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= Shinto =
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Introduction
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, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan.
Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, it is
often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and
as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners
'Shintoists', although adherents rarely use that term themselves. With
no central authority in control of Shinto, there is much diversity of
belief and practice evident among practitioners.
A polytheistic and animistic religion, Shinto revolves around
supernatural entities called the (神). The are believed to inhabit
all things, including forces of nature and prominent landscape
locations. The are worshipped at household shrines, family shrines,
and 'jinja' public shrines. The latter are staffed by priests, known
as , who oversee offerings of food and drink to the specific
enshrined at that location. This is done to cultivate harmony between
humans and and to solicit the latter's blessing. Other common rituals
include the dances, rites of passage, and kami festivals. Public
shrines facilitate forms of divination and supply religious objects,
such as amulets, to the religion's adherents. Shinto places a major
conceptual focus on ensuring purity, largely by cleaning practices
such as ritual washing and bathing, especially before worship. Little
emphasis is placed on specific moral codes or particular afterlife
beliefs, although the dead are deemed capable of becoming . The
religion has no single creator or specific doctrine, and instead
exists in a diverse range of local and regional forms.
Although historians debate at what point it is suitable to refer to
Shinto as a distinct religion, veneration has been traced back to
Japan's Yayoi period (300 BC to 300 AD). Buddhism entered Japan at the
end of the Kofun period (300 to 538 AD) and spread rapidly. Religious
syncretization made worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a
process called 'shinbutsu-shūgō'. The came to be viewed as part of
Buddhist cosmology and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically.
The earliest written tradition regarding worship was recorded in the
8th-century and . In ensuing centuries, was adopted by Japan's
Imperial household. During the Meiji era (1868 to 1912), Japan's
nationalist leadership expelled Buddhist influence from worship and
formed State Shinto, which some historians regard as the origin of
Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government
influence, and citizens were encouraged to worship the emperor as a .
With the formation of the Empire of Japan in the early 20th century,
Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's
defeat in World War II, Shinto was formally separated from the state.
Shinto is primarily found in Japan, where there are around 100,000
public shrines, although practitioners are also found abroad.
Numerically, it is Japan's largest religion, the second being
Buddhism. Most of the country's population takes part in both Shinto
and Buddhist activities, especially festivals, reflecting a common
view in Japanese culture that the beliefs and practices of different
religions need not be exclusive. Aspects of Shinto have been
incorporated into various Japanese new religious movements.
Definition
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There is no universally agreed definition of Shinto. According to
Joseph Cali and John Dougill, if there was "one single, broad
definition of Shinto" that could be put forward, it would be that
"Shinto is a belief in ", the supernatural entities at the centre of
the religion. The Japanologist Helen Hardacre wrote that "Shinto
encompasses doctrines, institutions, ritual, and communal life based
on worship", while the scholar of religion Inoue Nobutaka observed
that the term "Shinto" was "often used" in "reference to worship and
related theologies, rituals and practices". Various scholars have
referred to practitioners of Shinto as 'Shintoists', although this
term has no direct translation in the Japanese language.
Scholars have debated at what point in history it is legitimate to
start talking about Shinto as a specific phenomenon. The scholar of
religion Ninian Smart suggested that one could "speak of the religion
of Japan, which lived symbiotically with organized Buddhism, and only
later was institutionalized as Shinto." While several institutions and
practices now associated with Shinto existed in Japan by the 8th
century, various scholars have argued that Shinto as a distinct
religion was essentially "invented" during the 19th century, in
Japan's Meiji era. The scholar of religion Brian Bocking stressed
that, especially when dealing with periods before the Meiji era, the
term 'Shinto' should "be approached with caution". Inoue Nobutaka
stated that "Shinto cannot be considered as a single religious system
that existed from the ancient to the modern period", while the
historian Kuroda Toshio noted that "before modern times Shinto did not
exist as an independent religion".
Categorisation
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Many scholars describe Shinto as a religion, a term first translated
into Japanese as 'shūkyō' around the time of the Meiji Restoration.
Some practitioners instead view Shinto as a "way", thus characterising
it more as custom or tradition, partly as an attempt to circumvent the
modern separation of religion and state and restore Shinto's
historical links with the Japanese state. Moreover, many of the
categories of religion and religiosity defined in Western culture "do
not readily apply" to Shinto. Unlike religions familiar in Western
countries, such as Christianity and Islam, Shinto has no single
founder, nor any single canonical text. Western religions tend to
stress exclusivity, but in Japan, it has long been considered
acceptable to practice different religious traditions simultaneously.
Japanese religion is therefore highly pluralistic. Shinto is often
cited alongside Buddhism as one of Japan's two main religions, and the
two often differ in focus, with Buddhism emphasising the idea of the
cessation of suffering, while Shinto focuses on adapting to life's
pragmatic requirements. Shinto has integrated elements from religions
imported from mainland Asia, such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism,
and Chinese divination practices, and shares features like its
polytheism with other East Asian religions.
Scholars of religion have debated how to classify Shinto. Inoue
considered it part of "the family of East-Asian religions". The
philosopher Stuart D. B. Picken suggested that Shinto be classed as a
world religion, while the historian H. Byron Earhart called it a
"major religion". Shinto is also often described as an indigenous
religion, although this generates debates over the different
definitions of "indigenous" in the Japanese context. The notion of
Shinto as Japan's "indigenous religion" stemmed from the growth of
modern nationalism between the Edo and Meiji periods; this view
promoted the idea that Shinto's origins were prehistoric and that it
represented something like the "underlying will of Japanese culture".
The prominent Shinto theologian Sokyo Ono, for instance, said worship
was "an expression" of the Japanese "native racial faith which arose
in the mystic days of remote antiquity" and that it was "as indigenous
as the people that brought the Japanese nation into existence". Many
scholars regard this classification as inaccurate. Earhart noted that
Shinto, in having absorbed much Chinese and Buddhist influence, was
"too complex to be labelled simply [as an] indigenous religion". In
the early 21st century it became increasingly common for practitioners
to call Shinto a nature religion, which critics saw as a strategy to
disassociate the tradition from controversial issues surrounding
militarism and imperialism.
Shinto displays substantial local variation; the anthropologist John
K. Nelson noted it was "not a unified, monolithic entity that has a
single center and system all its own". Different types of Shinto have
been identified. "Shrine Shinto" refers to the practices centred
around shrines, and "Domestic Shinto" to the ways in which are
venerated in the home. Some scholars have used the term "Folk Shinto"
to designate localised Shinto practices, or practices outside of an
institutionalised setting. In various eras of the past, there was also
a "State Shinto", in which Shinto beliefs and practices were closely
interlinked with the Japanese state. In representing "a portmanteau
term" for many varied traditions across Japan, the term "Shinto" is
similar to the term "Hinduism", used to describe varied traditions
across South Asia.
Etymology
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The term 'Shinto' is often translated into English as "the way of the
", although its meaning has varied throughout Japanese history. Other
terms are sometimes used synonymously with "Shinto"; these include '
(, "the way of the "), ' (, also written or , "the way of the from
time immemorial"), ' (, "the ancient way"), ' (, "the great way"), and
' (, "the imperial way").
