lala Mitra, Asiatic Society of Bengal
* 1890: The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, by Manilal Nabhubhai Dvivedi,
Bombay Theosophical publication fund.
* 1896: Swami Vivekananda, 'Raja Yoga' provides translation and an
in-depth explanation of 'Yoga Sutra'.
* 1907: Ganganath Jha's 'Yoga Sutras' with the 'Yogabhashya'
attributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety. With notes drawn
from Vācaspati Miśra's 'Tattvavaiśāradī' amongst other important texts
in the Yoga commentarial tradition.
* 1912: Charles Johnston Dublin University:
'[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras?uselang=ja The Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the Spiritual Man]'.
* 1914: The Yoga System of Patanjali with comment of Yoga Bhasya and
explanation of Tatva Vicardi by James Haughton Woods, Harvard
University Press
* 1924: Patanjali Yoga Sutras with commentary of Vyasa and gloss of
Vachaspati Mishra by Rama Prasad
* 1953: Swami Prabhavananda, 'Patanjali Yoga Sutras', Sri Ramakrishna
Math, Madras, India.
* 1961: I. K. Taimni, '[https://archive.org/details/TheScienceOfYoga
The Science of Yoga]' commentary with Sutras in Sanskrit and
translation and commentary in English.
* 1963: Swami Hariharananda Aranya's 'Bhasvati'.
* 1976: Swami Satyananda, 'Four Chapters of Freedom'. Yoga
Publications Trust, Munger, Bihar, India.
* 1978: Swami Satchidananda, 'The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'. Integral
Yoga, Yogaville.
* 1978: P. Y. Deshpande, The Authentic Yoga, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali:
A Heartfulness publication in January 2021
* 1989: Georg Feuerstein, 'The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali: A New
Translation and Commentary', Inner Traditions International;
Rochester, Vermont.
* 1993: B. K. S. Iyengar, 'Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'.
HarperCollins.
* 1996: Barbara Stoler Miller, 'The Yoga Sutras Attributed to
Patanjali; "Yoga - Discipline of Freedom'. University of California
Press, Berkeley.
* 1998: Osho, 'The Path of Yoga: Commentaries on the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali', Rebel Publishing House, Mumbai, India.
* 2002: [https://alistairshearer.co.uk/ Alistair Shearer], The Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali, Goodreads
* 2003: Chip Hartranft, 'The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali: A New
Translation with Commentary', Shambhala Classics, Boulder, Colorado.
* 2009: Edwin F. Bryant's 'The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New
Edition, Translation, and Commentary'. North Point Press, New York.
* 2013: Swami Kriyananda, 'Demystifying Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras -
The Wisdom of Paramhansa Yogananda'. Crystal Clarity Publishers,
Nevada City.
* 2022: Viswanatha Thalakola, 'The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Made
Simple'. Amazon KDP Select, Seattle.
* 2022: Ravi Shankar, Patanjali Yoga Sutras 'The Heart of Yoga, Sri
Sri Publications Trust.'
* 2023: Anandmurti Gurumaa, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Goodreads.

See also
======================================================================
* Patanjali
* Samkhya

Sources
======================================================================
;Printed sources

*
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*
*

*
*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*
*
*

*
* [twelve lectures held at the fourteenth World Sanskrit Conference
(Kyoto, September 1-5, 2009)]
*
*

*
*

*

*
*

*
*
*
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*
*

* Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.

;Web sources

;General references

* Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of 'The Six
Systems of Indian Philosophy'.
*
*
*
*
*

Further reading
======================================================================
; History
*

;Translations
* Bryant, Edwin F. (2009) 'The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'. New York:
North Point Press.

; Practice and commentaries
* Iyengar, B.K.S. (1993, 2002). 'Light on the Yoga Sūtras of
Patañjali'. Hammersmith, London, UK: Thorsons.

External links
======================================================================
;Overview
* Edwin Bryant, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ 'The Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali'], IEP

;Manuscripts
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b100839498 Manuscript]
(Alfred Foucher) from Bibliothèque Nationale de France

;Translations
*
[https://archive.org/stream/yogasystemofpata00wooduoft#page/n5/mode/2up
James Woods, 'The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu
doctrine of concentration of mind; Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali (1914)']
Harvard University Press
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/yogasutr.htm 'The Yoga Sutras of
Patañjali'], translation by BonGiovanni, at sacred-texts.com

;Commentaries
*
[https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/yoga-sutras-with-commentaries
Yoga Sutras with commentaries by Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra] English
translation by Rama Prasada, 1925 (includes glossary and Sanskrit text
references)
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20120202032732/http://www.ashtangayoga.info/philosophy/yoga-sutra-Pata%C3%B1jali/
Patañjali - 'Yoga-Sutras': A word by word translation with grammar and
comment]
*
* "[https://iep.utm.edu/yoga/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]" Rutgers
University
* "[https://yogasutra195.com/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | 195 Sutra
- Chanting (Sanskrit) : By Vimal Sharma.]"

;Audiobooks
*

;Composition
* Andrey Safronov,
[https://en.yoga-sutra.org/2018/09/does-yoga-sutra-prove-to-be-integral.html?m=0
Does Yoga Sutra Prove to be an Integral and Consequent Text?] and
[https://en.yoga-sutra.org/2019/03/on-different-fragments-incorporated-in.html?m=0
On Different Fragments Incorporated in Yoga Sutras]

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=========
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