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= War_and_Peace =
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Introduction
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'War and Peace' (; pre-reform Russian: ; ) is a literary work by the
Russian author Leo Tolstoy. Set during the Napoleonic Wars, the work
comprises both a fictional narrative and chapters in which Tolstoy
discusses history and philosophy. An early version was published
serially beginning in 1865, after which the entire book was rewritten
and published in 1869. It is regarded, with 'Anna Karenina', as
Tolstoy's finest literary achievement, and it remains an
internationally praised classic of world literature.
The book chronicles the French invasion of Russia and its aftermath
during the Napoleonic era. It uses five interlocking narratives
following different Russian aristocratic families to illustrate
Napoleon's impact on Tsarist society. Portions of an earlier version,
titled 'The Year 1805', were serialized in 'The Russian Messenger'
from 1865 to 1867 before the novel was published in its entirety in
1869.
Tolstoy said that the best Russian literature does not conform to
standards and hence hesitated to classify 'War and Peace', saying it
is "not a novel, even less is it a poem, and still less a historical
chronicle". Large sections, especially the later chapters, are
philosophical discussions rather than narrative. He regarded 'Anna
Karenina' as his first true novel.
Composition history
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Tolstoy began writing 'War and Peace' in 1863, the year that he
married and settled down at his country estate. In September of that
year, he wrote to Elizabeth Bers, his sister-in-law, asking if she
could find any chronicles, diaries, or records from the Napoleonic
period in Russia. He was dismayed to find that there were few written
records of Russian domestic life from that time and tried to rectify
these omissions in early drafts of the novel. The first half of the
book was named "1805". During the writing of the second half, he read
widely and acknowledged Schopenhauer as one of his main inspirations.
Tolstoy wrote in a letter to Afanasy Fet that what he had written in
'War and Peace' is also said by Schopenhauer in 'The World as Will and
Representation'. However, Tolstoy approaches "it from the other side."
The first draft of the novel was completed in 1863. In 1865, the
periodical ('The Russian Messenger') published the first part of this
draft under the title '1805' and published more the following year.
Tolstoy was dissatisfied with this version, although he allowed
several parts of it to be published with a different ending in 1867.
He heavily rewrote the entire novel between 1866 and 1869. Tolstoy's
wife, Sophia Tolstaya, copied as many as seven separate complete
manuscripts before Tolstoy considered it ready for publication. The
version that was published in had a very different ending from the
version eventually published under the title 'War and Peace' in 1869.
Russians who had read the serialized version were eager to buy the
complete novel, and it sold out almost immediately. The novel was
quickly translated after publication into many other languages.
It is unknown why Tolstoy changed the name of the work to 'War and
Peace' (' in reformed orthography, and 'Война и миръ' in pre-reform
orthography, pronounced ). He may have borrowed the title from the
1861 work of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: ("War and Peace" in French). The
title may also be a reference to the Roman Emperor Titus, who reigned
from 79 to 81 AD and was described as being a master of "war and
peace" in 'The Twelve Caesars', written by Suetonius in 119.
The '1805' manuscript was re-edited and annotated in Russia in 1983
and has been since translated into English, German, French, Spanish,
Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, Albanian, Korean, and Czech.
Tolstoy was instrumental in bringing a new kind of consciousness to
the novel. His narrative structure is noted not only for its god's-eye
point of view over and within events, but also in the way it swiftly
and seamlessly portrayed an individual character's viewpoint. His use
of visual detail is often comparable to cinema, using literary
techniques that resemble panning, wide shots, and close-ups. These
devices, while not exclusive to Tolstoy, are part of the new style of
the novel that arose in the mid-19th century and of which Tolstoy
proved himself a master.
The standard Russian text of 'War and Peace' is divided into four
volumes, comprising fifteen books, and an epilogue split into two
parts. Roughly the first half is concerned strictly with the fictional
characters, whereas the latter parts, as well as the second part of
the epilogue, increasingly consist of essays about the nature of war,
power, history, and historiography. Tolstoy interspersed these essays
into the story in a way that defies previous fictional convention.
Certain abridged versions remove these essays entirely, while others,
published even during Tolstoy's life, simply moved these essays into
an appendix.
Realism
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The plot of the novel is set 60 years before Tolstoy wrote it, but he
had spoken with people who lived through the 1812 French invasion of
Russia. He read all the standard histories available in Russian and
French about the Napoleonic Wars as well as letters, journals,
autobiographies, and biographies of Napoleon and other key players of
that era. There are approximately 160 real persons named or referred
to in 'War and Peace'.
He worked from primary source materials, such as interviews and other
documents, as well as from history books, philosophy texts, and other
historical novels. Tolstoy used a great deal of his own experience in
the Crimean War to bring vivid detail and first-hand accounts of how
the Imperial Russian Army was structured.
Tolstoy was critical of standard history, especially military history,
in 'War and Peace'. He explains at the start of the novel's third
volume his own views on how history ought to be written.
Language
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Although the book is mainly in Russian, significant portions of
dialogue are in French. It has been suggested that the use of French
is a deliberate literary device, to portray artifice while Russian
emerges as a language of sincerity, honesty, and seriousness. It
could, however, also simply represent another element of the realistic
style in which the book is written, since French was the common
language of the Russian aristocracy, and more generally the
aristocracies of continental Europe at the time. In fact, the Russian
nobility often knew only enough Russian to command their servants:
Julie Karagina, a character in the novel, is so unfamiliar with her
country's native language that she has to take Russian lessons.
The use of French diminishes as the book progresses. It is suggested
that this is to demonstrate Russia freeing itself from foreign
cultural domination, and to show that a once-friendly nation has
turned into an enemy. By midway through the book, several of the
Russian aristocracy are eager to find Russian tutors for themselves.
Background and historical context
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The novel spans the period from 1805 to 1820. The era of Catherine the
Great was still fresh in the minds of older people. Catherine had made
French the language of her royal court. For the next 100 years, it
became a social requirement for the Russian nobility to speak French
and understand French culture.
The historical context of the novel begins with the execution of Louis
Antoine, Duke of Enghien in 1805, while Russia is ruled by Alexander I
during the Napoleonic Wars. Key historical events woven into the novel
include the Ulm Campaign, the Battle of Austerlitz, the Treaties of
Tilsit, and the Congress of Erfurt. Tolstoy also references the Great
Comet of 1811 just before the French invasion of Russia.
