======================================================================
= The_Tale_of_Genji =
======================================================================
Introduction
======================================================================
is a classic work of Japanese literature written by the noblewoman,
poet, and lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu around the peak of the
Heian period, in the early 11th century. It is one of history's first
novels, the first by a woman to have won global recognition, and in
Japan today has a stature like that of Shakespeare in England.
The work is a depiction of the lifestyles of high courtiers during the
Heian period. It is written mostly in Japanese phonetic script
('hiragana'), in a vernacular style associated with women's writing of
the time (not the same as "vernacular Japanese", which only appeared
in late 19th century), not in Chinese characters ('kanji') used for
more prestigious literature, and its archaic language and poetic style
require specialised study. The original manuscript no longer exists
but there are more than 300 later manuscript copies of varying
reliability. It was made in "concertina" or style: several sheets of
paper pasted together and folded alternately in one direction then the
other. In the early 20th century 'Genji' was translated into modern
Japanese by the poet Akiko Yosano. The first English translation of
'Genji' was made in 1882 by Suematsu Kencho, but was of poor quality
and left incomplete. Arthur Waley translated an almost complete
version which excludes only the 38th chapter (Suzumushi/The Bell
Cricket) between 1925 and 1933. Since then, complete English
translations have been made by Edward Seidensticker, Royall Tyler, and
Dennis Washburn.
The first section, chapters 1-33, center on the early life and amorous
encounters of Hikaru Genji, or "Shining Genji". Genji is the son of
the emperor (known to readers as Emperor Kiritsubo) and a low-ranking
concubine called Kiritsubo Consort. However, for political reasons,
the emperor removes Genji from the line of succession, demoting him to
commoner status by giving him the surname Minamoto. The second
section, chapters 34-41, tell of his old age and death, while the
final section, chapters 42-54, shift to Genji's grandson, Niou, and
supposed son, Kaoru.
Historical context
======================================================================
Murasaki lived at the height of the Fujiwara clan's power. Fujiwara no
Michinaga was the regent in all but name, and the most significant
political figure of his day. Consequently, Murasaki is believed to
have formed the character of Genji partly through her experience of
Michinaga.
'The Tale of Genji' may have been written chapter by chapter, as
Murasaki delivered installments to aristocratic women
(ladies-in-waiting). It has many elements found in a modern novel: a
central character and a large number of major and minor characters,
well-developed characterization of the major players, a sequence of
events covering the central character's lifetime and beyond. There is
no specified plot, but events play out and characters grow older.
Despite a 'dramatis personæ' of some four hundred characters, it
maintains internal consistency; for instance, all characters age in
step, and both family and feudal relationships stay intact throughout.
Almost none of the characters in the original text are given an
explicit name. They are instead referred to by their function or role
(e.g. Minister of the Left), an honorific (e.g. His Excellency), or
their relation to other characters (e.g. Heir Apparent), which changes
as the novel progresses. This lack of names stems from Heian-era court
manners that would have made it unacceptably familiar and blunt to
freely mention a person's given name. Modern readers and translators
have used various nicknames to keep track of the many characters.
Murasaki Shikibu:
===================
Murasaki Shikibu was one of the most famous authors of Heian Japan.
Murasaki was born into the powerful Fujiwara clan and was better
educated than most women at that time. She was skilled in classical
Chinese literature which was a domain of learning reserved for men.
Her early training in Chinese and Japanese literature helped shape her
narrative technique. She was able to speak elegantly having been
exposed to more than just the standard education available to women of
her day. This is especially apparent in her ability to create
psychologically rich characters and to incorporate sophisticated
courtly relationships into her work.
-->
Authorship
======================================================================
There is debate over how much of 'Genji' was actually written by
Murasaki Shikibu. Debates over the novel's authorship have gone on for
centuries, and are unlikely to ever be settled unless some major
archival discovery is made.
It is generally accepted that the tale was finished in its present
form by 1021, when the author of the wrote a diary entry about her
joy at acquiring a complete copy of the tale. She writes that there
are over 50 chapters and mentions a character introduced at the end of
the work, so if other authors besides Murasaki did work on the tale,
the work was finished very near to the time of her writing. Murasaki's
own diary includes a reference to the tale, and indeed the application
to herself of the name 'Murasaki' in an allusion to the main female
character. That entry confirms that some if not all of the diary was
available in 1008 when internal evidence convincingly suggests that
the entry was written.
Murasaki is said to have written the character of Genji based on the
Minister on the Left at the time she was at court. Other translators,
such as Tyler, believe the character Murasaki no Ue, whom Genji
marries, is based on Murasaki Shikibu herself.
Yosano Akiko, who made the first modern Japanese translation of
'Genji', believed that Murasaki had written only chapters 1 to 33, and
that chapters 35 to 54 were written by her daughter, Daini no Sanmi.
Other scholars have also doubted the authorship of chapters 42 to 54,
particularly 44, which contains continuity mistakes (in the rest of
the book such mistakes are rare). Royall Tyler writes that computer
analysis has turned up "statistically significant" discrepancies of
style between chapters 45-54 and the rest, and also among the early
chapters.
The Heian Court and Women:
============================
The Heian period had strict societal roles, especially for women. The
aristocratic women were supposed to be beautiful and charming and left
out of the political process having to stay in their quarters. Because
of their limitations, poetry, calligraphy, and letter writing, became
very important tools in their interaction and control of society as it
acted as a means of expression for them.
High-ranking women had a lot of influence through marriage,
sponsorship of art and literature, and their intelligence. However,
the court and the role of women in the court were criticized by many
including Murasaki Shikibu who in her diary wrote that gender
expectations, the gendered spatiality, and the gendered social
competition that oppressed women.
These themes can also be seen in The Tale of Genji, especially in its
female characters, such as Murasaki and the Rokujō Lady. Both of these
characters experience the frustrations of being trapped in the gender
roles that the court demanded of them. They suffer from the emotional
consequences of these constraints.
Murasaki Shikibu’s work allows readers to get a perspective on the
Heian way of life and offers a critical perspective on the gender
relations of the society through a female lens. The ability to write
about personal experience in a dictionary way makes The Tale of Genji
not only a great work of fiction, but also an important historical
text that gives us insight into the gender relations, beauty, and
politics of the Heian court.
Gender and Marriage in The Tale of Genji
==========================================
Marriage as a Political Tool:
The Tale of Genji shows how gender roles and marriage practices were
seen in the Heian period. The story gives a number of examples of
different relationships which demonstrate how marriage and social
status influenced both personal and political interactions.
In the Heian court, marriage was often used as a way of achieving
political power. The Fujiwara clan was known for marrying their
daughters to the imperial family to guarantee and increase their
position. These women, who were often highly educated in the arts and
culture, to be as suitable as possible. These educated women would be
chosen because the wife played a very important role in representing
their family’s political interests.
This practice is also evident in The Tale of Genji as many of Genji’s
relationships are driven by politics. His marriage to Aoi, the
daughter of the Minister of the Left, raises his family’s standing.
They have a strangely distant relationship, most likely because the
marriage was for status. It makes sense that Genji looks outside his
marriage on various affairs because of this.
Genji himself has a lot of influence in the imperial court, being the
son of an emperor and a low-ranking consort. His affair with
Fujitsubo, his stepmother and the wife of the emperor, resulted in the
birth of Emperor Reizei, a situation that could threaten the stability
of the throne. This shows the fragility of court relationships and the
dangers of uncontrolled romantic interests.
Women’s Role in Marriage and Society:
Women in the Heian court had a very limited say in who they married
since their parents or other male relatives made the decisions for
them. The women were married into the imperial families to ensure
political power. Social mobility was based on marrying the daughter
off to a powerful family and having family support and backing.
Kiritsubo, Genji’s mother, has a child with the emperor which raises
her family’s status similar to the Akashi Lady and her daughter
towards the end of the story. However, the Akashi Lady feels that she
has no place in court life because of her provincial background and
the strict social hierarchy which.
Women often are taken advantage of or forced into situations in The
Tale of Genji. Murasaki is taken from her parents at a young age and
groomed to be the perfect wife for Genji. There are also mentions of
rape and other disturing situations like the situation with the Third
Princess where women are taken advantage of. On a different note, many
other women throughout the story who used to be powerful, suffer from
emotional problems when she loses her social status. The Rokujō Lady’s
anger manifest in the supernatural possession of her body, which shows
the emotional torture of women who have no control over their lives.
Beauty Standards and Female Identity:
Beauty standards in the Heian period also helped in the construction
of female identity. The ideal woman besides what was talked about in
'The Rainy Night Critique' was petite and had long, shiny black hair,
a pale complexion, and had blackened teeth. They wore many layers of
robes in different colors depending on the occasion.
However, beauty was not only about physical appearance. Men also
looked for women with skills in poetry, handwriting and good manners.
These skills were important to high-class men when determining their
partner, which meant that women were assessed based on their aesthetic
and artistic contributions and not just their intelligence or
personality.
Murasaki Shikibu’s 'The Tale of Genji' gives an important insight into
marriage and gender roles in the Heian aristocracy from the female
perspective. Although women could sometimes gain some influence
through cultural activities and good connections, they were still
controlled by society. The novel depicts women as appreciated for
their beauty and artistic talents but are mainly controlled by men.
The gendered power dynamics in 'The Tale of Genji' are explained which
presents a clear picture of the restricted freedoms available to Heian
women.
-->
Plot
======================================================================
Genji's mother dies when he is three years old, and the Emperor cannot
forget her. The Emperor Kiritsubo then hears of a woman (Lady
Fujitsubo), formerly a princess of the preceding emperor, who
resembles his deceased concubine, and later she becomes one of his
wives. Genji loves her first as a stepmother, but later as a woman,
and they fall in love with each other. Genji is frustrated by his
forbidden love for the Lady Fujitsubo and is on bad terms with his own
wife (Aoi no Ue, the Lady Aoi). He engages in a series of love affairs
with many other women. These are however unfulfilling, as in most
cases his advances are rebuffed, or his lover dies suddenly, or he
becomes bored.
Genji visits Kitayama, a rural hilly area north of Kyoto, where he
finds a beautiful ten-year-old girl. He is fascinated by this little
girl (Murasaki no Ue), and discovers that she is a niece of the Lady
Fujitsubo. Finally he kidnaps her, brings her to his own palace and
educates her to be like the Lady Fujitsubo, who is his womanly ideal.
During this time Genji also meets Lady Fujitsubo secretly, and she
bears his son, Reizei. Everyone except the two lovers believes the
father of the child is the Emperor Kiritsubo. Later the boy becomes
the Crown Prince and Lady Fujitsubo becomes the Empress, but Genji and
Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep the child's true parentage secret.
Genji and his wife, Lady Aoi, reconcile. She gives birth to a son but
dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful but finds consolation in Murasaki,
whom he marries. Genji's father, the Emperor Kiritsubo, dies. He is
succeeded by his son Suzaku, whose mother (Kokiden), together with
Kiritsubo's political enemies, take power in the court. Then another
of Genji's secret love affairs is exposed: Genji and a concubine of
the Emperor Suzaku are discovered while meeting in secret. The Emperor
Suzaku confides his personal amusement at Genji's exploits with the
woman (Oborozukiyo), but is duty-bound to punish Genji even though he
is his half-brother. He exiles Genji to the town of Suma in rural
Harima Province (now part of Kobe in Hyōgo Prefecture). There, a
prosperous man known as the Akashi Novice (because he is from Akashi
in Settsu Province) entertains Genji, and Genji has an affair with
Akashi's daughter. She gives birth to Genji's only daughter, who will
later become the Empress.
In the capital, the Emperor Suzaku is troubled by dreams of his late
father, Kiritsubo, and something begins to affect his eyes. Meanwhile,
his mother, Kokiden, grows ill, which weakens her influence over the
throne, and leads to the Emperor ordering Genji to be pardoned. Genji
returns to Kyoto. His son by Lady Fujitsubo, Reizei, becomes the
emperor. The new Emperor Reizei knows Genji is his real father, and
raises Genji's rank to the highest possible.
However, when Genji turns 40 years old, his life begins to decline.
His political status does not change, but his love and emotional life
begin to incrementally diminish as middle age takes hold. He marries
another wife, the Third Princess (known as Onna san no miya in the
Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's). Genji's nephew,
Kashiwagi, later forces himself on the Third Princess, and she bears
Kaoru (who, in a similar situation to that of Reizei, is legally known
as the son of Genji). Genji's new marriage changes his relationship
with Murasaki, who had expressed her wish of becoming a nun () though
the wish was rejected by Genji.
Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the following chapter,
("Illusion"), Genji contemplates how fleeting life is. The next
chapter is titled ("Vanished into the Clouds"), which is left blank,
but implies the death of Genji.
Chapter 45-54 are known as the "Uji Chapters". These chapters follow
Kaoru and his best friend, Niou. Niou is an imperial prince, the son
of Genji's daughter, the current Empress now that Reizei has abdicated
the throne, while Kaoru is known to the world as Genji's son but is in
fact fathered by Genji's nephew. The chapters involve Kaoru and Niou's
rivalry over several daughters of an imperial prince who lives in Uji,
a place some distance away from the capital. The tale ends abruptly,
with Kaoru wondering if Niou is hiding Kaoru's former lover away from
him. Kaoru has sometimes been called the first anti-hero in
literature.
Completion
======================================================================
The tale has an abrupt ending. Opinions vary on whether this was
intended by the author. Arthur Waley, who made the first English
translation of the whole of 'The Tale of Genji', believed that the
work as we have it was finished. Ivan Morris, however, author of 'The
World of the Shining Prince', believed that it was not complete and
that later chapters were missing. Edward Seidensticker, who made the
second translation of the 'Genji', believed that Murasaki Shikibu had
not had a planned story structure with an ending as such but would
simply have continued writing as long as she could.
Literary context
======================================================================
Because it was written to entertain the Japanese court of the 11th
century, the work presents many difficulties to modern readers. First
and foremost, Murasaki's language, Heian-period court Japanese, was
highly inflected and had very complex grammar. Another problem is that
almost none of the characters are named within the work. Instead, the
narrator refers to men often by their rank or their station in life,
and to women often by the color of their clothing, or by the words
used at a meeting, or by the rank of a prominent male relative. This
results in different appellations for the same character, depending on
the chapter.
In the Heian period 'monogatari' meant prose fiction in the vernacular
of the time (not the same as the "vernacular Japanese" as it is known
in the present, which is intelligible to modern Japanese), which was
suitable only to women and children who could not read Chinese, the
official language of government and religion. 'Genji' was written
mostly in kana (Japanese phonetic script), specifically hiragana, and
not in kanji. Writing in kanji was at the time a masculine pursuit.
Women were generally discreet when using kanji, confining themselves
mostly to native Japanese words ().
Another aspect is the importance of poetry in conversations. Modifying
or rephrasing a classic poem according to the current situation was
expected behavior in Heian court life, and often served to communicate
thinly veiled allusions. The poems in the 'Genji' are often in the
classic Japanese form. Many of the poems were well known to the
intended audience, so usually only the first few lines are given, and
the reader is supposed to complete the thought themselves, leaving the
rest - which the reader would be expected to know - unspoken.
Outside of vocabulary related to politics and Buddhism, 'Genji'
contains remarkably few Chinese loan words (). This has the effect of
giving the story a very even smooth flow. However it also introduces
confusion: there are a number of homophones (words with the same
pronunciation but different meanings); and for modern readers context
is not always sufficient to determine which meaning was intended.
Outline
=========
The novel is traditionally divided into three parts, the first two
dealing with the life of Genji and the last with the early years of
two of Genji's prominent descendants, Niou and Kaoru. There are also
several short transitional chapters which are usually grouped
separately and whose authorships are sometimes questioned.
# Genji's rise and fall
## Youth, chapters 1-33: Love, romance, and exile
## Success and setbacks, chapters 34-41: A taste of power and the
death of his beloved wife
# The transition (chapters 42-44): Very short episodes following
Genji's death
# Uji, chapters 45-54: Genji's official and secret descendants, Niou
and Kaoru
The 54th and last chapter, "The Floating Bridge of Dreams", is
sometimes argued by modern scholars to be a separate part from the Uji
part. It seems to continue the story from the previous chapters but
has an unusually abstract chapter title. It is the only chapter whose
title has no clear reference within the text, although this may be due
to the chapter being unfinished. This question is made more difficult
by the fact that we do not know exactly when the chapters acquired
their titles.
List of chapters
==================
The English translations here are taken from the Arthur Waley, the
Edward Seidensticker, the Royall Tyler, and the Dennis Washburn
translations. It is not known for certain when the chapters acquired
their titles. Early mentions of the Tale refer to chapter numbers, or
contain alternate titles for some of the chapters. This may suggest
that the titles were added later. The titles are largely derived from
poetry that is quoted within the text, or allusions to various
characters.
|- ! Chapter ! Japanese ! Waley ! Seidensticker ! Tyler
! Washburn |- | 01 | | "Kiritsubo" | "The Paulownia Court"
| "The Paulownia Pavilion" | "The Lady of the Paulownia-Courtyard
Chambers" |- | 02 | | colspan="3" align="center"| "The
Broom-Tree" | "Broom Cypress" |- | 03 | | "Utsusemi" |
"The Shell of the Locust" | "The Cicada Shell" | "A Molted Cicada
Shell" |- | 04 | | "Yugao" | "Evening Faces" | "The
Twilight Beauty" | "The Lady of the Evening Faces" |- | 05 |
| "Murasaki" | "Lavender" | "Young Murasaki" | "Little Purple
Gromwell" |- | 06 | | "The Saffron-Flower" | colspan="3"
align="center"| "The Safflower" |- | 07 | | "The Festival of
Red Leaves" | "An Autumn Excursion" | "Beneath the Autumn Leaves"
| "An Imperial Celebration of Autumn Foliages" |- | 08 | |
"The Flower Feast" | "The Festival of the Cherry Blossoms" |
"Under the Cherry Blossoms" | "A Banquet Celebrating Cherry
Blossoms" |- | 09 | | "Aoi" | "Heartvine" |
"Heart-to-Heart" | "Leaves of Wild Ginger" |- | 10 | |
colspan="2" align="center"| "The Sacred Tree" | "The Green Branch"
| "A Branch of Sacred Evergreens" |- | 11 | | "The Village of
Falling Flowers" | "The Orange Blossoms" | "Falling Flowers" |
"The Lady at the Villa of Scattering Orange Blossoms" |- | 12 |
{{Nihongo 須磨|Suma}
| "Exile at Suma"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "Suma"
| "Exile to Suma"
|-
| 13
|
| colspan="3" align="center"| "Akashi"
| "The Lady at Akashi"
|-
| 14
|
| "The Flood Gauge"
| "Channel Buoys"
| "The Pilgrimage to Sumiyoshi"
| "Channel Markers"
|-
| 15
|
| "The Palace in the Tangled Woods"
| "The Wormwood Patch"
| "A Waste of Weeds"
| "A Ruined Villa of Tangled Gardens"
|-
| 16
|
| "A Meeting at the Frontier"
| "The Gatehouse"
| "At the Pass"
| "The Barrier Gate"
|-
| 17
|
| "The Picture Competition"
| "A Picture Contest"
| "The Picture Contest"
| "A Contest of Illustrations"
|-
| 18
|
| "The Wind in the Pine-Trees"
| "The Wind in the Pines"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "Wind in the Pines"
|-
| 19
|
| "A Wreath of Cloud"
| "A Rack of Clouds"
| "Wisps of Cloud"
| "A Thin Veil of Clouds"
|-
| 20
|
| "Asagao"
| "The Morning Glory"
| "The Bluebell"
| "Bellflowers"
|-
| 21
|
| colspan="2" align="center"| "The Maiden"
| "The Maidens"
| "Maidens of the Dance"
|-
| 22
|
| "Tamakatsura"
| "The Jewelled Chaplet"
| "The Tendril Wreath"
| "A Lovely Garland"
|-
| 23
|
| "The First Song of the Year"
| "The First Warbler"
| "The Warbler's First Song"
| "First Song of Spring"
|-
| 24
|
| "The Butterflies"
| colspan="3" align="center"| "Butterflies"
|-
| 25
|
| "The Glow-Worm"
| "Fireflies"
| "The Fireflies"
| "Fireflies"
|-
| 26
|
| "A Bed of Carnations"
| "Wild Carnation"
| "The Pink"
| "Wild Pinks"
|-
| 27
|
| "The Flares"
| "Flares"
| "The Cressets"
| "Cresset Fires"
|-
| 28
|
| colspan="3" align="center"| "The Typhoon"
| "An Autumn Tempest"
|-
| 29
|
| "The Royal Visit"
| "The Royal Outing"
| "The Imperial Progress"
| "An Imperial Excursion"
|-
| 30
|
| "Blue Trousers"
| "Purple Trousers"
| "Thoroughwort Flowers"
| "Mistflowers"
|-
| 31
|
| "Makibashira"
| "The Cypress Pillar"
| "The Handsome Pillar"
| "A Beloved Pillar of Cypress"
|-
| 32
|
| "The Spray of Plum-Blossom"
| "A Branch of Plum"
| "The Plum Tree Branch"
| "A Branch of Plum"
|-
| 33
|
| "Fuji no Uraba"
| "Wisteria Leaves"
| "New Wisteria Leaves"
| "Shoots of Wisteria Leaves"
|-
| 34
|
| "Wakana, Part I"
| "New Herbs, Part I"
| "Spring Shoots I"
| "Early Spring Greens: Part 1"
|-
| 35
|
| "Wakana, Part II"
| "New Herbs, Part II"
| "Spring Shoots II"
| "Early Spring Greens: Part 2"
|-
| 36
|
| "Kashiwagi"
| colspan="3" align="center"| "The Oak Tree"
|-
| 37
|
| colspan="3" align="center"| "The Flute"
| "The Transverse Flute"
|-
| 38
|
| (omitted)
| colspan="2" align="center"| "The Bell Cricket"
| "Bell Crickets"
|-
| 39
|
| "Yugiri"
| colspan="3" align="center"| "Evening Mist"
|-
| 40
|
| "The Law"
| "Rites"
| "The Law"
| "Rites of Sacred Law"
|-
| 41
|
| "Mirage"
| "The Wizard"
| "The Seer"
| "Spirit Summoner"
|-
| X
|
| colspan="2" align="center"|
| "Vanished into the Clouds"
|
|-
| 42
|
| "Niou"
| "His Perfumed Highness"
| "The Perfumed Prince"
| "The Fragrant Prince"
|-
| 43
|
| "Kobai"
| "The Rose Plum"
| "Red Plum Blossoms"
| "Red Plum"
|-
| 44
|
| colspan="4" align="center"| "Bamboo River"
|-
| 45
|
| "The Bridge Maiden"
| "The Lady at the Bridge"
| "The Maiden of the Bridge"
| "The Divine Princess at Uji Bridge"
|-
| 46
|
| "At the Foot of the Oak-Tree"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "Beneath the Oak"
| "At the Foot of the Oak Tree"
|-
| 47
|
| "Agemaki"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "Trefoil Knots"
| "A Bowknot Tied in Maiden's Loops"
|-
| 48
|
| "Fern-Shoots"
| "Early Ferns"
| "Bracken Shoots"
| "Early Fiddlehead Greens"
|-
| 49
|
| "The Mistletoe"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "The Ivy"
| "Trees Encoiled in Vines of Ivy"
|-
| 50
|
| "The Eastern House"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "The Eastern Cottage"
| "A Hut in the Eastern Provinces"
|-
| 51
|
| "Ukifune"
| "A Boat upon the Waters"
| "A Drifting Boat"
| "A Boat Cast Adrift"
|-
| 52
|
| "The Gossamer-Fly"
| "The Drake Fly"
| "The Mayfly"
| "Ephemerids"
|-
| 53
|
| "Writing-Practice"
| "The Writing Practice"
| "Writing Practice"
| "Practising Calligraphy"
|-
| 54
|
| "The Bridge of Dreams"
| colspan="2" align="center"| "The Floating Bridge of Dreams"
| "A Floating Bridge in a Dream"
|}
The additional chapter between 41 and 42 in some manuscripts is called
which means "Vanished into the Clouds"--the chapter is a title only,
and is probably intended to evoke Genji's death. Some scholars have
posited the earlier existence of a chapter between 1 and 2 which would
have introduced some characters that seem to appear very abruptly in
the book as it stands.
The Waley translation completely omits the 38th chapter.
Later authors have composed additional chapters, most often either
between 41 and 42, or after the end.
The Supernatural and Spirituality in The Tale of Genji
========================================================
The Tale of Genji contains many supernatural elements and Buddhist
themes which are characteristic of the Heian period. The Heian
aristocrats lived alongside spirits, omens, and karma were a part of
people’s lives.
One of the most significant supernatural aspects of the novel is the
possession of Lady Aoi by the spirit of the Rokujō Lady who was
jealous and wanted to take her revenge. This incident corresponds to
the Heian ideas of mono no ke, the spirits of the dead who could
torment the living, and the spirits were said to appear when the
person was overcome by strong feelings (Shirane 2008). The Rokujō
Lady, a woman who was once proud and powerful, is heartbroken by
Genji’s neglect. Genji believes that The Rokujō Lady’s anger and
despair was forced onto Aoi, turning into a spirit that leads to Aoi’s
death. Her spirit returns in later chapters like in The Barrier Gate
as a lingering reminder of the harm jealousy and resentment can cause
and manifest into.
The possession scene is not only significant in terms of the story of
the novel but also demonstrates the psychological effects of
uncontrollable, internalized emotions in a culture where women had no
say. The idea that emotions could take on a supernatural form in the
Heian belief system seems to indicate an understanding of the power of
inner thoughts and feelings from a cultural point of view.
Exile and Religious Vows
==========================
A sort of cleansing for wrongdoings seems to be a common theme seen
throughout the story. In chapter 12 of 'The Tale of Genji', Genji
sends himself into exile at Suma after he feels he deserves
consequences of his actions. His affair with Fujitsubo and the birth
of an illegitimate son and Oborozukiyo, were key reasons for his
exile. Interestingly, Genji exiling himself prevented others from
exiling him, as he sent himself to Suma, not too far away from the
capital.
Although his exile is attributed to the strife at court, it gives him
a way to step back from the impact of the actions he has taken without
having to deal with the moral repercussions of those actions. He is
taken away from the capital and his authority is taken from him, and
he is left to think. Unlike all the women in the story who have to
become nuns for the rest of their lives in order to repent for their
sins, Genji’s exile is not permanent. Two years later, he is able to
return to the capital after a storm he believed was calling him. This
indicates that for males, exile can be a period of atonement and a way
of coming back to the world instead of being expelled from it, as is
the case with women.
Characters like Fujitsubo and Lady Rokujō flee permanently from the
world through religious vows, using this opportunity to free
themselves from the sins they have committed. The feeling of guilt
overwhelms Fujitsubo, who has sinned by engaging in an affair with
Genji and has tried to cover up the fact that her son is the heir to
the throne. Fujitsubo’s exit is final as she removes her attachment
with the world. Similarly, Lady Rokujō does not really take vows, but
she is eaten up with envy and regret, and decides to leave the
courtlife behind. Fujitsubo and Lady Rokujō’s stories show the
distinction between how women handle ethical failures in Heian
society.
-->
Manuscripts
======================================================================
The original manuscript written by Murasaki Shikibu no longer exists.
According to Ikeda Kikan, some 300 later manuscript copies exist with
differences between each. Murasaki often went back and edited early
manuscripts introducing discrepancies from earlier copies.
The manuscripts are classified into three categories:
*
*
*
In the 13th century, Minamoto no Chikayuki and Fujiwara Teika made two
major attempts to edit and revise the differing manuscripts. The
Chikayuki manuscript is known as the ; edits were many beginning in
1236 and completing in 1255. The Teika manuscript is known as the ;
its edits are more conservative and thought to better represent the
original. These two manuscripts were used as the basis for many future
copies.
The category represents all other manuscripts not belonging to either
or . This includes older but incomplete manuscripts, mixed manuscripts
derived from both and , and commentaries.
On 10 March 2008, it was announced that a late Kamakura period
(1192-1333) manuscript had been found in Kyoto, containing the sixth
chapter, ; the manuscript was 65 pages in length. Most remaining
manuscripts are based on copies of the Teika manuscript which
introduced revisions in the original; this manuscript, however,
belongs to a different lineage and was not influenced by Teika.
Professor Yamamoto Tokurō, who examined the manuscript, said, "This is
a precious discovery as Kamakura manuscripts are so rare." Professor
Katō Yōsuke said, "This is an important discovery as it asserts that
non-Teika manuscripts were being read during the Kamakura period."
On 29 October 2008, Konan Women's University announced that a
mid-Kamakura period manuscript had been found,
containing the 32nd chapter, . The manuscript was recognized as the
oldest extant copy of this chapter, dating to between 1240 and 1280.
The manuscript, considered to be of the category, is 74 pages in
length and differs from manuscripts in at least four places, raising
the "possibility that the contents may be closer to the undiscovered
Murasaki Shikibu original manuscript".
On 9 October 2019, authorities announced that an original copy of
Teika's had been found in Tokyo at the home of the current head of
the Okochi-Matsudaira clan, who ran the Yoshida Domain. The manuscript
is the 5th chapter, , and is the oldest version of the chapter. Blue
ink common in Teika's manuscript and handwriting analysis confirmed
that the manuscript was written by Teika, making it among the 5
original versions of the known to exist.
Illustrated scrolls
======================================================================
Numerous illustrations of scenes from 'Genji' have been produced, most
notably a 12th-century scroll, the , containing illustrated scenes
from 'Genji' together with handwritten text. This scroll is the
earliest extant example of a Japanese "picture scroll": collected
illustrations and calligraphy of a single work. The original scroll
is believed to have comprised 10-20 rolls and covered all 54 chapters.
The extant pieces include only 19 illustrations and 65 pages of text,
plus nine pages of fragments. This is estimated at 15% of the
envisioned original.
The Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya has three of the scrolls handed down
in the Owari branch of the Tokugawa clan and one scroll held by the
Hachisuka family is now in the Gotoh Museum in Tokyo. The scrolls are
designated National Treasures of Japan. The scrolls are so fragile
that they normally are not shown in public. The original scrolls in
the Tokugawa Museum were shown from 21 November to 29 November in
2009. Since 2001, they have been displayed in the Tokugawa Museum
annually for around one week in November. An oversize English
photoreproduction and translation was published in limited edition in
1971 by Kodansha International.
Other notable illustrated scrolls of 'Genji' are by Tosa Mitsuoki, who
lived from 1617 to 1691. His paintings are closely based on Heian
style from the existing scrolls from the 12th century and are fully
complete. The tale was also a popular theme in ukiyo-e prints from the
Edo period.
Genji and Tō no Chūjō:
========================
Tō no Chūjō and Genji have a very complex relationship throughout the
story, especially in relationships with women. They have been around
each other for the entire story and grow up together. The Rainy Night
Critique is a key moment between the two men as they discuss what the
ideal woman is, which gives the reader insight into how these two
characters view love and courtship. Tō no Chūjō is the embodiment of
the conventional male aristocrat, while Genji is often something of a
rebel, looking for love that goes beyond the political. Their
friendship is shown in parts of the story like when Tō no Chūjō visits
Genji in Suma. However, readers can tell that there is a rivalry
between the two which is over rank and prestige. Tō no Chūjō seems to
be jealous of Genji with his good looks, charisma, and power he
possesses.
Genji and Murasaki:
Murasaki is one of the important women in Genji’s life; however, their
relationship is also very complex. Genji meets Wakamuraksaki at a very
young age, she is ten years younger than Genji and he grooms her to be
his wife. Wakamurasaki is Genji’s second wife following the death of
Aoi. Their relationship reveals the Heian court society and values in
which women had almost no say. Murasaki and Genji grew closer as they
grew older with Muraskai showing her emotions towards him especially
during Genji’s exile. She was miserable when he was unfaithful to her
which ultimately led to her death. Her story is significant because it
shows how romantic relationships in the Heian court worked.
Genji and Fujitsubo:
The relationship between Genji and Fujitsubo, his stepmother, is one
of many relationships throughout the story that is disturbing. Their
secret affair ends up in the birth of an imperial prince, Emperor
Reizei who becomes the future emperor. This relationship reveals
Genji’s impulsive and careless nature but also could become a major
problem if people found out the child was not of the emperor himself
because it controlled political power.
This affair led to Fujitsubo taking affairs in order to protect
herself, Genji, and more importantly her child. Fujitubo had much
guilt and regret while Genji seemed more carefree towards the affair,
again showing the gender imbalance in Heian Japan especially in love
affairs.
Genji and the Rokujō Lady:
============================
The Rokujō Lady is one of the most interesting characters in the novel
from a spiritual point of view. She is one of the many ladies that
Genji is seeing. In chapter 9 of the tale, she realizes her position
in Genji’s life when her carriage is ignored and pushed aside to make
room for Genji’s wife, Aoi at the Kamo festival. The Rokujō Lady
returns throughout the story as her jealous spirit lingers and attacks
and kills Lady Aoi. Her spirit comes back later in the story as a
reminder or jealousy. The supernatural element of her jealousy shows
how much a character can be consumed by anger and how it can lead to
supernatural occurrences in the story that represent the consequences
of love and status.
-->
Japanese
==========
'The Tale of Genji' was written in an archaic court language, and a
century after its completion it was difficult to read without
specialized study. Annotated and illustrated versions existed as early
as the 12th century. It was not until the early 20th century that
'Genji' was translated into modern Japanese by the poet Akiko Yosano.
Translations into modern Japanese have made it easier to read though
changed some meaning, and has given names to the characters, usually
the traditional names used by academics. This gives rise to
anachronisms; for instance, Genji's first wife is named Aoi because
she is known as the lady of the Aoi chapter, in which she dies.
Other known translations were done by the novelists Jun'ichirō
Tanizaki and Fumiko Enchi.
Because of the cultural differences, reading an annotated version of
the 'Genji' is quite common, even among Japanese readers. There are
several annotated versions by novelists, including Seiko Tanabe,
Jakucho Setouchi and Osamu Hashimoto. Many works, including a manga
series and different television dramas, are derived from 'The Tale of
Genji'. There have been at least five manga adaptations of 'Genji'. A
manga version was created by Waki Yamato, ('The Tale of Genji' in
English), and a current version by Sugimura Yoshimitsu is in progress.
Another manga, , by Miyako Maki, won the Shogakukan Manga Award in
1989.
Other than English
====================
In addition to the translations into modern Japanese mentioned above.
* French: René Sieffert. 1977. 'Le Dit Du Genji'. Paris: Publications
orientalistes de France.
* German:
** Herberth E. Herlitschka: 'Die Geschichte vom Prinzen Genji, wie sie
geschrieben wurde um das Jahr Eintausend unserer Zeitrechnung von
Murasaki, genannt Shikibu, Hofdame der Kaiserin von Japan.' 2
volumes. Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1937. (numerous new editions).
Translated from Waley.
**Oscar Benl. 'Die Geschichte Vom Prinzen Genji.' (Zürich: Manesse
Verl, Manesse-Bibliothek Der Weltliteratur : Corona-Reihe Vollst.
Ausg, 1966; 1992).
* Hindi: लेखिका, मुरासाकी शिकाबू ; अनुवादक, छविनाथ पाण्डेय ; भूमिका,
महामहिम सेजिरा योशिज़ावा., et al. गेंजीकी कहानी : जापानी साहित्यका
उत्कृष्टतम उपन्यास. , Translated by पाण्डेय, छबिनाथ and Chabinātha
Pāṇḍeya, Prathama Hindī saṃskaraṇa, साहित्य अकादेमी की ओरसे ज्ञानमण्डल
लिमिटेड, 1957.
* Italian: 'La storia di Genji', (Torin: Einaudi, 2012) ISBN
978-88-06-14690-0. The first translation from the Japanese rather than
from Waley, including all 54 chapters.
* Korean: 柳呈譯., 紫式部, Chŏng Yu, Yu Chŏng, '源氏物語'. (Seoul: T’ŭkpyŏlsi:
乙西文化社 1982)
* Spanish: Fernando Gutiérrez. 'Genji Monogatari' = Romance de Genji.
Lunas, 1992.
* Urdu: لىڈى موراساکى ؛ مترجم، سيد احتشام حسىن., et al. 'گنجى کى کهانى
: ناول', Translated by حسىن، سيد احتشام، Sayyid Iḥtishām Ḥusain, بک
ٹائم،, 2020.
Selected English translations
===============================
The first partial translation of 'Genji' into English was by Suematsu
Kenchō, published in 1882. Arthur Waley published a six-volume
translation of all but one chapter, with the first volume published in
1925 and the last in 1933. In 1976, Edward Seidensticker published the
first complete translation into English, made using a self-consciously
"stricter" approach with regards to content if not form. The English
translation published in 2001 by Royall Tyler aims at fidelity in
content and form to the original text.
The major translations into English are slightly different, reflecting
the choices of the translator and the period in which the translation
was made. Each version has its merits, its detractors and its
advocates, and each is distinguished by the name of the translator.
For example, the version translated by Arthur Waley would typically be
referred to as "the Waley 'Genji'".
* The Suematsu 'Genji' (1882) - Suematsu's 'Genji' was the first
translation into English, but is considered of poor quality and is not
often read today. It includes seventeen of the chapters.
* The Waley 'Genji' (1925-1933) - Waley's 'Genji' is considered a
great achievement for his time, although some purists have criticized
Waley's changes to the original. Others have criticized as overly-free
the manner in which Waley translated the original text. Regardless, it
continues to be well-appreciated and widely read today. When the Waley
'Genji' was first published, it was eagerly received. For example,
'Time' explained that "the reviewers' floundering tributes indicate
something of its variegated appeal. In limpid prose The Tale combines
curiously modern social satire with great charm of narrative.
Translator Waley has done service to literature in salvaging to the
Occident this masterpiece of the Orient." The translation omits the
38th chapter completely.
* The Seidensticker 'Genji' (1976) - Seidensticker's 'Genji' is an
attempt to correct what were perceived to have been Waley's failings
without necessarily making his translation obsolete. Seidensticker
hews more closely to the original text, but in the interests of
readability, he takes some liberties. For example, he identifies most
of the characters by name so that the narrative can be more easily
followed by a broad-based audience of Western readers. (In 2008, a
4,400-page Braille version of the Seidensticker 'Genji' was completed.
This Braille edition was the product of five Japanese housewives from
Setagaya, Tokyo, working voluntarily for five years and was
subsequently donated to the and the Library of Congress. It is also
available for download.)
* The McCullough 'Genji' (1994) - A selection from ten chapters of
'The Tale of Genji' along with selections from 'The Tale of the
Heike', translated by Helen Craig McCullough for Stanford University
Press.
* The Tyler 'Genji' (2001) - Tyler's 'Genji' contains more extensive
explanatory footnotes and commentary than the previous translations,
describing the numerous poetical allusions and cultural aspects of the
tale. Tyler consciously attempted to mimic the original style in ways
that the previous translations did not. For example, this version does
not use names for most characters, identifying them instead by their
titles in a manner which was conventional in the context of the
11th-century original text. Writing for 'The New York Times',
reviewer Janice Nimura described it as "wonderfully evocative of the
original, [but] can be difficult to follow". According to Michael
Wood, Tyler's version "makes a special virtue of attending to a
certain ceremonial indirectness in the way the characters address one
another. The great temptation for a translator is to say the unsaid
things, and Tyler never gives in to it." Machiko Midorikawa notes in a
review of Genji translations that more recent translators from
classical Japanese "have endeavoured to find ways of preserving more
of what once seemed unfamiliar or strange to English readers".
* The Washburn 'Genji' (2015) - Dennis Washburn's 'Genji' separates
the poems from the prose and puts interior thoughts in italics. The
translation has been received slightly more controversially than
Tyler's, with most criticism aimed at the perceived over-clarification
of the text and addition of modern colloquialisms.
Manga and Visual Adaptations
==============================
There have also been manga Adaptations The Tale of Genji. One of the
most famous manga adaptations is Waki Yamato’s Fleeting Dreams or
Asaki Yume Mishi, which features the romantic and aesthetic parts of
the novel in visually engaging illustrations that are consistent with
shoujo manga aesthetics. Whereas textual versions of the work depend
heavily on words to create emotional impact, expressions, and a sense
of the Heian court, manga adaptations help make the tale more
accessible for all ages but risks simplifying the story.
Reception and legacy
======================================================================
'The Tale of Genji' is an important work of world literature. Jorge
Luis Borges is among the modern authors who have cited it as
inspiration. He said of it, "'The Tale of Genji', as translated by
Arthur Waley, is written with an almost miraculous naturalness, and
what interests us is not the exoticism--the horrible word--but rather
the human passions of the novel. Such interest is just: Murasaki's
work is what one would quite precisely call a psychological novel ...
I dare to recommend this book to those who read me. " It is noted for
its internal consistency, psychological depiction, and
characterization. The novelist Yasunari Kawabata said in his Nobel
Prize acceptance speech: "'The Tale of Genji' in particular is the
highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even down to our day there
has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it."
The 'Genji' is also often referred to as "the first novel", though
there is considerable debate over this; other texts that predate
'Genji', such as the 7th-century Sanskrit , or the Greek and Roman
novels from classical antiquity, such as 'Daphnis and Chloe' and the
'Satyricon', are considered to be novels, and there is debate around
whether 'Genji' can even be considered a "novel". Ivan Morris
considers the psychological insight, complexity and unity of the work
to qualify it for "novel" status while simultaneously disqualifying
earlier works of prose fiction. Others see these arguments as
subjective and unconvincing.
Related claims, perhaps in an attempt to sidestep these debates, are
that 'Genji' is the "first psychological novel" or "historical novel",
"the first novel still considered to be a classic" or other more
qualified terms. However, critics have almost consistently described
'The Tale of Genji' as the oldest, first, and/or greatest novel in
Japanese literature, though enthusiastic proponents may have later
neglected the qualifying category of 'in Japanese literature', leading
to the debates over the book's place in world literature. Even in
Japan, the status of 'Tale of Genji' as "first" is not universally
embraced; the slightly-earlier has been proposed as the "world's
first full-length novel", even though its author is unknown. Despite
these debates, 'The Tale of Genji' enjoys solid respect, and its
influence on Japanese literature has been compared to that of Philip
Sidney's 'Arcadia' on English literature.
The novel and other works by Lady Murasaki are staple reading material
in the curricula of Japanese schools. The Bank of Japan issued the
2000 yen banknote in her honor, featuring a scene from the novel based
on the 12th-century illustrated handscroll. Since a 1 November 1008
entry in 'The Diary of Lady Murasaki' is the oldest date on which a
reference to 'The Tale of Genji' has appeared, 1 November was
designated as the official day to celebrate Japanese classics.
According to Act on Classics Day, the "classics" that are honored not
only include literature, but encompass a wide range of arts such as
music, art, traditional performing arts, entertainment, lifestyle art
including tea ceremony and flower arrangement and other cultural
products.
The names of the chapters became a central element in a incense-based
game called Genjikō, part of the larger practice of Monkō popular
among the nobility. In Genjikō, players must match the scents of a
series of five incense samples without being told the names of said
samples. Each possible combination was matched to a symbol, called a ,
that represented a chapter from the story.
Adaptations in other media
======================================================================
* 12th-century illustrated hand scroll,
* 1951 film 'The Tale of Genji' by Kōzaburō Yoshimura
* 1966 film by Tetsuji Takechi
* 1980 manga by Waki Yamato
* 1981 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue
* 1987 anime film 'The Tale of Genji' by Gisaburō Sugii - covers only
the first 12 chapters, while adding in some psychological motivation
that is not explicit in the novel.
* 1987 film O Desejado ou As montanhas da lua by Paulo Rocha
* 1988 manga by Miyako Maki
* 1989 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue
* 2000 opera by Miki Minoru
* 2001 film 'Sennen no Koi Story of Genji'
* 2009 anime series by Osamu Dezaki
* 2011 film
* 2015 theatre performance run by the Takarazuka Revue; actress Asumi
Rio received the Agency for Cultural Affairs Arts Festival award for
her portrayal of Genji.
* 2022 manga in English Lady Murasaki’s Tale of Genji by Ai Takita and
Sean Michael Wilson
See also
======================================================================
* The Golden Ass
* Ghost stories
* Hagiwara Hiromichi
* , the layered, colour-coded robes worn by female members of the
Imperial court
*
* 'The Pillow Book'
* The Tale of Genji Museum
* Tales of Ise
* Yang Guifei
*
Bibliography
======================================================================
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* De Wolf, Charles (2014). "Glimpses of Genji Through the
Looking-Glass of Language". 'The Transactions of the Asiatic Society
of Japan'. fifth series, volume 6.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Jackson, Reginald (2021). 'A Proximate Remove: Queering Intimacy and
Loss in 'The Tale of Genji. Oakland, CA: University of California
Press. doi:10.1525/luminos.106. ISBN 978-0-520-38254-1.
*
*
*
* Kornicki, P. F., "Unsuitable Books for Women? "Genji Monogatari" and
"Ise Monogatari" in Late Seventeenth-Century Japan", 'Monumenta
Nipponica', Vol. 60, No. 2 (Summer, 2005), pp. 147-93, Sophia
University, [
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25066367 JSTOR]
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Sestili Daniele (1996). 'Musica e danza del principe Genji. Le arti
dello spettacolo nell’antico Giappone'. Lucca: LIM,
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
======================================================================
*
*
* [
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19264 'Japanese Literature -
Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and
Drama of Japan'] Contains the 1882 Suematsu translation of the first
17 chapters of 'The Tale of Genji', with an introduction and notes.
* World Digital Library presentation of
[
https://www.loc.gov/item/2021666121 源氏物語 'Genji monogatari: Volume
One, Kiritsubo'.] Library of Congress. Primary source moveable type
book. 1596-1615, first printed edition of the world's first great
novel.
License
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_Genji