The term 'Shinto' derives from the combination of two Chinese
characters: 'shin' (), which means "spirit" or "god", and 'tō' (),
which means "way", "road" or "path". "Shintō" (, "the Way of the
Gods") was a term already used in the 'Book of Changes' referring to
the divine order of nature. Around the time of the spread of Buddhism
in the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE), it was used to distinguish
indigenous Chinese religions from the imported religion. Ge Hong used
it in his 'Baopuzi' as a synonym for Taoism.
The Chinese term (MC 'zyin dawX') was originally adopted into
Japanese as 'Jindō'; this was possibly first used as a Buddhist term
to refer to non-Buddhist deities. Among the earliest known appearances
of the term 'Shinto' in Japan is in the 8th-century text, . Here, it
may be a generic term for popular belief, or alternatively reference
Taoism, as many Taoist practices had recently been imported from
mainland Asia. In these early Japanese uses, the word 'Shinto' did not
apply to a distinct religious tradition nor to anything uniquely
Japanese; the 11th century 'Konjaku monogatarishui' for instance
refers to a woman in China practicing 'Shinto', and also to people in
India worshipping , indicating these terms were being used to describe
religions outside Japan itself.
In medieval Japan, -worship was generally seen as being part of
Japanese Buddhism, with the themselves often interpreted as Buddhas.
At this point, the term 'Shinto' increasingly referred to "the
authority, power, or activity of a , being a , or, in short, the state
or attributes of a ." It appears in this form in texts such as ' and
'Shintōshū' tales. In the 'Japanese Portuguese Dictionary' of 1603,
'Shinto' is defined as referring to " or matters pertaining to ." The
term 'Shinto' became common in the 15th century. During the late Edo
period, the scholars began using the term 'Shinto' to describe what
they believed was an ancient, enduring and indigenous Japanese
tradition that predated Buddhism; they argued that 'Shinto' should be
used to distinguish worship from traditions like Buddhism, Taoism,
and Confucianism. This use of the term 'Shinto' became increasingly
popular from the 18th century. The term 'Shinto' has been commonly
used only since the early 20th century, when it superseded the term
('great religion') as the name for the Japanese state religion. In
English, the religion is also called "Shintoism", although some
scholars have argued against the inclusion of the suffix '-ism' due to
Shinto's lack of codified doctrine.
{{lang|ja-Latn|Kami}}
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Shinto is polytheistic, involving the veneration of many deities known
as , or sometimes as (神祇). In Japanese, no distinction is made here
between singular and plural, and hence the term refers both to
individual and the collective group of . Although lacking a direct
English translation, the term has sometimes been rendered as "god" or
"spirit". The historian of religion Joseph Kitagawa deemed these
English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading", and
various scholars urge against translating into English. In Japanese,
it is often said that there are eight million , a term which connotes
an infinite number, and Shinto practitioners believe that they are
present everywhere. They are not regarded as omnipotent, omniscient,
or necessarily immortal.
The term is "conceptually fluid", being "vague and imprecise". In
Japanese it is often applied to the power of phenomena that inspire a
sense of wonder and awe in the beholder. Kitagawa referred to this as
"the nature", stating that he thought it "somewhat analogous" to the
Western ideas of the numinous and the sacred. are seen to inhabit
both the living and the dead, organic and inorganic matter, and
natural disasters like earthquakes, droughts, and plagues; their
presence is seen in natural forces such as the wind, rain, fire, and
sunshine. Accordingly, Nelson commented that Shinto regards "the
'actual phenomena' of the world itself" as being "divine". This
perspective has been characterised as being animistic.
In Japan, have been venerated since prehistory. During the Yayoi
period they were regarded as being formless and invisible, later
coming to be depicted anthropomorphically under Buddhist influence.
Now, statues of the are known as . are usually associated with a
specific place, often a prominent landscape feature such as a
waterfall, mountain, large rock, or distinctive tree. Physical objects
or places in which the are believed to have a presence are termed ;
objects inhabited by the that are placed in the shrine are known as .
Objects commonly chosen for this purpose include mirrors, swords,
stones, beads, and inscribed tablets. These are concealed from the
view of visitors, and may be hidden inside boxes so that even the
priests do not know what they look like.
are deemed capable of both benevolent and destructive deeds; if
warnings about good conduct are ignored, the can mete out punishment,
often illness or sudden death, called . Some , referred to as the or
, are regarded as malevolent and destructive. Offerings and prayers
are given to the to gain their blessings and to dissuade them from
destructive actions. Shinto seeks to cultivate and ensure a harmonious
relationship between humans and the and thus with the natural world.
More localised may be subject to feelings of intimacy and familiarity
from members of the local community that are not directed towards more
widespread like Amaterasu. The of a particular community is referred
to it as their , while that of a particular house is the .
are not considered metaphysically different from humanity, with it
being possible for humans to become . Ancestors and other dead humans
are sometimes venerated as , being regarded as protectors. For
example, Emperor Ōjin was posthumously enshrined as the Hachiman,
believed to be a protector of Japan and a of war. In Western Japan,
the term is used to describe the enshrined of a village founder. In
some cases, living human beings were also viewed as ; these were
called or . In the State Shinto system of the Meiji era, the emperor
of Japan was declared to be a , while several Shinto sects have also
viewed their leaders as living .
Although some are venerated only in a single location, others have
shrines across many areas. Hachiman for instance has around 25,000
shrines dedicated to him, while Inari has 40,000. The act of
establishing a new shrine to a who already has one is called
("dividing the spirit"). As part of this, the is invited to enter a
new place, with the instalment ceremony known as a . The new,
subsidiary shrine is known as a . Individual are not believed to have
their power diminished by their residence in multiple locations, and
there is no limit on the number of places a can be enshrined. In some
periods, fees were charged for the right to enshrine a particular in
a new place. Shrines are not necessarily always designed as permanent
structures.
Many have messengers, known as or , that generally take animal
forms. Inari's messenger, for example, is a fox ('kitsune'), while
Hachiman's is a dove.
Shinto cosmology also includes spirits who cause malevolent acts, , a
category including , , , , and . Japanese folklore also incorporates
belief in the or , unquiet or vengeful spirits, particularly of those
who died violently and without appropriate funerary rites. These are
believed to inflict suffering on the living, meaning that they must be
pacified, usually through Buddhist rites but sometimes through
enshrining them as a . Other Japanese supernatural figures include the
, animal-like creatures who can take human form.
Cosmogony
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Although the narratives differ in detail, the origin of the and of
Japan itself are recounted in two 8th-century texts, and . Drawing
heavily on Chinese influence, these texts were commissioned by ruling
elites to legitimize and consolidate their rule. Although never of
great importance to Japanese religious life, in the early 20th century
the government proclaimed that their accounts were factual.