Tolstoy then uses the Battle of Ostrovno and the Battle of Shevardino
Redoubt in his novel, before the occupation of Moscow and the
subsequent fire. The novel continues with the Battle of Tarutino, the
Battle of Maloyaroslavets, the Battle of Vyazma, and the Battle of
Krasnoi. The final battle cited is the Battle of Berezina, after which
the characters move on with rebuilding Moscow and their lives.
Principal characters
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'War and Peace' simple family tree.
The novel tells the story of five families--the Bezukhovs, the
Bolkonskys, the Rostovs, the Kuragins, and the Drubetskoys.
The main characters are:
*The Bezukhovs
** Count Kirill Vladimirovich Bezukhov: the father of Pierre
** Count Pyotr Kirillovich ("Pierre") Bezukhov: The central character
and often a voice for Tolstoy's own beliefs or struggles. Pierre is
the socially awkward illegitimate son of Count Kirill Vladimirovich
Bezukhov, who has fathered dozens of illegitimate sons. Educated
abroad, Pierre returns to Russia as a misfit. His unexpected
inheritance of a large fortune makes him socially desirable.
*The Bolkonskys
**Prince Nikolai Andreich Bolkonsky: The father of Andrei and Maria,
the eccentric prince possesses a gruff exterior and displays great
insensitivity to the emotional needs of his children. Nevertheless,
his harshness often belies hidden depth of feeling.
** Prince Andrei Nikolayevich Bolkonsky: A strong but skeptical,
thoughtful and philosophical in the Napoleonic Wars.
** Princess Elisabeta "Lisa" Karlovna Bolkonskaya (also Lise) - née
Meinena. Wife of Andrei. Also called "little princess".
** Princess Maria Nikolayevna Bolkonskaya: Sister of Prince Andrei,
Princess Maria is a pious woman whose father attempted to give her a
good education. The caring, nurturing nature of her large eyes in her
otherwise plain face is frequently mentioned. Tolstoy often notes that
Princess Maria cannot claim a radiant beauty (like many other female
characters of the novel) but she is a person of very high moral values
and of high intelligence.
*The Rostovs
** Count Ilya Andreyevich Rostov: The pater-familias of the Rostov
family; hopeless with finances, generous to a fault. As a result, the
Rostovs never have enough cash, despite having many estates.
** Countess Natalya Rostova: The wife of Count Ilya Rostov, she is
frustrated by her husband's mishandling of their finances, but is
determined that her children succeed anyway
** Countess Natalya Ilyinichna "Natasha" Rostova: A central character,
introduced as "not pretty but full of life", romantic, impulsive and
highly strung. She is an accomplished singer and dancer.
** Count Nikolai Ilyich "Nikolenka" Rostov: A hussar, the beloved
elder son of the Rostov family.
** Sofia Alexandrovna "Sonya" Rostova: Orphaned cousin of Vera,
Nikolai, Natasha, and Petya Rostov and is in love with Nikolai.
** Countess Vera Ilyinichna Rostova: Eldest of the Rostov children,
she marries the German career soldier, Berg.
** Pyotr Ilyich "Petya" Rostov: Youngest of the Rostov children.
*The Kuragins
** Prince Vasily Sergeyevich Kuragin: A ruthless man who is determined
to marry his children into wealth at any cost.
** Princess Elena Vasilyevna "Hélène" Kuragina: A beautiful and
sexually alluring woman who has many affairs, including (it is
rumoured) with her brother Anatole.
** Prince Anatole Vasilyevich Kuragin: Hélène's brother, a handsome
and amoral pleasure seeker who is secretly married yet tries to elope
with Natasha Rostova.
** Prince Ippolit Vasilyevich (Hippolyte) Kuragin: The younger brother
of Anatole and perhaps most dim-witted of the three Kuragin children.
*The Drubetskoys
** Prince Boris Drubetskoy: A poor but aristocratic young man driven
by ambition, even at the expense of his friends and benefactors, who
marries Julie Karagina for money and is rumored to have had an affair
with Hélène Bezukhova.
** Princess Anna Mikhailovna Drubetskaya: The impoverished mother of
Boris, whom she wishes to push up the career ladder.
*Other prominent characters
** Fyodor Ivanovich Dolokhov: A cold, almost psychopathic officer, he
ruins Nikolai Rostov by luring him into an outrageous gambling debt
after unsuccessfully proposing to Sonya Rostova. He is also rumored to
have had an affair with Hélène Bezukhova and he provides for his poor
mother and hunchbacked sister.
** Adolf Karlovich Berg: A young German officer, who desires to be
just like everyone else and marries the young Vera Rostova.
** Anna Pavlovna Scherer: Also known as Annette, she is the hostess of
the salon that is the site of much of the novel's action in Petersburg
and schemes with Prince Vasily Kuragin.
** Maria Dmitryevna Akhrosimova: An older Moscow society lady,
good-humored but brutally honest.
** Amalia Evgenyevna Bourienne: A Frenchwoman who lives with the
Bolkonskys, primarily as Princess Maria's companion and later at
Maria's expense.
** Vasily Dmitrich Denisov: Nikolai Rostov's friend and brother
officer, who unsuccessfully proposes to Natasha.
** Platon Karataev: The archetypal good Russian peasant, whom Pierre
meets in the prisoner-of-war camp.
** Osip Bazdeyev: a Freemason who convinces Pierre to join his
mysterious group.
** Bilibin: A diplomat with a reputation for cleverness, an
acquaintance of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky.
In addition, several real-life historical characters (such as Napoleon
and Prince Mikhail Kutuzov) play a prominent part in the book. Many of
Tolstoy's characters were based on real people. His grandparents and
their friends were the models for many of the main characters; his
great-grandparents would have been of the generation of Prince Vassily
or Count Ilya Rostov.
Book One
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The novel begins in July 1805 in Saint Petersburg, at a soirée given
by Anna Pavlovna Scherer, the maid of honour and confidante to the
dowager empress Maria Feodorovna. Many of the main characters are
introduced as they enter the salon. Pierre (Pyotr Kirilovich) Bezukhov
is the illegitimate son of a wealthy count. He is about to become
embroiled in a struggle for his inheritance, since the count is dying
after a series of strokes. Educated abroad at his father's expense
following his mother's death, Pierre is kindhearted but socially
awkward, and finds it difficult to integrate into Petersburg society.
It is known to everyone at the soirée that Pierre is his father's
favorite of all the old count's illegitimate progeny. They respect
Pierre during the soirée because his father, Count Bezukhov, is a very
rich man, and as Pierre is his favorite, most aristocrats think that
the fortune of his father will be given to him even though he is
illegitimate.
Also attending the soirée is Pierre's friend, Prince Andrei
Nikolayevich Bolkonsky, husband of Lise, a charming society favourite.
He is disillusioned with Petersburg society and with married life,
feeling that his wife is empty and superficial. Pierre does not quite
know what to do with this and is made uncomfortable witnessing the
marital discord. Pierre was sent to Petersburg by his father to choose
a career but is uncomfortable because he cannot find one and people
frequently ask about it. Andrei tells Pierre he has decided to become
to Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich Kutuzov in the coming war (the Battle
of Austerlitz) against Napoleon in order to escape a life he cannot
stand.
The plot moves to Moscow, Russia's former capital, contrasting its
provincial, more Russian ways to the more European society of Saint
Petersburg. The Rostov family is introduced. Count Ilya Andreyevich
Rostov and Countess Natalya Rostova are an affectionate couple but
worried about their disordered finances. They have four children.
Thirteen-year-old Natasha (Natalia Ilyinichna) believes herself in
love with Boris Drubetskoy, a young man who is about to join the army
as an officer. Boris's mother is Anna Mikhaylovna Drubetskaya, a
childhood friend of the countess Natalya Rostova. Boris is also the
godson of Pierre's father, Count Bezukhov. Twenty-year-old Nikolai
Ilyich pledges his love to Sonya (Sofia Alexandrovna), his
fifteen-year-old cousin, an orphan who has been brought up by the
Rostovs. The eldest child, Vera Ilyinichna, is cold and somewhat
haughty but has a good prospective marriage to a Russian-German
officer, Adolf Karlovich Berg. Petya (Pyotr Ilyich) at nine is the
youngest; like his brother, he is impetuous and eager to join the army
when of age.
At Bald Hills, the Bolkonskys' country estate, Prince Andrei departs
for war and leaves his terrified, pregnant wife Lise with his
eccentric father Prince Nikolai Andreyevich and devoutly religious
sister Maria Nikolayevna Bolkonskaya, who refuses to marry the son of
a wealthy aristocrat on account of her devotion to her father and
suspicion that the young man would be unfaithful to her.
The second part opens with descriptions of the impending
Russian-French war preparations. At the Schöngrabern engagement,
Nikolai Rostov, now an ensign in the hussars, has his first taste of
battle. Boris Drubetskoy introduces him to Prince Andrei, whom Rostov
insults in a fit of impetuousness. He is deeply attracted by Tsar
Alexander's charisma. Nikolai gambles and socializes with his officer,
Vasily Dmitrich Denisov, and befriends the ruthless Fyodor Ivanovich
Dolokhov. Bolkonsky, Rostov, and Denisov are involved in the
disastrous Battle of Austerlitz, in which Prince Andrei is badly
wounded as he attempts to rescue a Russian standard.
The Battle of Austerlitz is a major event in the book. As the battle
is about to start, Prince Andrei thinks the approaching "day [will] be
his Toulon, or his Arcola", references to Napoleon's early victories.
Later in the battle, however, Andrei falls into enemy hands and even
meets his hero, Napoleon. But his previous enthusiasm has been
shattered; he no longer thinks much of Napoleon, "so petty did his
hero with his paltry vanity and delight in victory appear, compared to
that lofty, righteous and kindly sky which he had seen and
comprehended". Tolstoy portrays Austerlitz as an early test for
Russia, one which ended badly because the soldiers fought for
irrelevant things like glory or renown rather than the higher virtues
which would produce, according to Tolstoy, a victory at Borodino
during the 1812 invasion.
Book Two
==========
Book Two begins with Nikolai Rostov returning on leave to Moscow
accompanied by his friend Denisov, his officer from his Pavlograd
Regiment. He spends an eventful winter at home. Natasha has blossomed
into a beautiful young woman. Denisov falls in love with her and
proposes marriage but is rejected. Nikolai meets Dolokhov, and they
grow closer as friends. Dolokhov falls in love with Sonya, Nikolai's
cousin, but as she is in love with Nikolai, she rejects Dolokhov's
proposal. Nikolai meets Dolokhov sometime later. The resentful
Dolokhov challenges Nikolai at cards, and Nikolai loses every hand
until he sinks into a 43,000-ruble debt. Although his mother pleads
with Nikolai to marry a wealthy heiress to rescue the family from its
dire financial straits, he refuses. Instead, he promises to marry his
childhood crush and orphaned cousin, the dowry-less Sonya.
Pierre Bezukhov, upon finally receiving his massive inheritance, is
suddenly transformed from a bumbling young man into the most eligible
bachelor in Russian society. Despite knowing that it is wrong, he is
convinced into marriage with Prince Kuragin's beautiful and immoral
daughter Hélène (Elena Vasilyevna Kuragina). Hélène, who is rumored to
be involved in an incestuous affair with her brother Anatole, tells
Pierre that she will never have children with him. Hélène is also
rumored to be having an affair with Dolokhov, who mocks Pierre in
public. Pierre loses his temper and challenges Dolokhov to a duel.
Unexpectedly (because Dolokhov is a seasoned dueller), Pierre wounds
Dolokhov. Hélène denies her affair, but Pierre is convinced of her
guilt and leaves her. In his moral and spiritual confusion, Pierre
joins the Freemasons. Much of Book Two concerns his struggles with his
passions and his spiritual conflicts. He abandons his former carefree
behavior and enters upon a philosophical quest particular to Tolstoy:
how should one live a moral life in an ethically imperfect world? The
question continually baffles Pierre. He attempts to liberate his
serfs, but ultimately achieves nothing of note.
Pierre is contrasted with Prince Andrei Bolkonsky. Andrei recovers
from his near-fatal wound in a military hospital and returns home,
only to find Lise dying in childbirth. He is stricken by his guilty
conscience for not treating her better. His child, Nikolai, survives.
Pierre's wife, Hélène, begs him to take her back, and trying to abide
by the Freemason laws of forgiveness, he agrees. Hélène establishes
herself as an influential hostess in Petersburg society.
Prince Andrei feels impelled to take his newly written military
notions to Saint Petersburg, naively expecting to influence either the
Emperor himself or those close to him. Young Natasha, also in Saint
Petersburg, is caught up in the excitement of her first grand ball,
where she meets Prince Andrei and briefly reinvigorates him with her
vivacious charm. Andrei believes he has found purpose in life again
and, after paying the Rostovs several visits, proposes marriage to
Natasha. However, Andrei's father dislikes the Rostovs and opposes the
marriage, insisting that the couple wait a year before marrying.
Prince Andrei leaves to recuperate from his wounds abroad, leaving
Natasha distraught. Count Rostov takes her and Sonya to Moscow in
order to raise funds for her trousseau.
Natasha visits the Moscow opera, where she meets Hélène and her
brother Anatole. Anatole has since married a Polish woman whom he
abandoned in Poland. He is very attracted to Natasha and determined to
seduce her and conspires with his sister to do so. Anatole succeeds in
making Natasha believe he loves her, eventually establishing plans to
elope. Natasha writes to Princess Maria, Andrei's sister, breaking off
her engagement. At the last moment, Sonya discovers her plans to elope
and foils them. Natasha learns from Pierre of Anatole's marriage.
Devastated, Natasha makes a suicide attempt and is left seriously ill.
Pierre is initially horrified by Natasha's behavior but realizes he
has fallen in love with her. As the Great Comet of 1811-12 streaks
across the sky, life appears to begin anew for Pierre. Prince Andrei
coldly accepts Natasha's breaking of the engagement. He tells Pierre
that his pride will not allow him to renew his proposal.
Book Three
============
With the help of her family, and the stirrings of religious faith,
Natasha manages to persevere in Moscow through this dark period.
Meanwhile, the whole of Russia is affected by the coming confrontation
between Napoleon's army and the Russian army. Pierre convinces himself
through gematria that Napoleon is the Antichrist of the 'Book of
Revelation' and that Pierre himself has an eschatological role. Old
Prince Bolkonsky dies of a stroke knowing that French marauders are
coming for his estate. No organized help from any Russian army seems
available to the Bolkonskys, but Nikolai Rostov turns up at their
estate in time to help put down an incipient peasant revolt. He finds
himself attracted to the distraught Princess Maria.
Back in Moscow, the patriotic Petya joins a crowd in audience of Tzar
Alexander and manages to snatch a biscuit thrown from the balcony
window of the Cathedral of the Assumption by the Tzar. He is nearly
crushed by the throngs in his effort. Under the influence of the same
patriotism, his father finally allows him to enlist.
Napoleon himself is the main character in this section, and the novel
presents him in vivid detail, both personally and as both a thinker
and would-be strategist. Also described are the well-organized force
of over four hundred thousand troops of the French (only one hundred
and forty thousand of them actually French-speaking) that marches
through the Russian countryside in the late summer and reaches the
outskirts of the city of Smolensk. Pierre decides to leave Moscow and
go to watch the Battle of Borodino from a vantage point next to a
Russian artillery crew. After watching for a time, he begins to join
in carrying ammunition. In the midst of the turmoil, he experiences
first-hand the death and destruction of war; Eugène's artillery
continues to pound Russian support columns, while Marshals Ney and
Davout set up a crossfire with artillery positioned on the
Semyonovskaya heights. The battle becomes a hideous slaughter for both
armies and ends in a standoff. The Russians, however, have won a moral
victory by standing up to Napoleon's reputedly invincible army. The
Russian army withdraws the next day, allowing Napoleon to march on to
Moscow. Among the casualties are Anatole Kuragin and Prince Andrei.
Anatole loses a leg, and Andrei suffers a grenade wound in the
abdomen. Both are reported dead, but their families are in such
disarray that no one can be notified.
The Rostovs have waited until the last minute to abandon Moscow, even
after it became clear that Kutuzov had retreated past Moscow. The
Muscovites are being given contradictory instructions on how to either
flee or fight. Count Fyodor Rostopchin, the commander in chief of
Moscow, is publishing posters, rousing the citizens to put their faith
in religious icons, while at the same time urging them to fight with
pitchforks if necessary. Before fleeing himself, he gives orders to
burn the city. However, Tolstoy states that the burning of an
abandoned city mostly built of wood was inevitable, and while the
French blame the Russians, these blame the French. The Rostovs have a
difficult time deciding what to take with them, but in the end,
Natasha convinces them to load their carts with the wounded and dying
from the Battle of Borodino. Unknown to Natasha, Prince Andrei is
among the wounded.
When Napoleon's army finally occupies an abandoned and burning Moscow,
Pierre takes off on a naïve mission to assassinate Napoleon. He
becomes anonymous in all the chaos, shedding his responsibilities by
wearing peasant clothes and shunning his duties and lifestyle. The
only people he sees are Natasha and some of her family, as they depart
Moscow. Natasha recognizes and smiles at him, and he in turn realizes
the full scope of his love for her.
Pierre saves the life of a French officer who, seeking shelter, enters
the home of a dead friend of Pierre's, in which Pierre has been living
since departing his own home. The two have a long, amicable
conversation. The next day Pierre goes into the street to resume his
assassination plan. He rescues a young girl from a burning house and
then comes across two French soldiers robbing an Armenian family. When
one of the soldiers tries to rip the necklace off the young Armenian
woman's neck, Pierre intervenes by attacking the soldiers, and is
taken prisoner by the French army.
Book Four
===========
After his capture, Pierre believes he will be executed. In the end he
is spared, but witnesses the execution of other prisoners with horror.
Pierre becomes friends with a fellow prisoner, Platon Karataev, a
Russian peasant with a saintly demeanor. In Karataev, Pierre finally
finds what he has been seeking: an honest person of integrity, who is
utterly without pretense. Pierre discovers meaning in life simply by
interacting with him. After witnessing French soldiers sacking Moscow
and shooting Russian civilians arbitrarily, Pierre is forced to march
with the Grand Army during its disastrous retreat from Moscow in the
harsh Russian winter. After months of tribulation--during which the
fever-plagued Karataev is shot by the French--Pierre is finally freed
by a Russian raiding party led by Dolokhov and Denisov, after a small
skirmish with the French that sees the young Petya Rostov killed in
action.
Meanwhile, Andrei has been taken in and cared for by the Rostovs,
fleeing from Moscow to Yaroslavl. He is reunited with Natasha and his
sister Maria before the end of the war. In an internal transformation,
he loses the fear of death and forgives Natasha in a last act before
dying.
As the novel draws to a close, Pierre's wife Hélène dies from an
overdose of an abortifacient (Tolstoy does not state it explicitly but
the euphemism he uses is unambiguous). Pierre is reunited with
Natasha, while the victorious Russians rebuild Moscow. Natasha speaks
of Prince Andrei's death and Pierre of Karataev's. Both are aware of a
growing bond between them in their bereavement.
First part
============
The first part of the epilogue begins with the wedding of Pierre and
Natasha in 1813. Nikolai becomes worried about his family's finances
and leaves the army after hearing of Petya's death. There is little
hope for recovery. Given the Rostovs' ruin, he does not feel
comfortable with the prospect of marrying the wealthy Marya
Bolkonskaya, but when they meet again, they both still feel love for
each other. Count Rostov dies soon after, leaving Nikolai to take
charge of the debt-ridden estate. Nikolai finds himself with the task
of maintaining the family on the verge of bankruptcy. Although he
finds marrying women for money repugnant, he gives in to his love for
Princess Maria and marries her.
Nikolai and Maria then move to her inherited estate of Bald Hills with
his mother and Sonya, whom he supports for the rest of their lives.
Nikolai and Maria have children together, and also raise Prince
Andrei's orphaned son, Nikolai Andreyevich (Nikolenka) Bolkonsky.
As in all good marriages, there are misunderstandings, but the couples
- Pierre and Natasha, Nikolai and Maria - remain devoted. Pierre and
Natasha visit Bald Hills in 1820. There is a hint in the closing
chapters that the idealistic, boyish Nikolenka and Pierre would both
become part of the Decembrist Uprising. The first epilogue concludes
with Nikolenka promising he would do something with which even his
late father "would be satisfied" (presumably as a revolutionary in the
Decembrist revolt).
Second part
=============
The second part of the epilogue contains Tolstoy's critique of all
existing forms of mainstream history. The 19th-century Great Man
Theory claims that historical events are the result of the actions of
"heroes" and other great individuals; Tolstoy argues that this is
impossible because of how rarely these actions result in great
historical events. Rather, he argues, great historical events are the
result of many smaller events driven by the thousands of individuals
involved (a summation which he earlier, in Part III chapter 1,
compared to calculus, and the sum of infinitesimals). He then goes on
to argue that these smaller events are the result of an inverse
relationship between necessity and free will, necessity being based on
reason and therefore explicable through historical analysis, and free
will being based on consciousness and therefore inherently
unpredictable. Tolstoy also ridicules newly emerging Darwinism as
overly simplistic, comparing it to plasterers covering over the
windows, icons, and scaffolding with plaster, impressed with the
smooth result. He wrestles with the tension between our consciousness
of freedom and the apparent need for necessity to develop laws of
science and history, saying at times that the first is as real as the
second, and yet that its reality would destroy the second. He
concludes that just as astronomy had to adopt the Copernican
hypothesis of the earth's movement, not because it fits our immediate
perceptions, but to avoid absurdities, so too must historical science
accept some conception of necessary laws of human action, even though
we feel free in our ordinary lives. In an appendix, he tries to
further resolve the tension with the suggestion that we are most free,
or feel most free, in arbitrary acts affecting us alone, but less free
in acts affecting other people, where moral or other principles force
or forbid certain responses.
Philosophical chapters
========================
'War and Peace' is Tolstoy's longest work, consisting of 361 chapters.
Of those, 24 are philosophical chapters with the author's comments and
views, rather than narrative. These chapters discuss historical events
but do not touch on the fictional plot of the novel.
Reception
======================================================================
The novel that made its author "the true lion of the Russian
literature" (according to Ivan Goncharov) enjoyed great success with
the reading public upon its publication and spawned dozens of reviews
and analytical essays, some of which (by Dmitry Pisarev, Pavel
Annenkov, Dragomirov and Strakhov) formed the basis for the research
of later Tolstoy scholars. Yet the Russian press's initial response to
the novel was muted, with most critics unable to decide how to
classify it. The liberal newspaper 'Golos' (The Voice, April 3, #93,
1865) was one of the first to react. Its anonymous reviewer posed a
question later repeated by many others: "What could this possibly be?
What kind of genre are we supposed to file it to?... Where is fiction
in it, and where is real history?"
Writer and critic Nikolai Akhsharumov, writing in (#6, 1867),
suggested that 'War and Peace' was "neither a chronicle, nor a
historical novel", but a genre merger, this ambiguity never
undermining its immense value. Annenkov, who praised the novel too,
was equally vague when trying to classify it. "The cultural history of
one large section of our society, the political and social panorama of
it in the beginning of the current century," was his suggestion. "It
is the [social] epic, the history novel and the vast picture of the
whole nation's life," wrote Ivan Turgenev in his bid to define 'War
and Peace' in the foreword for his French translation of "The Two
Hussars" (published in Paris by in 1875).
In general, the literary left received the novel coldly. They saw it
as devoid of social critique, and keen on the idea of national unity.
They saw its major fault as the "author's inability to portray a new
kind of revolutionary intelligentsia in his novel", as critic
Varfolomey Zaytsev put it. Articles by D. Minayev, Vasily
Bervi-Flerovsky and N. Shelgunov in magazine characterized the novel
as "lacking realism", showing its characters as "cruel and rough",
"mentally stoned", "morally depraved" and promoting "the philosophy of
stagnation". Still, Mikhail Saltykov-Schedrin, who never expressed his
opinion of the novel publicly, in private conversation was reported to
have expressed delight with "how strongly this Count has stung our
higher society". Dmitry Pisarev in his unfinished article "Russian
Gentry of Old" (, , #2, 1868), while praising Tolstoy's realism in
portraying members of high society, was still unhappy with the way the
author, as he saw it, 'idealized' the old nobility, expressing
"unconscious and quite natural tenderness towards" the Russian
dvoryanstvo. On the opposite front, the conservative press and
"patriotic" authors (A. S. Norov and P. A. Vyazemsky among them) were
accusing Tolstoy of consciously distorting 1812 history, desecrating
the "patriotic feelings of our fathers" and ridiculing dvoryanstvo.
One of the first comprehensive articles on the novel was that of Pavel
Annenkov, published in #2, 1868 issue of 'Vestnik Evropy'. The critic
praised Tolstoy's masterful portrayal of man at war, marveled at the
complexity of the whole composition, organically merging historical
facts and fiction. "The dazzling side of the novel," according to
Annenkov, was "the natural simplicity with which [the author]
transports the worldly affairs and big social events down to the level
of a character who witnesses them." Annekov thought the historical
gallery of the novel was incomplete with the two "great
raznotchintsys", Speransky and Arakcheyev, and deplored the fact that
the author stopped at introducing to the novel "this relatively rough
but original element." In the end the critic called the novel "the
whole epoch in the Russian fiction."
Slavophiles declared Tolstoy their "" and pronounced 'War and Peace'
"the Bible of the new national idea". Several articles on 'War and
Peace' were published in 1869-70 in 'Zarya' magazine by Nikolay
Strakhov. "'War and Peace' is the work of genius, equal to everything
that the Russian literature has produced before", he pronounced in the
first, smaller essay. "It is now quite clear that from 1868 when the
'War and Peace' was published the very essence of what we call Russian
literature has become quite different, acquired the new form and
meaning", the critic continued later. Strakhov was the first critic in
Russia who declared Tolstoy's novel to be a masterpiece of a level
previously unknown in Russian literature. Still, being a true
Slavophile, he could not fail to see the novel as promoting the major
Slavophiliac ideas of "meek Russian character's supremacy over the
rapacious European kind" (using Apollon Grigoryev's formula). Years
later, in 1878, discussing Strakhov's own book 'The World as a Whole',
Tolstoy criticized both Grigoryev's concept (of "Russian meekness
'vs.' Western bestiality") and Strakhov's interpretation of it.
Among the reviewers were military men and authors specializing in war
literature. Most assessed highly the artfulness and realism of
Tolstoy's battle scenes. N. Lachinov, a member of the 'Russky Invalid'
newspaper staff (#69, April 10, 1868) called the Battle of
Schöngrabern scenes "bearing the highest degree of historical and
artistic truthfulness" and totally agreed with the author's view on
the Battle of Borodino, which some of his opponents disputed. The army
general and respected military writer Mikhail Dragomirov, in an
article published in ('The Military Almanac', 1868-70), while
disputing some of Tolstoy's ideas concerning the "spontaneity" of wars
and the role of commander in battles, advised all the Russian Army
officers to use 'War and Peace' as their desk book, describing its
battle scenes as "incomparable" and "serving for an ideal manual to
every textbook on theories of military art."
Unlike professional literary critics, most prominent Russian writers
of the time supported the novel wholeheartedly. Goncharov, Turgenev,
Leskov, Dostoevsky and Fet have all gone on record as declaring 'War
and Peace' the masterpiece of Russian literature. Ivan Goncharov in a
July 17, 1878, letter to Pyotr Ganzen advised him to choose for
translating into Danish 'War and Peace', adding: "This is positively
what might be called a Russian 'Iliad'. Embracing the whole epoch, it
is the grandiose literary event, showcasing the gallery of great men
painted by a lively brush of the great master ... This is one of the
most, if not the most profound literary work ever". In 1879, unhappy
with Ganzen having chosen 'Anna Karenina' to start with, Goncharov
insisted: "'War and Peace' is the extraordinary poem of a novel, both
in content and execution. It also serves as a monument to Russian
history's glorious epoch when whatever figure you take is a colossus,
a statue in bronze. Even [the novel's] minor characters carry all the
characteristic features of the Russian people and its life." In 1885,
expressing satisfaction with the fact that Tolstoy's works had by then
been translated into Danish, Goncharov again stressed the immense
importance of 'War and Peace'. "Count Tolstoy really mounts over
everybody else here [in Russia]", he remarked.
Fyodor Dostoevsky (in a May 30, 1871, letter to Strakhov) described
'War and Peace' as "the last word of the landlord's literature and the
brilliant one at that." In a draft version of 'The Raw Youth' he
described Tolstoy as "a historiograph of the , or rather, its cultural
elite." "The objectivity and realism impart wonderful charm to all
scenes, and alongside people of talent, honour and duty he exposes
numerous scoundrels, worthless goons and fools," he added. In 1876
Dostoevsky wrote: "My strong conviction is that a writer of fiction
has to have most profound knowledge--not only of the poetic side of
his art, but also the reality he deals with, in its historical as well
as contemporary context. Here [in Russia], as far as I see it, only
one writer excels in this, Count Lev Tolstoy."
Nikolai Leskov, then an anonymous reviewer in ('The Stock Exchange
Herald'), wrote several articles praising highly 'War and Peace',
calling it "the best ever Russian historical novel" and "the pride of
the contemporary literature". Marveling at the realism and factual
truthfulness of Tolstoy's book, Leskov thought the author deserved the
special credit for "having lifted up the people's spirit upon the high
pedestal it deserved". "While working most elaborately upon individual
characters, the author, apparently, has been studying most diligently
the character of the nation as a whole; the life of people whose moral
strength came to be concentrated in the Army that came up to fight
mighty Napoleon. In this respect the novel of Count Tolstoy could be
seen as an epic of the Great national war which up until now has had
its historians but never had its singers", Leskov wrote.
Afanasy Fet, in a January 1, 1870, letter to Tolstoy, expressed his
great delight with the novel. "You've managed to show us in great
detail the other, mundane side of life and explain how organically
does it feed the outer, heroic side of it", he added.
Ivan Turgenev gradually re-considered his initial skepticism as to the
novel's historical aspect and also the style of Tolstoy's
psychological analysis. In his 1880 article written in the form of a
letter addressed to Edmond Abou, the editor of the French newspaper ,
Turgenev described Tolstoy as "the most popular Russian writer" and
'War and Peace' as "one of the most remarkable books of our age."
"This vast work has the spirit of an epic, where the life of Russia of
the beginning of our century in general and in details has been
recreated by the hand of a true master ... The manner in which Count
Tolstoy conducts his treatise is innovative and original. This is the
great work of a great writer, and in it there's true, real Russia,"
Turgenev wrote. It was largely due to Turgenev's efforts that the
novel started to gain popularity with the European readership. The
first French edition of the 'War and Peace' (1879) paved the way for
the worldwide success of Leo Tolstoy and his works.
Since then many world-famous authors have praised 'War and Peace' as a
masterpiece of world literature. Gustave Flaubert expressed his
delight in a January 1880 letter to Turgenev, writing: "This is the
first class work! What an artist and what a psychologist! The first
two volumes are exquisite. I used to utter shrieks of delight while
reading. This is powerful, very powerful indeed." Later John
Galsworthy called 'War and Peace' "the best novel that had ever been
written". Romain Rolland, remembering his reading the novel as a
student, wrote, "This work, like life itself, has no beginning, no
end. It is life itself in its eternal movement." Thomas Mann thought
'War and Peace' to be "the greatest ever war novel in the history of
literature." When Virginia Woolf finished the book, she declared
"There remains the greatest of all novelists--for what else can we
call the author of 'War and Peace'?" Ernest Hemingway confessed that
it was from Tolstoy that he had been taking lessons on how to "write
about war in the most straightforward, honest, objective and stark
way." "I don't know anybody who could write about war better than
Tolstoy did", Hemingway asserted in his 1955 'Men at War. The Best War
Stories of All Time' anthology.
Isaac Babel said, after reading 'War and Peace', "If the world could
write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy." Tolstoy "gives us a
unique combination of the 'naive objectivity' of the oral narrator
with the interest in detail characteristic of realism. This is the
reason for our trust in his presentation."
English translations
======================================================================
'War and Peace' has been translated into many languages. It has been
translated into English on several occasions, starting with Clara Bell
working from a French translation. The translators Constance Garnett
and Aylmer and Louise Maude knew Tolstoy personally. Translations have
to deal with Tolstoy's often peculiar syntax and his fondness for
repetitions. Only about two percent of 'War and Peace' is in French;
Tolstoy removed the French in a revised 1873 edition, only to restore
it later. Most translators follow Garnett retaining some French;
Briggs and Shubin use no French, while Pevear-Volokhonsky's and Amy
Mandelker's revisions of the Maude translation both retain the French
fully.
List of English translations
==============================
(Translators listed.)
Full translations:
* Clara Bell (New York: Gottsberger, 1886). Translated from a French
version
* Nathan Haskell Dole (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
* Leo Wiener (Boston: Dana Estes & Co., 1904)
* Constance Garnett (London: Heinemann, 1904)
* Aylmer and Louise Maude (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922-23)
** Revised by George Gibian (Norton Critical Edition, 1966)
** Revised by Amy Mandelker (Oxford University Press, 2010)
* Rosemary Edmonds (Penguin, 1957; revised 1978)
* Ann Dunnigan (New American Library, 1968)
* Anthony Briggs (Penguin, 2005)
* Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (Random House, 2007)
* Daniel H. Shubin (self-published, 2020)
Abridged translation:
* Princess Alexandra Kropotkin (Doubleday, 1949)
Translation of draft of 1863:
* Andrew Bromfield (HarperCollins, 2007). Approx. 400 pages shorter
than English translations of the finished novel
Comparing translations
========================
In the 'Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English', academic
Zoja Pavlovskis-Petit has this to say about the translations of 'War
and Peace' available in 2000: "Of all the translations of 'War and
Peace', Dunnigan's (1968) is the best. ... Unlike the other
translators, Dunnigan even succeeds with many characteristically
Russian folk expressions and proverbs. ... She is faithful to the text
and does not hesitate to render conscientiously those details that the
uninitiated may find bewildering: for instance, the statement that
Boris's mother pronounced his name with a stress on the 'o' - an
indication to the Russian reader of the old lady's affectation."
On the Garnett translation Pavlovskis-Petit writes: "her ...'War and
Peace' is frequently inexact and contains too many anglicisms. Her
style is awkward and turgid, very unsuitable for Tolstoi." On the
Maudes' translation she comments: "this should have been the best
translation, but the Maudes' lack of adroitness in dealing with
Russian folk idiom, and their style in general, place this version
below Dunnigan's." She further comments on Edmonds's revised
translation, formerly on Penguin: "[it] is the work of a sound scholar
but not the best possible translator; it frequently lacks
resourcefulness and imagination in its use of English. ... a
respectable translation but not on the level of Dunnigan or Maude."
Film
======
* The first Russian adaptation was () in 1915, which was directed by
Vladimir Gardin and starred Gardin and the Russian ballerina Vera
Karalli.
* Fumio Kamei produced a version in Japan: War and Peace (戦争と平和 Sensō
to heiwa) (1947)
* The 208-minute-long American 1956 version was directed by King Vidor
and starred Audrey Hepburn (Natasha), Henry Fonda (Pierre) and Mel
Ferrer (Andrei). Audrey Hepburn was nominated for a BAFTA Award for
best British actress and for a Golden Globe Award for best actress in
a drama production.
* The critically acclaimed, four-part and 431-minutes long Soviet 'War
and Peace', by director Sergei Bondarchuk, was released in 1966 and
1967. It starred Ludmila Savelyeva (as Natasha Rostova) and Vyacheslav
Tikhonov (as Andrei Bolkonsky). It won an Oscar for Best Foreign
Language Film for its authenticity and massive scale. It attracted
some controversy due to the number of horses killed during the making
of the battle sequences and screenings were actively boycotted in
several US cities by the ASPCA.
Television
============
* 'War and Peace' (1972): The BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)
made a television serial based on the novel, broadcast in 1972-73.
Anthony Hopkins played the lead role of Pierre. Other lead characters
were played by Rupert Davies, Faith Brook, Morag Hood, Alan Dobie,
Angela Down and Sylvester Morand. This version faithfully included
many of Tolstoy's minor characters, including Platon Karataev (Harry
Locke).
* (2000): French TV production of Prokofiev's opera 'War and Peace',
directed by François Roussillon. Robert Brubaker played the lead role
of Pierre.
* 'War and Peace' (2007): produced by the Italian Lux Vide, a TV
mini-series in Russian & English co-produced in Russia, France,
Germany, Poland and Italy. Directed by Robert Dornhelm, with
screenplay written by Lorenzo Favella, Enrico Medioli and Gavin Scott.
It features an international cast with Alexander Beyer playing the
lead role of Pierre supported by Malcolm McDowell, Clémence Poésy as
Natasha Rostova, Alessio Boni, Pilar Abella, Valentina Cervi, J. Kimo
Arbas, Ken Duken, Juozapas Bagdonas and Toni Bertorelli.
* On 8 December 2015, Russian state television channel Russia-K began
a four-day broadcast of a reading of the novel, one volume per day,
involving 1,300 readers in over 30 cities.
* 'War & Peace' (2016): The BBC aired a six-part adaptation of the
novel scripted by Andrew Davies on BBC One in 2016, with Paul Dano
playing the lead role of Pierre.
Music
=======
* English progressive rock band Yes's song "The Gates of Delirium"
from their 1974 album 'Relayer' was inspired by 'War and Peace'.
Opera
=======
* Initiated by a proposal of the German director Erwin Piscator in
1938, the Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev composed his opera 'War
and Peace' (Op. 91, libretto by Mira Mendelson) based on this epic
novel during the 1940s. The complete musical work premièred in
Leningrad in 1955. It was the first opera to be given a public
performance at the Sydney Opera House (1973).
Theatre
=========
* The first successful stage adaptations of 'War and Peace' were
produced by Alfred Neumann and Erwin Piscator (1942, revised 1955,
published by Macgibbon & Kee in London 1963, and staged in 16
countries since) and R. Lucas (1943).
* A stage adaptation by Helen Edmundson, first produced in 1996 at the
Royal National Theatre with Richard Hope as Pierre and Anne-Marie Duff
as Natasha, was published that year by Nick Hern Books, London.
Edmundson added to and amended the play for a 2008 production as two
3-hour parts by Shared Experience, again directed by Nancy Meckler and
Polly Teale. This was first put on at the Nottingham Playhouse, then
toured in the UK to Liverpool, Darlington, Bath, Warwick, Oxford,
Truro, London (the Hampstead Theatre) and Cheltenham.
* A musical adaptation by Drama Desk and Theatre World Award winner
Dave Malloy, called 'Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812'
premiered at the Ars Nova theater in Manhattan on October 1, 2012,
with Malloy starring as Pierre opposite Phillipa Soo as Natasha and
Lucas Steele as Anatole. The show is described as an electropop opera,
and is based on Book 8 of 'War and Peace,' focusing on Natasha's
affair with Anatole. The show opened on Broadway in the fall of 2016,
starring Josh Groban as Pierre, Denée Benton as Natasha and Steele as
Anatole. It received twelve Tony Award nominations including Best
Musical, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Original Score, and Best Book
of a Musical.
* A stage adaptation by Carlos Be in Spanish, first produced by
LaJoven and directed by José Luis Arellano. Its premiere is scheduled
for January 2023 at the Círculo de Bellas Artes of Madrid.
Radio
=======
* The BBC Home Service broadcast an eight-part adaptation by Walter
Peacock from 17 January to 7 February 1943 with two episodes on each
Sunday. All but the last instalment, which ran for one and a half
hours, were one hour long. Leslie Banks played Pierre while Celia
Johnson was Natasha.
* In December 1970, Pacifica Radio station WBAI broadcast a reading of
the entire novel (the 1968 Dunnigan translation) read by over 140
celebrities and ordinary people.
* A dramatised full-cast adaptation in 20 parts, edited by Michael
Bakewell, was broadcast by the BBC between 30 December 1969 and 12 May
1970, with a cast including David Buck, Kate Binchy, and Martin
Jarvis.
* A dramatised full-cast adaptation in ten parts was written by Marcy
Kahan and Mike Walker in 1997 for BBC Radio 4. The production won the
1998 Talkie award for Best Drama and was around 9.5 hours in length.
It was directed by Janet Whitaker and featured Simon Russell Beale,
Gerard Murphy, Richard Johnson, and others.
* On New Year's Day 2015, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a dramatisation over
10 hours. The dramatisation, by playwright Timberlake Wertenbaker, was
directed by Celia de Wolff and starred Paterson Joseph and John Hurt.
It was accompanied by a Tweetalong: live tweets throughout the day
that offered a playful companion to the book and included plot
summaries and entertaining commentary. The Twitter feed also shared
maps, family trees and battle plans.
Comics
========
* In September 2022, Alexandr Poltorak adapted 'War and Peace' into a
graphic novel illustrated by Dmitry Chukhrai and published by Andrews
McMeel.
See also
======================================================================
* Leo Tolstoy bibliography
* List of historical novels
External links
======================================================================
* English Text
** [
https://archive.org/details/WarandPeace_201709 English translation
with commentary by the Maudes at the Internet Archive]
**
**
**
[
https://www.marxists.org/archive/tolstoy/1869/war-and-peace/index.html
'War and Peace'], from Marxists.org
** [
http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=1622 'War and Peace'], from
RevoltLib.com
** [
https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/leo-tolstoy-war-and-peace
'War and Peace'], from TheAnarchistLibrary.org
** Searchable version of the gutenberg text in
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20160305071331/http://www.jus.uio.no/sisu/war_and_peace.leo_tolstoy/sisu_manifest.html
multiple formats] SiSU
**
** [
http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/war_and_peace/ A
searchable online version of Aylmer Maude's English translation of
'War and Peace']
* English Audio
**
* Commentaries
**
[
http://www.stanford.edu/~njenkins/archives/2008/10/homage_to_war_a.html
Homage to 'War and Peace'] Searchable map, compiled by Nicholas
Jenkins, of places named in Tolstoy's novel (2008).
**
[
https://www.thetimes.com/article/birth-death-balls-and-battles-6s355f5w9hj
Birth, death, balls and battles] by Orlando Figes. This is an edited
version of an essay found in the Penguin Classics new translation of
'War and Peace' (2005).
* Summaries
** [
https://wpchaptersummaries.org/ Chapter Summaries] for 'War and
Peace'
** [
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/warandpeace/ SparkNotes Study Guide]
for 'War and Peace'
* In Current Events
**
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20071114084620/http://www.democracynow.org/index.pl?issue=20051206
Radio documentary about 1970 marathon reading of 'War and Peace' on
WBAI], from 'Democracy Now!' program, December 6, 2005
* Russian Text Online
** [
http://ilibrary.ru/text/11/p.1/ Full text of 'War and Peace' in
modern Russian orthography]
License
=========
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License URL:
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace
