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= Up_from_Slavery =
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Introduction
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'Up from Slavery' is the 1901 autobiography of the American educator
Booker T. Washington (1856-1915). The book describes his experience of
working to rise up from being enslaved as a child during the Civil
War, the obstacles he overcame to get an education at the new Hampton
Institute, and his work establishing vocational schools like the
Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to help Black people and other
persecuted people of color learn useful, marketable skills and work to
pull themselves, as a race, up by the bootstraps. He reflects on the
generosity of teachers and philanthropists who helped educate Black
and Native Americans. He describes his efforts to instill manners,
breeding, health and dignity into students. His educational philosophy
stresses combining academic subjects with learning a trade
(reminiscent of John Ruskin). Washington explained that the
integration of practical subjects is partly designed to "reassure the
White community of the usefulness of educating Black people".
The book was first published as a serial in 1900 in 'The Outlook', a
Christian newspaper of New York. It was serialized so that Washington
could receive feedback from his audience during the writing and could
adapt his work to his diverse audience.
Washington was a controversial figure during his lifetime, and W. E.
B. Du Bois, among others, criticized some of his views. The book was a
best-seller, and remained the most popular African-American
autobiography until that of Malcolm X. In 1998, the Modern Library
listed the book at No. 3 on its list of the 100 best nonfiction books
of the 20th century, and in 1999 it was also listed by the
conservative 'Intercollegiate Review' as one of the "50 Best Books of
the Twentieth Century".
Plot summary
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'Up from Slavery' chronicles more than forty years of Washington's
life: from slave to schoolmaster to the face of southern race
relations. In this text, Washington climbs the social ladder through
hard, manual labor, a decent education, and relationships with great
people. Throughout the text, he stresses the importance of education
for the black population as a reasonable tactic to ease race relations
in the South (particularly in the context of Reconstruction).
The book is, in essence, Washington's traditional, non-confrontational
message supported by the example of his life.
Major themes
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* Education
* What it means to be your own person
* Industriousness
* Humility
* The people's capacity for change
* Poverty among the black population
Chapter 1
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"A Slave Among Slaves": In the first chapter, the reader is given a
vivid yet brief sight of the life of slaves, as seen from the author's
point of view. Basically, it speaks of the hardships the slaves
endured before independence and their joys and hassles (arguments)
after liberty. The first chapter explains about his suffering in that
plantation and the end days of his slavery. The author feels that his
life had its beginning in midst of the most miserable surroundings.
He explains about his living conditions, and how his mother works hard
to make the days end.
Chapter 2
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"Boyhood Days": In the second chapter, the reader learns the
importance of naming oneself as a means of reaffirming freedom and the
extent to which freed men and women would go to reunite their
families. After families had reunited and named themselves, they would
then seek out employment (often far from their former masters). The
reader learns the story behind the author's name: Booker Taliaferro
Washington. The second chapter also gives an account of cruel labour
of both adults and children in the mines at the city of Malden.
Furthermore, Booker is strongly attracted towards education and
oscillates between the extensive schedule of the day's work and the
school. The second chapter also describes the character of Booker's
mother and her role in his life.
Chapter 3
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"The Struggle for Education": Washington struggles, in this chapter,
to earn enough money to reach and remain at Hampton Institute. That
was his first experience related to the importance of willingness to
do manual labor. The first introduction of General Samuel C. Armstrong
Chapter 4
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"Helping Others": Conditions at Hampton are discussed in this chapter,
as well as Washington's first trip home from school. He returns early
from vacation to aid teachers in the cleaning of their classrooms.
When Washington returns the next summer, he is elected to teach local
students, young and old, through a night school, Sunday school, and
private lessons. This chapter also gives the first mention of groups
such as the Ku Klux Klan.
Chapter 5
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"The Reconstruction Period (1867-1878)": Washington paints an image of
the South during Reconstruction Era of the United States, with several
assessments of Reconstruction projects including: education,
vocational opportunities, and voting rights. He speaks of the
Reconstruction policy being built on "a false foundation." He seeks to
play a role in forming a more solid foundation based upon "the hand,
head, and heart."
Chapter 6
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"Black Race and Red Race": General Armstrong calls Washington back to
Hampton Institute for the purpose of instructing and advising a group
of young Native-American men. Washington speaks about different
instances of racism against Native Americans and African Americans.
Washington also begins a night school at this time.
Chapter 7
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"Early Days at Tuskegee": Once again General Armstrong is instrumental
in encouraging Washington's next project: the establishment of a
normal school for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama. He describes
the conditions in Tuskegee and his work in building the school: "much
like making bricks without straw." Washington also outlines a typical
day in the life of an African American living in the country at this
time.
In May 1881, General Armstrong told Washington he had received a
letter from a man in Alabama to recommend someone to take charge of a
"colored school" in Tuskegee. The man writing the letter thought that
there was no "colored" person to fill the role and asked him to
recommend a white man. The general wrote back to tell him about
Washington, and he was accepted for the position.
Washington went there and describes Tuskegee as a town of 2,000
population and as being in the "Black Belt" of the South, where nearly
half of the residents were "colored" and in other parts of nearby
counties there were six African-American people to one white person.
He explains that he thinks the term "Black Belt" originated from the
rich, dark soil of the area, which was also the part of the South
where slaves were most profitable.
Once at Tuskegee, his first task was to find a place to open the
school and secured a rundown "shanty" and African-American Methodist
church. He also travelled around the area and acquainted himself with
the local people. He describes some of the families he met and who
worked in the cotton fields. He saw that most of the farmers were in
debt and schools were generally taught in churches or log cabins and
these had few or no provisions. Some, for example, had no means of
heating in the winter and one school had one book to share between
five children.
He goes on to relate the story of a man aged around 60. He told
Washington he had been sold in 1845 and there had been five of them:
"There were five of us; myself and brother and three mules."
Washington explains he is referring to these experiences to highlight
how improvements were later made.
Chapter 8
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"Teaching School in a Stable and a Hen-house": Washington details the
necessity of a new form of education for the children of Tuskegee, for
the typical New England education would not be sufficient to effect
uplift. Here is also the introduction of long-time partners, George W.
Campbell and Lewis Adams, and future wife, Olivia A. Davidson; these
individuals felt similarly to Washington in that mere book-learning
would not be enough. The goal was established to prepare students of
Tuskegee to become teachers, farmers, and overall moral people.
Washington's first days at Tuskegee are described in this chapter, as
is his method of working. He demonstrates a holistic approach to his
teaching in that he researched the area and the people and how poverty
stricken many were. His visits also showed how education was both a
premium and underfunded, and therefore justifies the setting up of
this new facility.
Tuskegee is also seen to be set in a rural area, where agriculture was
the main form of employment, and so the institute's later incarnation
as an industrial school that was fit for teaching its students skills
for the locale is justified.
He encountered difficulties in setting up the school, which he opened
on July 4, 1881, and this included some opposition from white people
who questioned the value of educating African Americans: "These people
feared the result of education would be that the Negros would leave
the farms, and that it would be difficult to secure them for domestic
service."
He describes how he has depended on the advice of two men in
particular and these were the ones who wrote to General Armstrong
asking for a teacher. One is a white man and a former slave holder
called George W. Campbell. The other is a "black" man and a former
slave called Lewis Adams.
When the school opened they had 30 students and these were divided
roughly equally between the sexes. Many more had wanted to come, but
it had been decided that they must be over 15 and have had some
education already. Many who came were public school teachers and some
were around 40 years of age. The number of pupils increased each week
and there were nearly 50 by the end of the first month.
A co-teacher came at the end of the first six weeks. This was Olivia
A. Davidson and she later became his wife. She had been taught in Ohio
and came South as she had heard of the need for teachers. She is
described as brave in the way she nursed the sick when others would
not (such as caring for a boy with smallpox). She also trained further
at Hampton and then at Massachusetts State Normal School at
Framingham.
She and Washington agreed that the students needed more than a "book
education" and they thought they must show them how to care for their
bodies and how to earn a living after they had left the school. They
tried to educate them in a way that would make them want to stay in
these agricultural districts (rather than leave for the city and be
forced to live by their wits). Many of the students came initially to
study so that they would not have to work with their hands, whereas
Washington aimed for them to be capable of all sorts of labor and to
not be ashamed of it.
Chapter 9
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"Anxious Days and Sleepless Nights": This chapter starts by stating
how the people spent Christmas drinking and having a merry time, and
not bearing in mind the true essence of Christmas. This chapter also
discusses the institute's relationship with the locals of Tuskegee,
the purchase and cultivation of a new farm, the erection of a new
building, and the introduction of several generous donors, mostly
northern. The death of Washington's first wife, Fannie N. Smith, is
announced in this chapter. He had a daughter named Portia.
Chapter 10
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"A Harder Task Than Making Bricks Without Straw": In this chapter,
Washington discusses the importance of having the students erect their
own buildings: "Not a few times, when a new student has been led into
the temptation of marring the looks of some building by lead pencil
marks or by the cuts of a jack-knife, I have heard an old student
remind him: 'Don't do that. That is our building. I helped put it
up.'" The bricks reference in the title refers to the difficulty of
forming bricks without some very necessary tools: money and
experience. Through much labour, the students were able to produce
fine bricks; their confidence then spilled over into other efforts,
such as the building of vehicles.
Chapter 12
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"Raising Money": Washington travels north to secure additional funding
for the institute with which he had much success. Two years after a
meeting with one man, the Institute received a cheque of $10,000 and,
from another couple, a gift of $50,000. Washington felt great pressure
for his school and students to succeed, for failure would reflect
poorly on the ability of the race. It is this time period Washington
begins working with Andrew Carnegie, proving to Carnegie that this
school was worthy of support. Not only did Washington find large
donations helpful, but small loans were key which paid the bills and
gave evidence to the community's faith in this type of education.
Chapter 13
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"Two Thousand Miles for a Five-Minute Speech": Washington marries
again. His new wife is Olivia A. Davidson, first mentioned in Chapter
8. This chapter begins Washington's public speaking career; first at
the National Education Association. His next goal was to speak before
a Southern white audience. His first opportunity was limited by prior
engagements and travel time, leaving him only five minutes to give his
speech. Subsequent speeches were filled with purpose: when in the
North he would be actively seeking funds, when in the South encouraged
"the material and intellectual growth of both races." The result of
one speech was the Atlanta Exposition Speech.
Chapter 14
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"The Atlanta Exposition Address": The speech that Washington gave to
the Atlanta Exposition is printed here in its entirety. He also gives
some explanation of the reaction to his speech: first, delight from
all, then, slowly, a feeling among African Americans that Washington
had not been strong enough in regards to the 'rights' of the race. In
time, however, the African-American public would become, once again,
generally pleased with Washington's goals and methods for
African-American uplift.
Washington also speaks about the African-American clergy. He also
makes a much disputed statement about voting: "I believe it is the
duty of the Negro - as the greater part of the race is already doing -
to deport himself modestly in regard to political claims, depending
upon the slow but sure influences that proceed from the possession of
property, intelligence, and high character for the full recognition of
his political rights. I think that the according of the full exercise
of political rights is going to be a matter of natural, slow growth,
not an over-night, gourd-vine affair. I do not believe that the Negro
should cease voting…but I do believe that in his voting he should more
and more be influenced by those of intelligence and character who are
his next-door neighbors…I do not believe that any state should make a
law that permits an ignorant and poverty-stricken white man to vote,
and prevents a black man in the same condition from voting. Such a law
is not only unjust, but it will react, as all unjust laws do, in time;
for the effect of such a law is to encourage the Negro to secure
education and property. I believe that in time, through the operation
of intelligence and friendly race relations, all cheating at the
ballot box in the South will cease."
Chapter 15
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"The Secret of Success in Public Speaking": Washington speaks again of
the reception of his Atlanta Exposition Speech. He then goes on to
give the reader some advice about public speaking and describes
several memorable speeches.
Chapter 16
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"Europe": The author is married a third time, to Margaret James
Murray. He speaks about his children. At this time, he and his wife
are offered the opportunity to travel to Europe. Mixed emotions
influenced their decision to go: Washington had always dreamed of
traveling to Europe, but he feared the reaction of the people, for so
many times had he seen individuals of his race achieve success and
then turned away from the people. Mr. and Mrs. Washington enjoyed
their trip, especially upon seeing their friend, Henry Tanner, an
African-American artist, being praised by all classes. During their
time abroad, the couple was also able to take tea with both Queen
Victoria and Susan B. Anthony. Upon arriving back in the United
States, Washington was asked to visit Charleston, West Virginia, near
his former home in Malden.
Chapter 17
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"Last Words": Washington describes his last interactions with General
Armstrong and his first with Armstrong's successor, Rev. Dr. Hollis B.
Frissell. The greatest surprise of his life was being invited to
receive an honorary degree from Harvard University, the first awarded
to an African American. Another great honor for Washington and
Tuskegee was the visit of President William McKinley to the institute,
an act which McKinley hoped to impress upon citizens his "interest and
faith in the race." Washington then describes the conditions at
Tuskegee Institute and his resounding hope for the future of the race.
Context
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The America of the 1880s and 1890s was one of white hostility toward
African Americans. There was also the belief that the African-American
race would not have been able to survive without the institution of
slavery. Popular culture played in to the ideas of "black criminality
and moral decline" as can be seen in the characters
Jim_Crow_(character) and Zip Coon. When Washington began his writing
and public speaking, he was fighting the notion that African Americans
were inherently stupid and incapable of civilization. Washington's
primary goal was to impress upon the audience the possibility of
progress. Furthermore, living in the Black Belt, Booker T. Washington
was vulnerable to mob violence and was, therefore, always mindful not
to provoke the mob. As would be expected for a man in such precarious
position, when violence erupted, he tried to stem his talk of equality
and progress so as not to exacerbate the situation.
Lynching in the South at this time was prevalent as mobs of whites
would take the law into their own hands and would torture and murder
of dozens of men and women, including white men. The offenses of the
victims included: "for being victor over a white man in a fight;"
"protecting fugitive from posse;" "stealing seventy-five cents;"
"expressing sympathy for mob's victim;" "for being father of boy who
jostled white women." It is clear that any white person to show
sympathy or offer protection for African-American victims would be
labeled complicit himself and become vulnerable to violence by the
mob. In 1901, Reverend Quincy Ewing of Mississippi charged the press
and pulpit with uniting public sentiment against lynching. Lynching
would continue into the 1950s and
1960s.[
http://www.inmotionaame.org/gallery/detail.cfm?id=580852&type=image&bhcp=1
"Comparative number of lynching for 1906-1907"]. The Schomburg Center:
'In Motion, the African-American Migration Experience'. Accessed April
14, 2012.
Ewing, Reverend Quincy. "How Can Lynching be Checked in the South?"
'The Outlook', October 12, 1901, p. 359.
Fredrickson, George M. "For African Americans, Justice was often at
the End of a Rope: Without Sanctuary; Lynching Photography in
America", 'The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education' no. 28 (July 31,
2000): 123-123.
Some blame Washington's comparatively sheepish message upon a lack of
desire for true African-American uplift. Some, taking into account the
environment in which he was delivering his message, support Washington
for making any public stance at all.
The relationship between Washington and his critics
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Since its publication, according to biographer Louis Harlan, 'Up From
Slavery' has been read as painting Booker T. Washington as both an
"accommodationist and calculating realist seeking to carve out a
viable strategy for black struggle amidst the nadir of race relations
in the United States." While more contemporary ideas of black civil
rights call for a more provocative approach, Washington was certainly
a major figure in his time. Most critiques of him target his
accommodationism, yet his private life was very much aimed at
opposition through funding. The Atlanta Exposition speech shows his
dual nature, giving everyone present something to agree with, no
matter their intention. Washington deserves praise, in the view of
historian Fitzhugh Brundage, for "seeking to be all things to all men
in a multifaceted society."Harlan, Louis R., as quoted in Martin,
Waldo, "In Search of Booker T. Washington: Up From Slavery, History
and Legend." W. Fitzhugh Brundage (ed.), 'Booker T. Washington and
Black Progress: 'Up From Slavery' 100 Years Later' (University Press
of Florida: Gainesville, FL, 2003), 44.
Martin (2003), 39-40, 44. Many do argue against his being
characterized as an accommodationist. For example, biographer Robert
Norrell has written, "He worked too hard to resist and to overcome
white supremacy to call him an accommodationist, even if some of his
white-supremacist southern neighbors so construed some of his
statements. Having conditions forced on him, with threat of
destruction clearly the cost of resistance, does not constitute a fair
definition of accommodation." Historians are thoroughly split over
this characterization.
W. E. B. DuBois initially applauded Washington's stance on racial
uplift. At one point he went as far as to say of the Atlanta
Exposition speech: "here might be a real basis for the settlement
between whites and blacks in the South." DuBois, in his book 'The
Souls of Black Folk', congratulates Washington for accomplishing his
first task, which was to earn the ear of the white southern population
through a spirit of sympathy and cooperation. He also acknowledges the
unstable situation in the south and the necessity for sensitivity to
community feelings, yet he believes that Washington has failed in his
sensitivity to African Americans. DuBois asserts that there are many
educated and successful African Americans who would criticize the work
of Washington, but they are being hushed in such a way as to impede
"democracy and the safeguard of modern society." This is where their
paths would diverge: Washington with his "Tuskegee Machine" and DuBois
with the "Niagara Movement."
In 1905, the Niagara Movement issued a statement enumerating their
demands against oppression and for civil rights. The Movement
established itself as an entity entirely removed from Washington in
conciliation, but rather a new, more radical course of action:
"Through helplessness we may submit, but the voice of protest of ten
million Americans must never cease to assail the ears of their
fellows, so long as America is unjust." For a time, the Movement grew
very successfully, but they lost their effectiveness when chapters
began to disagree with one another. Eventually, the Movement's efforts
translated into the development of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Of course there were other participants in this discussion of the
future of the African-American race, including that of W. H. Thomas,
another African-American man. Thomas believed that African Americans
were "deplorably bad" and that it would require a "miracle" to make
any sort of progress. As in the case of Washington and DuBois,
Washington and Thomas have areas of agreement, though DuBois would not
so agree: that the best chance for an African American was in the
areas of farming and country life. In some respects, it is hard to
compare the two as each has different intentions.
Similarly, Thomas Dixon, author of 'The Clansman' (1905), began a
newspaper controversy with Washington over the industrial system, most
likely to encourage talk of his upcoming book. He characterized the
newfound independence of Tuskegee graduates as inciting competition:
"Competition is war…. What will the [southern white man] do when put
to the test? He will do exactly what his white neighbor in the North
does when the Negro threatens his bread--kill him!"
In popular culture
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In September 2011, a seven-part documentary television and DVD series
was produced by LionHeart FilmWorks and director Kevin Hershberger
using the title 'Up From Slavery'. The 315-minute series is
distributed by Mill Creek Entertainment. This series is not directly
about the Booker T. Washington autobiography 'Up From Slavery', but
tells the story of Black Slavery in America from the first arrival of
African slaves at Jamestown in 1619 to the Civil War and the
ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870, which prohibits the
government from denying a citizen the vote based on race, color, or
previous condition of servitude (i.e., slavery), the third of the
Reconstruction Amendments which finally ended the legitimacy of
slavery in the United States.
See also
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* List of books written by Booker T. Washington
External links
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*Available in PDF, HTML, and MP3 at the
[
http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/title/u/ufs.html Lit2Go project at USF]
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=========
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Slavery