The recounts that the universe started with , the separation of light
and pure elements (, "heaven") from heavy elements (, "earth"). Three
then appeared: Amenominakanushi, Takamimusuhi no Mikoto, and
Kamimusuhi no Mikoto. Other followed, including a brother and sister,
Izanagi and Izanami. The instructed Izanagi and Izanami to create
land on earth. To this end, the siblings stirred the briny sea with a
jewelled spear, from which Onogoro Island was formed. Izanagi and
Izanami then descended to Earth, where the latter gave birth to
further . One of these was a fire , whose birth killed Izanami.
Izanagi descended to to retrieve his sister, but there he saw her
body putrefying. Embarrassed to be seen in this state, she chased him
out of , and he closed its entrance with a boulder.
Izanagi bathed in the sea to rid himself from the pollution brought
about by witnessing Izanami's putrefaction. Through this act, further
emerged from his body: Amaterasu (the sun ) was born from his left
eye, Tsukuyomi (the moon ) from his right eye, and Susanoo (the storm
) from his nose. Susanoo behaved in a destructive manner, to escape
him Amaterasu hid herself within a cave, plunging the earth into
darkness. The other eventually succeeded in coaxing her out. Susanoo
was then banished to earth, where he married and had children.
According to the , Amaterasu then sent her grandson, Ninigi, to rule
Japan, giving him curved beads, a mirror, and a sword: the symbols of
Japanese imperial authority. Amaterasu remains probably Japan's most
venerated .
Cosmology and afterlife
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In Shinto, the creative principle permeating all life is known as ,
and is associated with its own . Within traditional Japanese thought,
there is no concept of an overarching duality between good and evil.
The concept of encompasses misfortune, unhappiness, and disaster,
although it does not correspond precisely with the Western concept of
evil. There is no eschatology in Shinto. Texts such as the and
portray multiple realms in Shinto cosmology. These present a universe
divided into three parts: the Plane of High Heaven (), where the
live; the Phenomenal or Manifested World (), where humans dwell; and
the Nether World (), where unclean spirits reside. The mythological
texts nevertheless do not draw firm demarcations between these realms.
Modern Shinto places greater emphasis on this life than on any
afterlife, although it does espouse belief in a human spirit or soul,
the or , which contains four aspects. While indigenous ideas about an
afterlife were probably well-developed prior to Buddhism's arrival,
contemporary Japanese people often adopt Buddhist afterlife beliefs.
Mythological stories like the describe or as a realm of the dead,
although this plays no role in modern Shinto. Modern Shinto ideas
about the afterlife largely revolve around the idea that the spirit
survives bodily death and continues to assist the living. After 33
years, it then becomes part of the family . These ancestral spirits
are sometimes thought to reside in the mountains, from where they
descend to take part in agricultural events. Shinto's afterlife
beliefs also include the , restless spirits who died in bad
circumstances and often seek revenge.
Purity and impurity
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A key theme in Shinto is the avoidance of ("pollution" or
"impurity"), while ensuring ("purity"). In Japanese thought, humans
are seen as fundamentally pure. is therefore seen as being a
temporary condition that can be corrected through achieving . Rites of
purification are conducted so as to restore an individual to
"spiritual" health and render them useful to society.
This notion of purity is present in many facets of Japanese culture,
such as the focus it places on bathing. Purification is for instance
regarded as important in preparation for the planting season, while
performers of theatre undergo a purification rite before they carry
out their performances. Among the things regarded as particular
pollutants in Shinto are death, disease, witchcraft, the flaying alive
of an animal, incest, bestiality, excrement, and blood associated with
either menstruation or childbirth. To avoid , priests and other
practitioners may engage in abstinence and avoid various activities
prior to a festival or ritual.
Various words, termed , are also regarded as taboo, and people avoid
speaking them when at a shrine; these include (death), (illness),
and (meat).
A purification ceremony known as involves the use of fresh water,
salt water, or salt to remove . Full immersion in the sea is often
regarded as the most ancient and efficacious form of purification.
This act links with the mythological tale in which Izanagi immersed
himself in the sea to purify himself after discovering his deceased
wife; it was from this act that other sprang from his body. An
alternative is immersion beneath a waterfall. Salt is often regarded
as a purifying substance; some Shinto practitioners will for instance
sprinkle salt on themselves after a funeral, while those running
restaurants may put a small pile of salt outside before business
commences each day. Fire, also, is perceived as a source of
purification. The is a form of harae designed to prevent misfortune,
while the , or "ceremony of great purification", is often used for
end-of-year purification rites, and is conducted twice a year at many
shrines. Before the Meiji period, rites of purification were generally
performed by , a type of diviner whose practices derived from the
Chinese yin and yang philosophy.
''Kannagara'', morality, and ethics
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Shinto incorporates morality tales and myths but no codified ethical
doctrine, and thus no "unified, systematized code of behaviour". An
ethical system nevertheless arises from its practice, with emphasis
placed on sincerity (), honesty (), hard work (), and thanksgiving ()
directed towards the . is regarded as a virtue, encompassing honesty,
uprightness, veracity, and frankness. Shinto sometimes includes
reference to four virtues known as the or , meaning "purity and
cheerfulness of heart", which are linked to the state of . Attitudes
to sex and fertility tend to be forthright in Shinto. Shinto's
flexibility regarding morality and ethics has been a source of
frequent criticism, especially from those arguing that the religion
can readily become a pawn for those wishing to use it to legitimise
their authority and power.
In Shinto, ("way of the ") is the law of the natural order, with
("benign harmony") being inherent in all things. Disrupting is deemed
bad, while contributing to it is thought good; as such, subordination
of the individual to the larger social unit has long been a
characteristic of the religion. Throughout Japanese history, the
notion of , or the union of religious authority and political
authority, has long been prominent. In the modern world, Shinto has
tended toward conservatism, as well as nationalism, an association
that results in various Japanese civil liberties groups and
neighboring countries regarding Shinto suspiciously. Particularly
controversial has been the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, devoted to
Japan's war dead. In 1979 it enshrined 14 men who had been declared
Class-A defendants at the 1946 Tokyo War Crimes Trials, generating
domestic and international condemnation, particularly from China and
Korea.
Shinto priests face ethical conundrums. In the 1980s, for instance,
priests at the Suwa Shrine in Nagasaki debated whether to invite the
crew of a U.S. Navy vessel docked at the port city to their festival
celebrations given the sensitivities surrounding the 1945 U.S. use of
the atomic bomb on the city. In other cases, priests have opposed
construction projects on shrine-owned land; at Kaminoseki in the early
2000s, a priest was pressured to resign after opposing the sale of
shrine lands to build a nuclear power plant.
In the 21st century, Shinto has increasingly been portrayed as a
nature-centred spirituality with environmentalist credentials; several
shrines have collaborated with local environmentalist campaigns, while
an international interfaith conference on environmental sustainability
was held at the Ise shrine in 2014. Critical commentators have
characterised the presentation of Shinto as an environmentalist
movement as a rhetorical ploy rather than a concerted effort by Shinto
institutions to become environmentally sustainable.
Practices
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Shinto focuses on ritual behavior rather than doctrine. The
philosophers James W. Boyd and Ron G. Williams stated that Shinto is
"first and foremost a ritual tradition", while Picken observed that
"Shinto is interested not in 'credenda' but in 'agenda', not in things
that should be believed but in things that should be done." The
scholar of religion Clark B. Offner stated that Shinto's focus was on
"maintaining communal, ceremonial traditions for the purpose of human
(communal) well-being".
It is often difficult to distinguish Shinto practices from Japanese
customs more broadly, with Picken observing that the "worldview of
Shinto" provided the "principal source of self-understanding within
the Japanese way of life". Nelson stated that "Shinto-based
orientations and values [...] lie at the core of Japanese culture,
society, and character".
''Jinja'' shrines
===================
Public spaces in which the are worshipped are often known under the
generic term ("-place"); this term applies to the location rather
than to a specific building. is usually translated as "shrine" in
English, although in earlier literature was sometimes translated as
"temple", a term now more commonly reserved for Japan's Buddhist
structures. There are around 100,000 public shrines in Japan; about
80,000 are affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines, with
another 20,000 being unaffiliated. They are found all over the
country, from isolated rural areas to dense metropolitan ones. More
specific terms are sometimes used for certain shrines depending on
their function; some of the grand shrines with imperial associations
are termed , those devoted to the war dead are termed , and those
linked to mountains deemed to be inhabited by are .
Jinja typically consist of complexes of multiple buildings, with the
architectural styles of shrines having largely developed by the Heian
period. The inner sanctuary in which the lives is the . Inside the
may be stored material belonging to the ; known as , this can include
artworks, clothing, weapons, musical instruments, bells, and mirrors.
Typically, worshippers carry out their acts outside of the . Near the
can sometimes be found a subsidiary shrine, the , to another ; the
inhabiting this shrine is not necessarily perceived as being inferior
to that in the . At some places, halls of worship have been erected,
termed . On a lower level can be found the hall of offerings, known as
a . Together, the building housing the , , and is called a . In some
shrines, there is a separate building in which to conduct additional
ceremonies, such as weddings, known as a , or a specific building in
which the dance is performed, known as the . Collectively, the
central buildings of a shrine are known as the , while its precincts
are known as the or . This precinct is surrounded by the fence, with
entry via a gate, which can be closed at night.
Shrine entrances are marked by a two-post gateway with either one or
two crossbeams atop it, known as . The exact details of these varies
and there are at least twenty different styles. These are regarded as
demarcating the area where the resides; passing under them is often
viewed as a form of purification. More broadly, are internationally
recognised symbols of Japan. Their architectural form is distinctly
Japanese, although the decision to paint most of them in vermillion
reflects a Chinese influence dating from the Nara period. Also set at
the entrances to many shrines are , statues of lion or dog like
animals perceived to scare off malevolent spirits; typically these
will come as a pair, one with its mouth open, the other with its mouth
closed.
Shrines are often set within gardens or wooded groves called ("forest
of the tutelary" ), which vary in size from just a few trees to
sizeable areas of woodland. Large lanterns, known as , are often found
within these precincts. Shrines often have an office, known as a , a
where priests undergo forms of abstinence and purification prior to
conducting rituals, and other buildings such as a priests' quarters
and a storehouse. Various kiosks often sell amulets to visitors. Since
the late 1940s, shrines have had to be financially self-sufficient,
relying on the donations of worshippers and visitors. These funds are
used to pay the wages of the priests, to finance the upkeep of the
buildings, to cover the shrine's membership fees of various regional
and national Shinto groups, and to contribute to disaster relief
funds.
In Shinto, it is seen as important that the places in which are
venerated be kept clean and not neglected. Through to the Edo period,
it was common for shrines to be demolished and rebuilt at a nearby
location in order to remove any pollutants and ensure purity. This has
continued into recent times at certain sites, such as the Ise Grand
Shrine, which is moved to an adjacent site every two decades. Separate
shrines can also be merged in a process known as , while the act of
transferring the from one building to another is called . Shrines may
have legends about their foundation, which are known as . These
sometimes also record miracles associated with the shrine. From the
Heian period on, the were often retold on picture scrolls known as .
Priesthood and {{lang|ja-Latn|miko}}
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Shrines may be cared for by priests, by local communities, or by
families on whose property the shrine is found. Shinto priests are
known in Japanese as , meaning "proprietor of ", or alternatively as
or . Many take on the role in a line of hereditary succession traced
down specific families. In contemporary Japan, there are two main
training universities for those wishing to become , at Kokugakuin
University in Tokyo and at Kogakkan University in Mie Prefecture.
Priests can rise through the ranks over the course of their careers.
The number of priests at a particular shrine can vary; some shrines
can have dozens, and others have none, instead being administered by
local lay volunteers. Some priests administer to multiple small
shrines, sometimes over ten.
Priestly regalia is largely based on the clothes worn at the imperial
court during the Heian period. It includes a tall, rounded hat known
as an , and black lacquered wooden clogs known as . The outer garment
worn by a priest, usually colored black, red, or light blue, is the ,
or the . A white silk version of the , used for formal occasions, is
known as the . Another priestly robe is the , which is modelled on
Heian-style hunting garments. Also part of standard priestly attire is
a fan, while during rituals, priests carry a flat piece of wood known
as a . This regalia is generally more ornate than the sombre garments
worn by Japanese Buddhist monks.
The chief priest at a shrine is the . Larger shrines may also have an
assistant head priest, the . As with teachers, instructors, and
Buddhist clergy, Shinto priests are often referred to as by lay
practitioners. Historically, there were female priests although they
were largely pushed out of their positions in 1868. During the Second
World War, women were again allowed to become priests to fill the void
caused by large numbers of men being enlisted in the military. By the
late 1990s, around 90% of priests were male, 10% female, contributing
to accusations that Shinto discriminates against women. Priests are
free to marry and have children. At smaller shrines, priests often
have other full-time jobs, and serve only as priests during special
occasions.
Before certain major festivals, priests may undergo a period of
abstinence from sexual relations. Some of those involved in festivals
also abstain from a range of other things, such as consuming tea,
coffee, or alcohol, immediately prior to the events.
The priests are assisted by , sometimes referred to as
"shrine-maidens" in English. These are typically unmarried, although
not necessarily virgins. In many cases they are the daughters of a
priest or a practitioner. They are subordinate to the priests in the
shrine hierarchy. Their most important role is in the dance, known as
. receive only a small salary but gain respect from members of the
local community and learn skills such as cooking, calligraphy,
painting, and etiquette which can benefit them when later searching
for employment or a marriage partner. They generally do not live at
the shrines. Sometimes they fill other roles, such as being
secretaries in the shrine offices or clerks at the information desks,
or as waitresses at the feasts. They also assist in ceremonial
rites.
Visits to shrines
===================
Visits to the shrine are termed , or . Some individuals visit the
shrines daily, often on their morning route to work; they typically
take only a few minutes. Usually, a worshipper will approach the
honden, placing a monetary offering in a box and then ringing a bell
to call the 's attention. Then, they bow, clap, and stand while
silently offering a prayer. The clapping is known as or ; the prayers
or supplications as . This individual worship is known as . More
broadly, ritual prayers to the are called , while the coins offered
are . At the shrine, individuals offering prayers are not necessarily
praying to a specific . A worshipper may not know the name of a
residing at the shrine nor how many are believed to dwell there.
Unlike in certain other religions, Shinto shrines do not have weekly
services that practitioners are expected to attend.
Some Shinto practitioners do not offer their prayers to the directly,
but rather request that a priest offer them on their behalf; these
prayers are known as . Many individuals approach the asking for
pragmatic requests. Requests for rain, known as ("rain-soliciting")
have been found across Japan, with Inari a popular choice for such
requests.
Other prayers reflect more contemporary concerns. For instance, people
may ask that the priest approaches the so as to purify their car in
the hope that this will prevent it from being involved in an accident;
the ("purification for road safety"). Similarly, transport companies
often request purification rites for new buses or airplanes which are
about to go into service. Before a building is constructed, it is
common for either private individuals or the construction company to
employ a Shinto priest to come to the land being developed and perform
the , or earth sanctification ritual. This purifies the site and asks
the to bless it.
People often ask the to help offset inauspicious events that may
affect them. For instance, in Japanese culture, the age 33 is seen as
being unlucky for women and the age 42 for men, and thus people can
ask the to offset any ill-fortune associated with being this age.
Certain directions can also be seen as being inauspicious for certain
people at certain times and thus people can approach the asking them
to offset this problem if they have to travel in one of these unlucky
directions.
{{lang|ja-Latn|Harae}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|hōbei}}
===================================================
Shinto rituals begin with a process of purification, or . Using fresh
water or salt water, this is known as . At shrines, this entails
sprinkling this water onto the face and hands, a procedure known as ,
using a font known as a . Another form of purification at the start of
a Shinto rite entails waving a white paper streamer or wand known as
the . When not in use, the is usually kept in a stand. The priest
waves the horizontally over a person or object being purified in a
movement known as ("left-right-left"). Sometimes, instead of a , the
purification is carried out with an , a branch of evergreen to which
strips of paper have been attached. The waving of the is often
followed by an additional act of purification, the , in which the
priest sprinkles water, salt, or brine over those assembled from a
wooden box called the or .
The acts of purification accomplished, petitions known as are spoken
to the . This is followed by an appearance by the , who commence in a
slow circular motion before the main altar. Offerings are then
presented to the by being placed on a table. This act is known as ;
the offerings themselves as or . Historically, the offerings given
the included food, cloth, swords, and horses. In the contemporary
period, lay worshippers usually give gifts of money to the while
priests generally offer them food, drink, and sprigs of the sacred
tree. Animal sacrifices are not considered appropriate offerings, as
the shedding of blood is seen as a polluting act that necessitates
purification. The offerings presented are sometimes simple and
sometimes more elaborate; at the Grand Shrine of Ise, for instance,
100 styles of food are laid out as offerings. The choice of offerings
will often be tailored to the specific and occasion.
Offerings of food and drink are specifically termed .
Sake, or rice wine, is a very common offering to the . After the
offerings have been given, people often sip rice wine known as .
Drinking the wine is seen as a form of communion with the . On
important occasions, a feast is then held, known as , inside a banquet
hall attached to the shrine complex.
The are believed to enjoy music. One style of music performed at
shrines is . Instruments used include three reeds (, , and ), the ,
and the "three drums" (, , and ). Other musical styles performed at
shrines can have a more limited focus. At shrines such as Ōharano
Shrine in Kyoto, ("eastern entertainment") music is performed on 8
April. Also in Kyoto, various festivals make use of the style of
music and dance, which originated from rice-planting songs. During
rituals, people visiting the shrine are expected to sit in the style,
with their legs tucked beneath their bottom. To avoid cramps,
individuals who hold this position for a lengthy period of time may
periodically move their legs and flex their heels.
Home shrines
==============
Having seen their popularity increase in the Meiji era, many Shinto
practitioners also have a family shrine, or (" shelf"), in their
home. These usually consist of shelves placed at an elevated position
in the living room. can also be found in workplaces, restaurants,
shops, and ocean-going ships. Some public shrines sell entire .
Along with the , many Japanese households also have , Buddhist altars
enshrining the ancestors of the family; ancestral reverence remains an
important aspect of Japanese religious tradition. In the rare
instances where Japanese individuals are given a Shinto funeral rather
than a Buddhist one, a , , or shrine may be erected in the home in
place of a . This will be typically placed below the and include
symbols of the resident ancestral spirit, for instance a mirror or a
scroll.
often enshrine the of a nearby public shrine as well as a tutelary
associated with the house's occupants or their profession. They can be
decorated with miniature and and include amulets obtained from
public shrines. They often contain a stand on which to place
offerings; daily offerings of rice, salt, and water are placed there,
with sake and other items also offered on special days. These domestic
rituals often take place early in the morning, and prior to conducting
them, practitioners often bathe, rinse their mouth, or wash their
hands as a form of purification.
Household Shinto can focus attention on the , who are perceived to be
ancestral to the or extended kinship group. A small shrine for the
ancestors of a household are known as . Small village shrines
containing the tutelary of an extended family are known as . In
addition to the shrines and the household shrines, Shinto also
features small wayside shrines known as . Other open spaces used for
the worship of are , an area surrounded by sacred rocks.
{{lang|ja-Latn|Ema}}, divination, and amulets
===============================================
A common feature of Shinto shrines is the provision of , small wooden
plaques onto which practitioners will write a wish or desire that they
would like to see fulfilled. The practitioner's message is written on
one side of the plaque, while on the other is usually a printed
picture or pattern related to the shrine itself. are provided both at
Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in Japan; unlike most amulets,
which are taken away from the shrine, the are typically left there as
a message for the resident . Those administering the shrine will then
often burn all of the collected at new year.
Divination is the focus of many Shinto rituals, with various forms of
divination used by its practitioners, some introduced from China.
Among the ancient forms of divination found in Japan are and .
Several forms of divination entailing archery are also practiced in
Shintō, known as , , and . Kitagawa stated that there could be "no
doubt" that various types of "shamanic diviners" played a role in
early Japanese religion. A form of divination previously common in
Japan was or , which often used tortoise shells; it is still used in
some places.
A form of divination that is popular at Shinto shrines are the . These
are small slips of paper which are obtained from the shrine (for a
donation) and which are then read to reveal a prediction for the
future. Those who receive a bad prediction often then tie the to a
nearby tree or frame set up for the purpose. This act is seen as
rejecting the prediction, a process called , and thus avoiding the
misfortune it predicted.
The use of amulets are widely sanctioned and popular in Japan. These
may be made of paper, wood, cloth, metal, or plastic.
act as amulets to keep off misfortune and also serve as talismans to
bring benefits and good luck. They typically comprise a tapering piece
of wood onto which the name of the shrine and its enshrined are
written or printed. The is then wrapped inside white paper and tied
up with a colored thread. are provided both at Shinto shrines and
Buddhist temples. Another type of amulet provided at shrines and
temples are the , which are traditionally small, brightly colored
drawstring bags with the name of the shrine written on it. and are
sometimes placed within a charm bag known as a , typically worn by
small children.
At new year, many shrines sell (an "evil-destroying arrows"), which
people can purchase and keep in their home over the coming year to
bring good luck.
A is a round, paper doll of the Indian monk, Bodhidharma. The
recipient makes a wish and paints one eye; when the goal is
accomplished, the recipient paints the other eye. While this is a
Buddhist practice, darumas can be found at shrines, as well. These
dolls are very common.
Other protective items include , which are earthenware bells that are
used to pray for good fortune. These bells are usually in the shapes
of the zodiacal animals. are paper dogs that are used to induce and
to bless good births. Collectively, these talismans through which home
to manipulate events and influence spirits, as well as related mantras
and rites for the same purpose, are known as .
''Kagura''
============
describes the music and dance performed for the ; the term may have
originally derived from ("seat of the "). Throughout Japanese
history, dance has played an important culture role and in Shinto it
is regarded as having the capacity to pacify . There is a mythological
tale of how dance came into existence. According to the and the ,
Ame-no-Uzume performed a dance to entice Amaterasu out of the cave in
which she had hidden herself.
There are two broad types of kagura. One is Imperial kagura, also
known as . This style was developed in the imperial court and is still
performed on imperial grounds every December. It is also performed at
the Imperial harvest festival and at major shrines such as Ise, Kamo,
and Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū. It is performed by singers and musicians
using wooden clappers, a , a flute, and a six-stringed zither. The
other main type is , descended from and performed at shrines across
Japan. Depending on the style, it is performed by or by actors
wearing masks to portray various mythological figures. These actors
are accompanied by a band using flutes and drums. There are also
other, regional types of kagura.
Festivals
===========
Public festivals are commonly termed , although this term has varied
meanings--"festival", "worship", "celebration", "rite", or
"prayer"--and no direct translation into English. Picken suggested
that the festival was "the central act of Shinto worship" because
Shinto was a "community- and family-based" religion. Most mark the
seasons of the agricultural year and involve offerings being directed
to the in thanks. According to a traditional lunar calendar, Shinto
shrines should hold their festival celebrations on or "clear days",
the days of the new, full, and half moons. Other days, known as , were
generally avoided for festivities. However, since the late 20th
century, many shrines have held their festival celebrations on the
Saturday or Sunday closest to the date so that fewer individuals will
be working and will be able to attend. Each town or village often has
its own festival, centred on a local shrine. For instance, the Aoi
Matsuri festival, held on 15 May to pray for an abundant grain
harvest, takes place at shrines in Kyoto, while the Chichibu Night
Festival takes place on 2-3 December in Chichibu.
Spring festivals are called and often incorporate prayers for a good
harvest. They sometimes involve ceremonies, in which rice is ritually
planted. Summer festivals are termed and are usually focused on
protecting the crops against pests and other threats. Autumn festivals
are known as and primarily focus on thanking the for the rice or
other harvest. The , or festival of new rice, is held across many
Shinto shrines on 23 November. The emperor also conducts a ceremony to
mark this festival, at which he presents the first fruits of the
harvest to the at midnight. Winter festivals, called often feature
on welcoming in the spring, expelling evil, and calling in good
influences for the future. There is little difference between winter
festivals and specific new year festivals.
The season of the new year is called . On the last day of the year (31
December), , practitioners usually clean their household shrines in
preparation for New Year's Day (1 January), . Many people visit public
shrines to celebrate new year; this "first visit" of the year is known
as or . There, they buy amulets and talismans to bring them good
fortune over the coming year. To celebrate this festival, many
Japanese put up rope known as on their homes and places of business.
Some also put up ("gateway pine"), an arrangement of pine branches,
plum tree, and bamboo sticks. Also displayed are , which are smaller
and more colourful; their purpose is to keep away misfortune and
attract good fortune. In many places, new year celebrations
incorporate ("naked festivals") in which men dressed only in a
loincloth engage in a particular activity, such as fighting over a
specific object or immersing themselves in a river.
A common feature of festivals are processions or parades known as .
These can be raucous, with many participants being drunk; Breen and
Teeuwen characterised them as having a "carnivalesque atmosphere".
They are often understood as having a regenerative effect on both the
participants and the community. During these processions, the travel
in portable shrines known as . In various cases the undergo ("going
down to the beach"), a process by which they are carried to the sea
shore and sometimes into the sea, either by bearers or a boat. For
instance, in the Okunchi festival held in the southwestern city of
Nagasaki, the of the Suwa Shrine are paraded down to Ohato, where
they are placed in a shrine there for several days before being
paraded back to Suwa. These sorts of celebrations are often organized
largely by members of the local community rather than by the priests
themselves.
Rites of passage
==================
The formal recognition of events is given great importance in Japanese
culture. A common ritual, the , entails a child's first visit to a
Shinto shrine. A tradition holds that, if a boy he should be brought
to the shrine on the thirty-second day after birth, and if a girl she
should be brought on the thirty-third day. Historically, the child was
commonly brought to the shrine not by the mother, who was considered
impure after birth, but by another female relative; since the late
20th century it has been more common for the mother to do so. Another
rite of passage, the or , is a coming of age ritual marking the
transition to adulthood and occurs when an individual is around
twenty. Wedding ceremonies are often carried out at Shinto shrines;
these are called ("a wedding before the "). Prior to the Meiji
period, weddings were commonly performed in the home, although shrines
now regard them as an important source of income.
In Japan, funerals tend to take place at Buddhist temples and involve
cremation, with Shinto funerals being rare. Bocking noted that most
Japanese people are "still 'born Shinto' yet 'die Buddhist'." In
Shinto thought, contact with death is seen as imparting impurity ();
the period following this contact is known as and is associated with
various taboos. In cases when dead humans are enshrined as , the
physical remains of the dead are not stored at the shrine. Although
not common, there have been examples of funerals conducted through
Shinto rites. The earliest examples are known from the mid-17th
century; these occurred in certain areas of Japan and had the support
of the local authorities.
Following the Meiji Restoration, in 1868 the government recognised
specifically Shinto funerals for Shinto priests. Five years later,
this was extended to cover the entire Japanese population. Despite
this Meiji promotion of Shinto funerals, the majority of the
population continued to have Buddhist funeral rites. In recent
decades, Shinto funerals have usually been reserved for Shinto priests
and for members of certain Shinto sects. After cremation, the normal
funerary process in Japan, the ashes of a priest may be interred near
to the shrine, but not inside its precincts.
Ancestral reverence remains an important part of Japanese religious
custom. The invocation of the dead, and especially the war dead, is
known as . Various rites reference this. For instance, at the largely
Buddhist festival of Bon, the souls of the ancestors are believed to
visit the living, and are then sent away in a ritual called , by which
lanterns are inserted into small boats, often made of paper, and
placed in a river to float downstream.
Spirit mediumship and healing
===============================
Shinto practitioners believe that the can possess a human being and
then speak through them, a process known as . Several new religious
movements drawing upon Shinto, such as Tenrikyo and Oomoto, were
founded by individuals claiming to be guided by a possessing . The is
an oracle that is passed from the via the medium.
The and are blind women who train to become spiritual mediums,
traditionally in Japan's northern Tohoku region. train under other
from childhood, memorialising sacred texts and prayers, fasting, and
undertaking acts of severe asceticism, through which they are believed
to cultivate supernatural powers. In an initiation ceremony, a is
believed to possess the young woman, and the two are then ritually
"married". After this, the becomes her tutelary spirit and she will
henceforth be able to call upon it, and a range of other spirits, in
the future. Through contacting these spirits, she is able to convey
their messages to the living. usually carry out their rituals
independent of the shrine system. Japanese culture also includes
spiritual healers known as whose work involves invoking both and
Buddhas.
Early development
===================
Earhart commented that Shinto ultimately "emerged from the beliefs and
practices of prehistoric Japan", although Kitagawa noted that it was
questionable whether prehistoric Japanese religions could be
accurately termed "early Shinto". It was the Yayoi period of Japanese
prehistory which first left traces of material and iconography
prefiguring that later included in Shinto. were worshipped at various
landscape features during this period; at this point, their worship
consisted largely of beseeching and placating them, with little
evidence that they were viewed as compassionate entities.
Archaeological evidence suggests that bronze bells, bronze weapons,
and metal mirrors played an important role in -based ritual during the
Yayoi period.
In this early period, Japan was not a unified state; by the Kofun
period it was divided among (clans), each with their own tutelary ,
the . Korean migration during the Kofun period brought Confucianism
and Buddhism to Japan. Buddhism had a particular impact on the cults.
Migrant groups and Japanese who increasingly aligned with these
foreign influences built Buddhist temples in various parts of the
Japanese islands. Several rival clans who were more hostile to these
foreign influences began adapting the shrines of their to more
closely resemble the new Buddhist structures. In the late 5th century,
the imperial dynasty leader Yūryaku declared himself 'daiō' ("great
king") and established hegemony over much of Japan. From the early 6th
century CE, the style of ritual favored by the Yamato began spreading
to other shrines around Japan as the Yamato extended their
territorial influence. Buddhism was also growing. According to the ,
in 587 Emperor Yōmei converted to Buddhism and under his sponsorship
Buddhism spread.
In the mid-7th century, a legal code called was adopted to establish
a Chinese-style centralised government. As part of this, the Jingikan
("Council of ") was created to conduct rites of state and coordinate
provincial ritual with that in the capital. This was done according to
a code of law called the 'Jingiryō', itself modelled on the Chinese
'Book of Rites'. The Jingikan was located in the palace precincts and
maintained a register of shrines and priests. An annual calendar of
state rites were introduced to help unify Japan through worship.
These legally mandated rites were outlined in the Yōrō Code of 718,
and expanded in the 'Jogan Gishiki' of circa 872 and the 'Engi Shiki'
of 927. Under the Jingikan, some shrines were designated as
("official shrines") and given specific privileges and
responsibilities. Hardacre saw the Jingikan as "the institutional
origin of Shinto".
In the early 8th century, the Emperor Tenmu commissioned a compilation
of the legends and genealogies of Japan's clans, resulting in the
completion of the in 712. Designed to legitimate the ruling dynasty,
this text created a fixed version of various stories previously
circulating in oral tradition. The omits any reference to Buddhism,
in part because it sought to ignore foreign influences and emphasise a
narrative stressing indigenous elements of Japanese culture. Several
years later, the 'Nihon shoki' was written. Unlike the , this made
various references to Buddhism, and was aimed at a foreign audience.
Both of these texts sought to establish the imperial clan's descent
from the sun Amaterasu, although there were many differences in the
cosmogonic narrative they provided. Quickly, the 'Nihon shoki'
eclipsed the in terms of its influence. Other texts written at this
time also drew on oral traditions regarding the . The 'Sendari kuji
hongi' for example was probably composed by the Mononobe clan while
the 'Kogoshui' was probably put together for the Imbe clan, and in
both cases they were designed to highlight the divine origins of these
respective lineages. A government order in 713 called on each region
to produce , records of local geography, products, and stories, with
the latter revealing more traditions about the which were present at
this time.
From the 8th century, worship and Buddhism were thoroughly
intertwined in Japanese society. While the emperor and court performed
Buddhist rites, they also performed others to honor the . Tenmu for
example appointed a virginal imperial princess to serve as the , a
form of priestess, at the Ise Shrine on his behalf, a tradition
continued by subsequent emperors. From the 8th century onward up until
the Meiji era, the were incorporated into a Buddhist cosmology in
various ways. One view is that the realised that like all other
life-forms, they too were trapped in the cycle of samsara (rebirth)
and that to escape this they had to follow Buddhist teachings.
Alternative approaches viewed the as benevolent entities who
protected Buddhism, or that the were themselves Buddhas, or beings
who had achieved enlightenment. In this, they could be either , the
pure spirits of the Buddhas, or , transformations of the Buddhas in
their attempt to help all sentient beings.
Nara period
=============
This period hosted many changes to the country, government, and
religion. The capital is moved again to Heijō-kyō (modern-day Nara),
in AD 710 by Empress Genmei due to the death of the emperor. This
practice was necessary due to the Shinto belief in the impurity of
death and the need to avoid this pollution. However, this practice of
moving the capital due to "death impurity" is then abolished by the
Taihō Code and rise in Buddhist influence. The establishment of the
imperial city in partnership with Taihō Code is important to Shinto as
the office of the Shinto rites becomes more powerful in assimilating
local clan shrines into the imperial fold. New shrines are built and
assimilated each time the city is moved. All of the grand shrines are
regulated under Taihō and are required to account for incomes,
priests, and practices due to their national contributions.
Meiji era and the Empire of Japan
===================================
Breen and Teeuwen characterise the period between 1868 and 1915,
during the Meiji era, as being the "formative years" of modern Shinto.
It is in this period that various scholars have argued that Shinto was
essentially "invented".
Fridell argues that scholars call the period from 1868 to 1945 the
"State Shinto period" because, "during these decades, Shinto elements
came under a great deal of overt state influence and control as the
Japanese government systematically utilized shrine worship as a major
force for mobilizing imperial loyalties on behalf of modern
nation-building." However, the government had already been treating
shrines as an extension of government before Meiji; see for example
the Tenpō Reforms. Moreover, according to the scholar Jason Ānanda
Josephson, It is inaccurate to describe shrines as constituting a
"state religion" or a "theocracy" during this period since they had
neither organization, nor doctrine, and were uninterested in
conversion.
The Meiji Restoration of 1868 was fuelled by a renewal of Confucian
ethics and imperial patriotism among Japan's ruling class. Among these
reformers, Buddhism was seen as a corrupting influence that had
undermined what they envisioned as Japan's original purity and
greatness. They wanted to place a renewed emphasis on worship as an
indigenous form of ritual, an attitude that was also fuelled by
anxieties about Western expansionism and fear that Christianity would
take hold in Japan.
In 1868, all shrine priests were placed under the authority of the new
Jingikan, or Council of Kami Affairs. A project of forcibly separating
worship from Buddhism was implemented, with Buddhist monks, deities,
buildings, and rituals banned from shrines. Much Buddhist material
was destroyed. In 1871, a new hierarchy of shrines was introduced,
with imperial and national shrines at the top. Hereditary priesthoods
were abolished and a new state-sanctioned system for appointing
priests was introduced.
In 1872, the Jingikan was replaced with the Kyobusho, or Ministry of
Edification. This coordinated a campaign whereby ("national
evangelists") were sent through the country to promote Japan's "Great
Teaching", which included respect for the and obedience to the
emperor. This campaign was discontinued in 1884. In 1906, thousands of
village shrines were merged so that most small communities had only a
single shrine, where rites in honor of the emperor could be held.
Shinto effectively became the state cult, one promoted with growing
zeal in the build-up to the Second World War.
In 1882, the Meiji government designated 13 religious movements that
were neither Buddhist nor Christian to be forms of "Sect Shinto". The
number and name of the sects given this formal designation varied;
often they merged ideas with Shinto from Buddhism, Christian,
Confucian, Daoist, and Western esoteric traditions. In the Meiji
period, many local traditions died out and were replaced by nationally
standardised practices encouraged from Tokyo.
Post-war
==========
During the U.S. occupation, a new Japanese constitution was drawn up.
This enshrined freedom of religion and separated religion from the
state, a measure designed to eradicate State Shinto. The emperor
declared that he was not a ; Shinto rituals performed by the imperial
family became their own private affair. This disestablishment ended
government subsidies to shrines and gave them renewed freedom to
organise their own affairs. In 1946 many shrines formed a voluntary
organisation, the Association of Shinto Shrines (). In 1956 the
association issued a creedal statement, the ("general characteristics
of a life lived in reverence of the "), to summarise what they
regarded as Shinto's principles. By the late 1990s around 80% of
Japan's Shinto shrines were part of this association.
In the post-war decades, many Japanese blamed Shinto for encouraging
the militarism which had led to defeat and occupation. Others remained
nostalgic for State Shinto, and concerns were repeatedly expressed
that sectors of Japanese society were conspiring to restore it.
Various legal debates revolved around the involvement of public
officials in Shinto. In 1965, for instance, the city of Tsu, Mie
Prefecture, paid four Shinto priests to purify the site where the
municipal athletic hall was to be built. Critics brought the case to
court, claiming it contravened the constitutional separation of
religion and state; in 1971 the high court ruled that the city
administration's act had been unconstitutional, although this was
overturned by the Supreme Court in 1977.
During the post-war period, Shinto themes often blended into Japanese
new religious movements. Of the Sect Shinto groups, Tenrikyo was
probably the most successful, although in 1970 it repudiated its
Shinto identity. Shinto perspectives also influenced popular culture.
The film director Hayao Miyazaki of Studio Ghibli for instance
acknowledged Shinto influences on his films such as 'Spirited Away'.
Shinto also spread abroad through both emigration and conversion by
non-Japanese. The Tsubaki Grand Shrine in Suzuka, Mie Prefecture, was
the first to establish a branch abroad: the Tsubaki Grand Shrine of
America, initially located in California and then moved to Granite
Falls, Washington.
During the 20th century, most academic research on Shinto was
conducted by Shinto theologians, often priests, bringing accusations
that it often blurred theology with historical analysis. From the
1980s onward, there was a renewed academic interest in Shinto both in
Japan and abroad.
Demographics
======================================================================
Most Japanese participate in several religious traditions, with Breen
and Teeuwen noting that, "with few exceptions", it is not possible to
differentiate between Shintoists and Buddhists in Japan. The main
exceptions are members of minority religious groups, including
Christianity, which promote exclusivist worldviews. Determining the
proportions of the country's population who engage in Shinto activity
is hindered by the fact that, if asked, Japanese people will often say
"I have no religion". Many Japanese avoid the term "religion", in part
because they dislike the connotations of the word which most closely
matches it in the Japanese language, . The latter term derives from
("sect") and ("doctrine").
Official statistics show Shinto to be Japan's largest religion, with
over 80 per cent of its population engaging in Shinto activities.
Conversely, in questionnaires only a small minority of Japanese
describe themselves as "Shintoists". This indicates that a far larger
number of people engage in Shinto activities than cite Shinto as their
religious identity. There are no formal rituals to become a
practitioner of "folk Shinto". Thus, "Shinto membership" is often
estimated counting only those who do join organized Shinto sects.
Shinto has about 81,000 shrines and about 85,000 priests in the
country. According to surveys carried out in 2006 and 2008, less than
40% of the population of Japan identifies with an organised religion:
around 35% are Buddhists, 30% to 40% are members of Shinto sects and
derived religions. In 2008, 26% of the participants reported often
visiting Shinto shrines, while only 16.2% expressed belief in the
existence of in general.
Shinto outside Japan
======================
The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries were marked by
the expansion of the Empire of Japan, which also led to the spread of
Shinto in the colonized territories. In total, from 1868 to 1945,
1,640 shrines were built in territories under Japanese control. In
addition, starting in 1885, Japanese began to move to Hawaii, most of
whom left Japan for economic reasons; Since 1908, emigration to Brazil
also began, where the Japanese worked on coffee plantations. The
emigrants built shrines to preserve their culture and worship
traditional deities.
outside Japan are termed ("overseas shrines"), a term coined by .
When the Empire of Japan collapsed in the 1940s, there were over 600
within its conquered territories, many of which were later disbanded.
Japanese migrants have also established in countries like Brazil,
while Shinto's lack of doctrinal focus has attracted interest from
non-Japanese; in the United States, for example, European Americans
have played a significant role in introducing Shinto.
See also
======================================================================
* Azusa yumi
* Dōsojin
* Hama yumi
* Hari-Kuyo
* Iwakura (Shinto)
* Kodama (spirit)
* List of Japanese deities
* Nyonin Kinsei
* Raijin
* Ryukyuan religion
* Shide (Shinto)
* Shinto architecture
* Shinto in popular culture
* Shinto in Taiwan
* Shinto music
* Twenty-Two Shrines
* Yōsei
Further reading
======================================================================
*
*
* Bestor, Victoria, Theodore C. Bestor, & Akiko Yamagata.
'Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society'. Routledge, 2011.
,
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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*
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* Skya, Walter. 'Japan's holy war: the ideology of radical Shintō
ultranationalism'. Durham: Duke University Press, 2009.
*
*
External links
======================================================================
* [
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto Shinto] at Encyclopedia
Britannica
* [
http://www.jinjahoncho.or.jp/en/ Jinja Honcho - English] - The
Official Japanese Organization of 80,000 Shinto Shrines
* [
http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/ Kokugakuin University
Encyclopedia of Shinto] and its Japanese
[
http://21coe.kokugakuin.ac.jp/db/jinja/ Shinto Jinja Database]
License
=========
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License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto
