= The_Call_of_the

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= The_Call_of_the_Wild =
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Introduction
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'The Call of the Wild' is an adventure novel by Jack London, published
in 1903 and set in Yukon, Canada, during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush,
when strong sled dogs were in high demand. The central character of
the novel is a dog named Buck. The story opens at a ranch in Santa
Clara Valley, California, when Buck is stolen from his home and sold
into service as a sled dog in Alaska. He becomes progressively more
primitive and wild in the harsh environment, where he is forced to
fight to survive and dominate other dogs. By the end, he sheds the
veneer of civilization, and relies on primordial instinct and learned
experience to emerge as a leader in the wild.

London spent about a year in Yukon, and his observations form much of
the material for the book. The story was serialized in 'The Saturday
Evening Post' in the summer of 1903 and was published later that year
in book form. The book's great popularity and success made a
reputation for London. As early as 1923, the story was adapted to
film, and it has since seen several more cinematic adaptations.

One of the more notable earlier films was filmed in 1935, starring
Clark Gable and Loretta Young, as well as Frank Conroy and Jack Oakie.
Considerable liberties were taken with the story line.

Summary
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The story opens in 1897 with Buck, a powerful 140-pound St.
Bernard-Scotch Shepherd mix, happily living in California's Santa
Clara Valley as the pampered pet of Judge Miller and his family. One
night, assistant gardener Manuel, needing money to pay off gambling
debts, steals Buck and sells him to a stranger. Buck is shipped to
Seattle, where he is
confined in a crate, starved, and ill-treated. When released, Buck
attacks his handler, the "man in the red sweater" who teaches Buck the
"law of club and fang", sufficiently cowing him. The man shows some
kindness after Buck demonstrates obedience.

Shortly after, Buck is sold to two French-Canadian dispatchers from
the Canadian government, François and Perrault, who take him to
Alaska. Buck is trained as a sled dog for the Klondike region of
Canada. In addition to Buck, François and Perrault have ten dogs on
their team. Buck's teammates teach him how to survive cold winter
nights and about pack society. Over the next several weeks on the
trail, a bitter rivalry develops between Buck and the lead dog, Spitz,
a vicious and quarrelsome white husky. Buck eventually kills Spitz in
a fight and becomes the new lead dog.

When François and Perrault complete the round-trip of the Yukon Trail
in record time, returning to Skagway with their dispatches, they are
given new orders from the Canadian government. They sell their sled
team to a "Scotch half-breed" man, who works in the mail service. The
dogs must make long, tiring trips, carrying heavy loads to the mining
areas. While running the trail, Buck seems to have memories of a
canine ancestor who has a short-legged hairy man as a companion.
Meanwhile, the weary animals become weak from the hard labor, and the
wheel dog, Dave, a morose husky, becomes terminally sick and is
eventually shot.

With the dogs too exhausted and footsore to be of use, the mail
carrier sells them to three stampeders from the American Southland
(the present-day contiguous United States)--a vain woman named
Mercedes, her sheepish husband Charles, and her arrogant brother Hal.
They lack survival skills for the Northern wilderness, struggle to
control the sled, and ignore others' helpful advice--particularly
warnings about the dangerous spring melt. When told her sled is too
heavy, Mercedes dumps out crucial supplies in favor of fashion
objects. She and Hal foolishly create a team of 14 dogs, believing
they will travel faster. The dogs are overfed and overworked, then
starved when food runs low. Most of the dogs die on the trail, leaving
only Buck and four other dogs when they pull into the White River.

The group meets John Thornton, an experienced outdoorsman, who notices
the dogs' poor condition. The trio ignores Thornton's warnings about
crossing the ice and press onward. Exhausted, starving, and sensing
the danger ahead, Buck refuses to continue. After Hal whips Buck
mercilessly, Thornton hits him and cuts Buck free. The group presses
onward with the four remaining dogs, but their weight causes the ice
to break and the dogs and humans (along with their sled) to fall into
the river and drown.

As Thornton nurses Buck back to health, Buck grows to love him. Buck
fends off a malicious man named Burton who hit Thornton while the
latter was defending an innocent "tenderfoot." This gives Buck a
reputation all over the North. Buck also saves Thornton when he falls
into a river. After Thornton takes him on trips to pan for gold, a man
called Matthewson wagers Thornton on Buck's strength and devotion.
Buck pulls a sled with a half-ton (1/2 ST) load of flour, breaking it
free from the frozen ground, dragging it 100 yd, and winning Thornton
US$1,600 (value=1600).

Using his winnings, Thornton pays his debts and continues searching
for gold with partners Pete and Hans, sledding Buck and six other dogs
to search for a fabled Lost Cabin. Once they locate a suitable gold
find, the dogs find they have nothing to do. Buck has more ancestor
memories of being with the primitive "hairy man." While Thornton and
his two friends pan gold, Buck hears the call of the wild, explores
the wilderness, and socializes with a wolf from a local pack. However,
Buck does not join the wolves and returns to Thornton. Buck repeatedly
goes back and forth between Thornton and the wild, unsure of where he
belongs. Returning to the campsite one day, he finds Hans, Pete, and
Thornton along with their dogs have been murdered by Native American
Yeehats. Enraged, Buck kills several Natives to avenge Thornton, then
realizes he no longer has any human ties left. He goes looking for his
wild brother and encounters a hostile wolf pack. He fights them and
wins, then discovers that the lone wolf he had socialized with is a
pack member. Buck follows the pack into the forest and answers the
call of the wild.

The legend of Buck spreads among other Native Americans as the "Ghost
Dog" of the Northland (Alaska and northwestern Canada). Each year, on
the anniversary of his attack on the Yeehats, Buck returns to the
former campsite where he was last with Thornton to mourn his death.
Every winter, leading the wolf pack, Buck wreaks vengeance on the
Yeehats "as he sings a song of the younger world, which is the song of
the pack."

Background
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California native Jack London had traveled around the United States as
a hobo, returned to California to finish high school (he dropped out
at age 14), and spent a year in college at Berkeley, when in 1897 he
went to the Klondike by way of Alaska during the height of the
Klondike Gold Rush. Later, he said of the experience: "It was in the
Klondike I found myself."

He left California in July and traveled by boat to Dyea, Alaska, where
he landed and went inland. To reach the goldfields, he and his party
transported their gear over the Chilkoot Pass, often carrying loads as
heavy as 100 lb on their backs. They were successful in staking claims
to eight gold mines along the Stewart River.

London stayed in the Klondike for almost a year, living temporarily in
the frontier town of Dawson City, before moving to a nearby winter
camp, where he spent the winter in a temporary shelter reading books
he had brought: Charles Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species' and John
Milton's 'Paradise Lost'. In the winter of 1898, Dawson City was a
city comprising about 30,000 miners, a saloon, an opera house, and a
street of brothels.

In the spring, as the annual gold stampeders began to stream in,
London left. He had contracted scurvy, common in the Arctic winters
where fresh produce was unavailable. When his gums began to swell he
decided to return to California. With his companions, he rafted 2000
mi down the Yukon River, through portions of the wildest territory in
the region, until they reached St. Michael. There, he hired himself
out on a boat to earn return passage to San Francisco.

In Alaska, London found the material that inspired him to write 'The
Call of the Wild'. Dyea Beach was the primary point of arrival for
miners when London traveled through there, but because its access was
treacherous Skagway soon became the new arrival point for prospectors.
To reach the Klondike, miners had to navigate White Pass, known as
"Dead Horse Pass", where horse carcasses littered the route because
they could not survive the harsh and steep ascent. Horses were
replaced with dogs as pack animals to transport material over the
pass; particularly strong dogs with thick fur were "much desired,
scarce and high in price".

London would have seen many dogs, especially prized husky sled dogs,
in Dawson City and the winter camps situated close to the main sled
route. He was friends with Marshall Latham Bond and his brother Louis
Whitford Bond, the owners of a mixed St. Bernard-Scotch Collie dog
about which London later wrote: "Yes, Buck is based on your dog at
Dawson." Beinecke Library at Yale University holds a photograph of
Bond's dog, taken during London's stay in the Klondike in 1897. The
depiction of the California ranch at the beginning of the story was
based on the Bond family ranch.

Publication history
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On his return to California, London was unable to find work and relied
on odd jobs such as cutting grass. He submitted a query letter to the
San Francisco 'Bulletin' proposing a story about his Alaskan
adventure, but the idea was rejected because, as the editor told him,
"Interest in Alaska has subsided to an amazing degree." A few years
later, London wrote a short story about a dog named Bâtard who, at the
end of the story, kills his master. London sold the piece to
'Cosmopolitan Magazine', which published it in the June 1902 issue
under the title "Diablo - A Dog". London's biographer, Earle Labor,
says that London then began work on 'The Call of the Wild' to "redeem
the species" from his dark characterization of dogs in "Bâtard".
Expecting to write a short story, London explains: "I meant it to be a
companion to my other dog story 'Bâtard' ... but it got away from me,
and instead of 4,000 words it ran 32,000 before I could call a halt."

Written as a frontier story about the gold rush, 'The Call of the
Wild' was meant for the pulp market. It was first published in five
installments in 'The Saturday Evening Post', which bought it for $750
in 1903 (~$ in ). In the same year, London sold all rights to the
story to Macmillan, which published it in book format. The book has
never been out of print since that time.

Editions
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* The first edition, by Macmillan, released in August 1903, had 10
tipped-in color plates by illustrators Philip R. Goodwin and Charles
Livingston Bull, and a color frontispiece by Charles Edward Hooper; it
sold for $1.50. It is presently available with the original
illustrations at the Internet Archive.

Genre
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'The Call of the Wild' falls into the categories of adventure fiction
and what is sometimes referred to as the animal story genre, in which
an author attempts to write an animal protagonist without resorting to
anthropomorphism. At the time, London was criticized for attributing
"unnatural" human thoughts and insights to a dog, so much so that he
was accused of being a nature faker. London himself dismissed these
criticisms as "homocentric" and "amateur". London further responded
that he had set out to portray nature more accurately than his
predecessors.

Along with his contemporaries Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser,
London was influenced by the naturalism of European writers such as
Émile Zola, in which themes such as heredity versus environment were
explored. London's use of the genre gave it a new vibrancy, according
to scholar Richard Lehan.

The story is also an example of American pastoralism--a prevailing
theme in American literature--in which the mythic hero returns to
nature. As with other characters of American literature, such as Rip
van Winkle and Huckleberry Finn, Buck symbolizes a reaction against
industrialization and social convention with a return to nature.
London presents the motif simply, clearly, and powerfully in the
story, a motif later echoed by 20th-century American writers William
Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway (most notably in "Big Two-Hearted
River"). E.L. Doctorow says of the story that it is "fervently
American".

The enduring appeal of the story, according to American literature
scholar Donald Pizer, is that it is a combination of allegory,
parable, and fable. The story incorporates elements of age-old animal
fables, such as 'Aesop's Fables,' in which animals speak the truth,
and traditional beast fables, in which the beast "substitutes wit for
insight". London was influenced by Rudyard Kipling's 'The Jungle
Book', written a few years earlier, with its combination of parable
and animal fable, and by other animal stories popular in the early
20th century. In 'The Call of the Wild', London intensifies and adds
layers of meaning that are lacking in these stories.

As a writer, London tended to skimp on form, according to biographer
Labor, and neither 'The Call of the Wild' nor 'White Fang' "is a
conventional novel". The story follows the archetypal "myth of the
hero"; Buck, who is the hero, takes a journey, is transformed, and
achieves an apotheosis. The format of the story is divided into four
distinct parts, according to Labor. In the first part, Buck
experiences violence and struggles for survival; in the second part,
he proves himself a leader of the pack; the third part brings him to
his death (symbolically and almost literally); and in the fourth and
final part, he undergoes rebirth.

Themes
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London's story is a tale of survival and a return to primitivism.
Pizer writes that: "the strong, the shrewd, and the cunning shall
prevail when ...life is bestial".

Pizer also finds evidence in the story of a Christian theme of love
and redemption, as shown by Buck's refusal to revert to violence until
after the death of Thornton, who had won Buck's love and loyalty.
London, who went so far as to fight for custody of one of his own
dogs, understood that loyalty between dogs (particularly working dogs)
and their masters is built on trust and love.

Writing in the "Introduction" to the Modern Library edition of 'The
Call of the Wild', E. L. Doctorow says the theme is based on Darwin's
concept of the survival of the fittest. London places Buck in conflict
with humans, in conflict with the other dogs, and in conflict with his
environment--all of which he must challenge, survive, and conquer.
Buck, a domesticated dog, must call on his atavistic hereditary traits
to survive; he must learn to be wild to become wild, according to Tina
Gianquitto. He learns that in a world where "the club and the fang"
are law, where the law of the pack rules and a good-natured dog such
as Curly can be torn to pieces by pack members, survival by whatever
means is paramount.

London also explores the idea of "nature vs. nurture". Buck, raised as
a pet, is by heredity a wolf. The change of environment brings up his
innate characteristics and strengths to the point where he fights for
survival and becomes the leader of the pack. Pizer describes how the
story reflects human nature in its prevailing theme of strength,
particularly in the face of harsh circumstances.

The veneer of civilization is thin and fragile, writes Doctorow, and
London exposes the brutality at the core of humanity and the ease with
which humans revert to a state of primitivism. His interest in Marxism
is evident in the sub-theme that humanity is motivated by materialism,
and his interest in Nietzschean philosophy is shown by Buck's
characterization. Gianquitto writes that in Buck's characterization,
London created a type of Nietzschean Übermensch - in this case a dog
that reaches mythic proportions.

Doctorow sees the story as a caricature of a 'bildungsroman' - in
which a character learns and grows - in that Buck becomes
progressively less civilized. Gianquitto explains that Buck has
evolved to the point that he is ready to join a wolf pack, which has a
social structure uniquely adapted to and successful in the harsh
Arctic environment, unlike humans, who are weak in the harsh
environment.

Writing style
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The first chapter opens with the first quatrain of John Myers O'Hara's
poem, 'Atavism', published in 1902 in 'The Bookman'. The stanza
outlines one of the main motifs of 'The Call of the Wild': that Buck
when removed from the "sun-kissed" Santa Clara Valley where he was
raised, will revert to his wolf heritage with its innate instincts and
characteristics.

The themes are conveyed through London's use of symbolism and imagery
which, according to Labor, vary in the different phases of the story.
The imagery and symbolism in the first phase, to do with the journey
and self-discovery, depict physical violence, with strong images of
pain and blood. In the second phase, fatigue becomes a dominant image
and death is a dominant symbol, as Buck comes close to being killed.
The third phase is a period of renewal and rebirth and takes place in
the spring, before ending with the fourth phase, when Buck fully
reverts to nature and is placed in a vast and "weird atmosphere", a
place of pure emptiness.

The setting is allegorical. The southern lands represent the soft,
materialistic world; the northern lands symbolize a world beyond
civilization and are inherently competitive. The harshness, brutality,
and emptiness in Alaska reduce life to its essence, as London learned,
and it shows in Buck's story. Buck must defeat Spitz, the dog who
symbolically tries to get ahead and take control. When Buck is sold to
Charles, Hal, and Mercedes, he finds himself in a dirty camp. They
treat their dogs badly; they are artificial interlopers in the
pristine landscape. Conversely, Buck's next masters, John Thornton and
his two companions are described as "living close to the earth". They
keep a clean camp, treat their animals well, and represent man's
nobility in nature. Unlike Buck, Thornton loses his fight with his
fellow species, and not until Thornton's death does Buck revert fully
to the wild and his primordial state.

The characters too are symbolic of types. Charles, Hal, and Mercedes
symbolize vanity and ignorance, while Thornton and his companions
represent loyalty, purity, and love. Much of the imagery is stark and
simple, with an emphasis on images of cold, snow, ice, darkness, meat,
and blood.

London varied his prose style to reflect the action. He wrote in an
over-affected style in his descriptions of Charles, Hal, and Mercedes'
camp as a reflection of their intrusion into the wilderness.
Conversely, when describing Buck and his actions, London wrote in a
style that was pared down and simple--a style that would influence and
be the forebear of Hemingway's style.

The story was written as a frontier adventure and in such a way that
it worked well as a serial. As Doctorow points out, it is good
episodic writing that embodies the style of magazine adventure writing
popular in that period. "It leaves us with satisfaction at its
outcome, a story well and truly told," he said.

Reception and legacy
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'The Call of the Wild' was enormously popular from the moment it was
published. H. L. Mencken wrote of London's story: "No other popular
writer of his time did any better writing than you will find in 'The
Call of the Wild'." A reviewer for 'The New York Times' wrote of it in
1903: "If nothing else makes Mr. London's book popular, it ought to be
rendered so by the complete way in which it will satisfy the love of
dog fights apparently inherent in every man." The reviewer for 'The
Atlantic Monthly' wrote that it was a book: "untouched by
bookishness...The making and the achievement of such a hero [Buck]
constitute, not a pretty story at all, but a very powerful one."

The book secured London a place in the canon of American literature.
The first printing of 10,000 copies sold out immediately; it is still
one of the best-known stories written by an American author and
continues to be read and taught in schools. It has been published in
47 languages. London's first success, the book secured his prospects
as a writer and gained him a readership that stayed with him
throughout his career.

After the success of 'The Call of the Wild', London wrote to Macmillan
in 1904 proposing a second book ('White Fang') in which he wanted to
describe the opposite of Buck: a dog that transforms from wild to
tame: "I'm going to reverse the process...Instead of devolution of
decivilization ... I'm going to give the evolution, the civilization
of a dog."

Adaptations
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* The 1923 adaptation a silent film written and directed by Fred
Jackman and produced by Hal Roach.
* The 1935 version, starring Clark Gable and Loretta Young, expanded
John Thornton's role and was the first "talkie" to feature the story.
* The 1972 movie 'The Call of the Wild', starring Charlton Heston as
John Thornton, was filmed in Finland.
* The 1976 television film 'The Call of the Wild', starring John Beck.
* The 1980 unabridged audiobook adaptation by Recorded Books LLC
(#80110) (3 audio-cassettes, 4.5 hours playing time), narrated by
Frank Muller.
* The 1981 anime film 'Call of the Wild: Howl Buck', starring Mike
Reynolds and Bryan Cranston.
* The 1983-1984 comic book adaptation by Hungarian comics artist Imre
Sebök, which was also translated into German.
* The 1993 movie starring Rick Schroeder.
* The 1997 adaptation called 'The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon',
starring Rutger Hauer and narrated by Richard Dreyfuss.
* The 1998 comic adaptation for 'Boys' Life' magazine. Out of cultural
sensitivities, the Yeehat Native Americans are omitted, and John
Thornton's killers are now white criminals who, as before, are also
killed by Buck.
* The 2000 television adaptation released on Animal Planet. It ran for
a single season of 13 episodes and was released on DVD in 2010 as a
feature film.
* The 2020 film 'The Call of the Wild', a film starring Harrison Ford.
Terry Notary provided the motion-capture performance for Buck the dog.

Further reading
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*Fusco, Richard. "On Primitivism in 'The Call of the Wild'. 'American
Literary Realism, 1870-1910'. Vol. 20, No. 1 (Fall, 1987), pp. 76-80
* McCrum, Robert.
[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/may/19/100-best-novels-call-of-the-wild-jack-london
The 100 best novels: No 35 - The Call of the Wild by Jack London
(1903)] "The 100 best novels: No 35 - 'The Call of the Wild' by Jack
London (1903)". 'The Guardian'. 19 May 2014. Retrieved 5 September
2015.

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