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= Rigveda =
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Introduction
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The 'Rigveda' or 'Rig Veda' (, , from ऋच्, "praise" and वेद,
"knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns
('sūktas'). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts
('śruti') known as the Vedas. Only one Shakha of the many survive
today, namely the Śakalya Shakha. Much of the contents contained in
the remaining Shakhas are now lost or are not available in the public
forum.
The 'Rigveda' is the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text. Its early
layers are among the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European
language. Most scholars believe that the sounds and texts of the
'Rigveda' have been orally transmitted with precision since the 2nd
millennium BCE, through methods of memorisation of exceptional
complexity, rigour and fidelity, though the dates are not confirmed
and remain contentious till concrete evidence surfaces. Philological
and linguistic evidence indicates that the bulk of the 'Rigveda'
Samhita was composed in the northwestern region of the Indian
subcontinent (see Rigvedic rivers), most likely between 1500 and 1000
BCE, although a wider approximation of 19001200 BCE has also been
given.
The text is layered, consisting of the 'Samhita', 'Brahmanas',
'Aranyakas' and 'Upanishads'. The 'Rigveda Samhita' is the core text
and is a collection of 10 books ('s) with 1,028 hymns ('s) in about
10,600 verses (called ', eponymous of the name 'Rigveda'). In the
eight booksBooks 2 through 9that were composed the earliest, the hymns
predominantly discuss cosmology, rites required to earn the favour of
the gods, as well as praise them. The more recent books (Books 1 and
10) in part also deal with philosophical or speculative questions,
virtues such as 'dāna' (charity) in society, questions about the
origin of the universe and the nature of the divine, and other
metaphysical issues in their hymns.
The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most archaic poems
of the Iranian and Greek language families, the 'Gathas' of old
Avestan and 'Iliad' of Homer. The Rigveda's preserved archaic syntax
and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the
common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European. Some of its verses
continue to be recited during Hindu prayer and celebration of rites of
passage (such as weddings), making it probably the world's oldest
religious text in continued use.
Dating
========
According to Jamison and Brereton, in their 2014 translation of the
'Rigveda', the dating of this text "has been and is likely to remain a
matter of contention and reconsideration". The dating proposals so far
are all inferred from the style and the content within the hymns
themselves. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text
to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Being composed in an
early Indo-Aryan language, the hymns must post-date the Indo-Iranian
separation, dated to roughly 2000 BCE. A reasonable date close to that
of the composition of the core of the 'Rigveda' is that of the Mitanni
documents of northern Syria and Iraq (1350 BCE), which also mention
the Vedic gods such as Varuna, Mitra and Indra. Some scholars have
suggested that the Rig Veda was composed on the banks of a river in
Haraxvaiti province in southern Afghanistan (Persian: Harahvati;
Sanskrit: Sarasvati; possibly the Helmand or Arghandab). Other
evidence also points to a composition date close to 1400 BCE. The
earliest texts were composed in the northwestern regions of the Indian
subcontinent, and the more philosophical later texts were most likely
composed in or around the region that is the modern era state of
Haryana.
The 'Rigveda's' core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age,
making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its
composition is usually dated to roughly between and 1000 BCE.
According to Michael Witzel, the codification of the 'Rigveda' took
place at the end of the Rigvedic period between and 1000 BCE, in the
early Kuru kingdom. Asko Parpola argues that the 'Rigveda' was
systematized around 1000 BCE, at the time of the Kuru kingdom.
No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever
existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral
transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature,
where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part
of the historic tradition.
Historical and societal context
=================================
The 'Rigveda' is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For
this reason, it was in the center of attention of Western scholarship
from the times of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth onwards. The 'Rigveda'
records an early stage of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic
and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from
the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early
Andronovo culture of .
The 'Rigveda' offers no direct evidence of social or political systems
in the Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite. Only hints such as cattle
raising and horse racing are discernible, and the text offers very
general ideas about the ancient Indian society. There is no evidence,
state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured
caste system. Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a
social ideal rather than a social reality. The society was
semi-nomadic and pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns
mention plow and celebrate agricultural divinities. There was division
of labor and a complementary relationship between kings and
poet-priests but no discussion of a relative status of social classes.
Women in the 'Rigveda' appear disproportionately as speakers in
dialogue hymns, both as mythical or divine Indrani, Apsaras Urvasi, or
Yami, as well as Apāla Ātreyī (RV 8.91), Godhā (RV 10.134.6), Ghoṣā
Kākṣīvatī (RV 10.39.40), Romaśā (RV 1.126.7), Lopāmudrā (RV 1.179.12),
Viśvavārā Ātreyī (RV 5.28), Śacī Paulomī (RV 10.159), Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī
(RV 8.1.34). The women of the 'Rigveda' are quite outspoken and appear
more sexually confident than men, in the text. Elaborate and aesthetic
hymns on wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the
Rigvedic period. There is little evidence of dowry and no evidence of
sati in it or related Vedic texts.
The Rigvedic hymns mention rice and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83,
8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the text; however, there is no
discussion of rice cultivation. The term 'áyas' (metal) occurs in the
'Rigveda', but it is unclear which metal it was. Iron is not mentioned
in 'Rigveda', something scholars have used to help date 'Rigveda' to
have been composed before 1000 BCE. Hymn 5.63 mentions "metal cloaked
in gold", suggesting that metalworking had progressed in the Vedic
culture.
Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the 'Rigveda' are
found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European
religion, while most of the words used share common roots with words
from other Indo-European languages. However, about 300 words in the
'Rigveda' are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the
Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar Frits Staal. Of these 300,
manysuch as 'kapardin', 'kumara', 'kumari', 'kikata'come from Munda or
proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese)
region of India, with roots in Austroasiatic languages. The others in
the list of 300such as 'mleccha' and 'nir'have Dravidian roots found
in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins. A
few non-Indo-European words in the 'Rigveda'such as for camel, mustard
and donkeybelong to a possibly lost Central Asian language. The
linguistic sharing provides clear indications, states Michael Witzel,
that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and
interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.
Composition
=============
The "family books" (27) are associated with various clans and
chieftains, containing hymns by members of the same clan in each book;
but other clans are also represented in the 'Rigveda'. The family
books are associated with specific regions, and mention prominent
Bharata and Pūru kings.
Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each (verse) of the
'Rigveda'. Most sūktas are attributed to single composers; for each of
them the 'Rigveda' includes a lineage-specific ' hymn (a special sūkta
of rigidly formulaic structure, used for rituals). In all, 10 families
of rishis account for more than 95 per cent of the s.
Book !! Clan !! Region
Mandala 2 Gṛtsamāda NW, Punjab
Mandala 3 Viśvāmitra Punjab, Sarasvatī
Mandala 4 Vāmadeva NW, Punjab
Mandala 5 Atri NW → Punjab → Yamunā
Mandala 6 Bharadvāja NW, Punjab, Sarasvati; → Gaṅgā
Mandala 7 Vasiṣṭha Punjab, Sarasvati; → Yamunā
Mandala 8 Kaṇva and Āṅgirasa NW, Punjab
Collection and organisation
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The codification of the 'Rigveda' took place late in the Rigvedic or
rather in the early post-Rigvedic period at , by members of the early
Kuru tribe, when the center of Vedic culture moved east from the
Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. The 'Rigveda' was codified by
compiling the hymns, including the arrangement of the individual hymns
in ten books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda
Samhitas. According to Witzel, the initial collection took place after
the Bharata victory in the Battle of the Ten Kings, under king Sudās,
over other Puru kings. This collection was an effort to reconcile
various factions in the clans which were united in the Kuru kingdom
under a Bharata king. This collection was re-arranged and expanded in
the Kuru Kingdom, reflecting the establishment of a new Bharata-Puru
lineage and new srauta rituals.
The fixing of the Vedic chant (by enforcing regular application of
sandhi) and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier
metrical text), occurred during the later Brahmana period, in roughly
the 6th century BCE.
The surviving form of the 'Rigveda' is based on an early Iron Age
collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas 27,
ordered by author, deity and meter) and a later redaction, coeval with
the redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after the
hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions
(contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and orthoepic changes to
the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi (termed
'orthoepische Diaskeuase' by Oldenberg, 1888).
Mandalas
==========
The text is organized in ten "books", or 'maṇḍalas' ("circles"), of
varying age and length. The "family books", mandalas 27, are the
oldest part of the 'Rigveda' and the shortest books; they are arranged
by length (decreasing length of hymns per book) and account for 38% of
the text.
The hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a particular
deity: 'Agni' comes first, 'Indra' comes second, and so on. They are
attributed and dedicated to a rishi (sage) and his family of students.
Within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of
the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the same collection
have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the
number of syllables in the metre are in descending order. The second
to seventh mandalas have a uniform format.
The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account
for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ninth mandala is entirely dedicated
to Soma and the Soma ritual.
The hymns in the ninth mandala are arranged by both their prosody
structure (chanda) and by their length.
The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the
longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text.
Nevertheless, some of the hymns in mandalas 8, 1 and 10 may still
belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the material in the
family books. The first mandala has a unique arrangement not found in
the other nine mandalas. The first 84 hymns of the tenth mandala have
a structure different from the remaining hymns in it.
Hymns and prosody
===================
Each mandala consists of hymns or 's (', literally, "well recited,
eulogy") intended for various rituals.
The s in turn consist of individual stanzas called ' ("praise", 'pl.'
'), which are further analysed into units of verse called ' ("foot" or
step).
The hymns of the 'Rigveda' are in different poetic metres in Vedic
Sanskrit. The meters most used in the are the gayatri (3 verses of 8
syllables), anushtubh (4×8), trishtubh (4×11) and jagati (4×12). The
trishtubh meter (40%) and gayatri meter (25%) dominate in the
'Rigveda'.
Meter !! Rigvedic verses
Gayatri 2451
Ushnih 341
Anushtubh 855
Brihati 181
Pankti 312
Trishtubh 4253
Jagati 1348
Atigagati 17
Sakvari 19
Atisakvari 9
Ashti 6
Atyashti 84
Dhriti 2
Atidhriti 1
Ekapada 6
Dvipada 17
Pragatha Barhata 388
Pragatha Kakubha 110
Mahabarhata 2
|Total 10402
Transmission
==============
As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in
several versions, including the 'Padapatha', in which each word is
isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization;
and the 'Samhitapatha', which combines words according to the rules of
sandhi (the process being described in the 'Pratisakhya') and is the
memorized text used for recitation.
The 'Padapatha' and the 'Pratisakhya' anchor the text's true meaning,
and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more
than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this
the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving
breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections, as
well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to
a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics.
It is unclear as to when the 'Rigveda' was first written down. The
oldest surviving manuscripts have been discovered in Nepal and date to
. According to Witzel, the Paippalada Samhita tradition points to
written manuscripts -1000 CE. The Upanishads were likely in the
written form earlier, about mid-1st millennium CE (Gupta Empire
period). Attempts to write the Vedas may have been made "towards the
end of the 1st millennium BCE". The early attempts may have been
unsuccessful given the 'Smriti' rules that forbade the writing down
the Vedas, states Witzel. The oral tradition continued as a means of
transmission until modern times.
Recensions
============
Geographical distribution of the Late Vedic Period. Each major region
had its own recension of Rig Veda ('Śākhās'), and the versions varied.
Several shakhas (from skt. 'śākhā' f. "branch", i. e. "recension") of
the Rig Veda are known to have existed in the past. Of these, Śākala
Śākhā (named after the scholar Śākalya) is the only one to have
survived in its entirety. Another śākhā that may have survived is the
Bāṣkala, although this is uncertain.
The surviving padapāṭha version of the 'Rigveda' text is ascribed to
Śākalya. The recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11
' hymns which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as
8.498.59), for a total of 1028 hymns. The recension includes eight of
these hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular
hymns for this śākhā. In addition, the recension has its own appendix
of 98 hymns, the Khilani.
In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the 'Rigveda'
contain a total of 10,552 s, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana
gives the number of syllables to be 432,000, while the metrical text
of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or
an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of
syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the
post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr.
Three other shakhas are mentioned in 'Caraṇavyuha', a pariśiṣṭa
(supplement) of Yajurveda: Māṇḍukāyana, Aśvalāyana and Śaṅkhāyana. The
Atharvaveda lists two more shakhas. The differences between all these
shakhas are very minor, limited to varying order of content and
inclusion (or non-inclusion) of a few verses. The following
information is known about the shakhas other than Śākala and Bāṣkala:
* Māṇḍukāyana: Perhaps the oldest of the Rigvedic shakhas.
* Aśvalāyana: Includes 212 verses, all of which are newer than the
other Rigvedic hymns.
* Śaṅkhāyana: Very similar to Aśvalāyana
* Saisiriya: Mentioned in the 'Rigveda' Pratisakhya. Very similar to
Śākala, with a few additional verses; might have derived from or
merged with it.
!Shakha !Samhita !Brahmana !Aranyaka !Upanishad
|'Shaakala' |Shaakala Samhita |Aitareya Brahmana |Aitareya Aranyaka
|Aitareya Upanishad
|'Baashkala' |Kaushitaki Samhita |Kaushitaki Brahmana |Manuscript
exists |Kaushitaki Upanishad
|'Shankhayana' |Sankhayana Samhita |Shankhayana Brahmana |Shankhyana
Aranyaka |edited as a part of the Aranyaka
Manuscripts
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The 'Rigveda' hymns were composed and preserved by oral tradition.
They were memorized and verbally transmitted with "unparalleled
fidelity" across generations for many centuries. According to Barbara
West, it was probably first written down about the 3rd-century BCE.
The manuscripts were made from birch bark or palm leaves, which
decompose and therefore were routinely copied over the generations to
help preserve the text.
Versions
==========
There are, for example, thirty manuscripts of 'Rigveda' at the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century
by Georg Bühler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different
parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, and
Central Provinces. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in
the late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts,
written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of the Pune collection is
dated to 1464 CE. These thirty manuscripts were added to UNESCO's
Memory of the World International Register in 2007.
Of these thirty manuscripts, nine contain the samhita text, five have
the padapatha in addition. Thirteen contain Sayana's commentary. At
least five manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84
and 5/Viś I) have preserved the complete text of the 'Rigveda'. MS no.
5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part
used by Max Müller for his edition of the 'Rigveda' with Sayana's
commentary.
Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in Europe, while the
Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune
Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the
Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total
number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at
least.
Scripts
=========
'Rigveda' manuscripts in paper, palm leaves and birch bark form,
either in full or in portions, have been discovered in the following
Indic scripts:
* Devanagari (Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal)
* Grantha (Tamil Nadu)
* Malayalam (Kerala)
* Nandinagari (South India)
* Sharada (Kashmir)
Comparison
============
The various 'Rigveda' manuscripts discovered so far show some
differences. Broadly, the most studied Śākala recension has 1017
hymns, includes an appendix of eleven 'valakhīlya' hymns which are
often counted with the eighth mandala, for a total of 1028 metrical
hymns. The Bāṣakala version of 'Rigveda' includes eight of these
'vālakhilya' hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025
hymns in the main text for this śākhā. The Bāṣakala text also has an
appendix of 98 hymns, called the 'Khilani', bringing the total to
1,123 hymns. The manuscripts of Śākala recension of the 'Rigveda' have
about 10,600 verses, organized into ten Books ('Mandalas'). Books 2
through 7 are internally homogeneous in style, while Books 1, 8 and 10
are compilation of verses of internally different styles suggesting
that these books are likely a collection of compositions by many
authors.
The first mandala is the largest, with 191 hymns and 2006 verses, and
it was added to the text after Books 2 through 9. The last, or the
10th Book, also has 191 hymns but 1754 verses, making it the second
largest. The language analytics suggest the 10th Book,
chronologically, was composed and added last. The content of the 10th
Book also suggest that the authors knew and relied on the contents of
the first nine books.
The 'Rigveda' is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of its verses
appear in the other Vedas. Almost all of the 1875 verses found in
Samaveda are taken from different parts of the 'Rigveda', either once
or as repetition, and rewritten in a chant song form. Books 8 and 9 of
the 'Rigveda' are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda.
Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1350 verses of 'Rigveda'
found in Atharvaveda, or about one fifth of the 5987 verses in the
Atharvaveda text. A bulk of 1875 ritual-focussed verses of Yajurveda,
in its numerous versions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of
verses in 'Rigveda'.
Contents
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Altogether the Rigveda consists of:
* the 'Samhita' (hymns to the deities, the oldest part of the
'Rigveda')
* the 'Brahmana's, commentaries on the hymns
* the 'Aranyaka's or "forest books"
* the 'Upanishad's
In western usage, "Rigveda" usually refers to the 'Rigveda' Samhita,
while the Brahmanas are referred to as the "Rigveda Brahmanas" (etc.).
Technically speaking, however, "the Rigveda" refers to the entire body
of texts transmitted along with the Samhita portion. Different bodies
of commentary were transmitted in the different shakhas or "schools".
Only a small portion of these texts has been preserved: The texts of
only two out of five shakhas mentioned by the Rigveda Pratishakhya
have survived.
The late (15th or 16th century) 'Shri Guru Charitra' even claims the
existence of twelve Rigvedic shakhas.
The two surviving Rigvedic corpora are those of the ' Śākala' and the
' Bāṣkala' shakhas.
Hymns
=======
The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are
Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni,
the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion or the plant it is
made from. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods
MitraVaruna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu,
Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural
phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky, Father Heaven),
Prithivi (the earth, Mother Earth), Surya (the sun god), Vayu or Vata
(the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya (the thunder and rain), Vac
(the word), many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati
River). The Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus,
and the Vishvadevas ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods"
are the groups of deities mentioned.
* Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and
his name is the first word of the 'Rigveda'. The remaining hymns are
mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the
Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati,
Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods. This Mandala is dated to
have been added to the 'Rigveda' after Mandala 2 through 9, and
includes the philosophical Riddle Hymn 1.164, which inspires chapters
in later Upanishads such as the Mundaka.
* Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is
chiefly attributed to the Rishi '.
* Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra and the
Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the
Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to '.
* Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra as well as
the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this
book are attributed to '.
* Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the
Visvedevas ("all the gods'), the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna
and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and
to Savitr. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the ' clan.
* Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, all the
gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed
to the ' family of Angirasas.
* Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the
Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu
(the wind), two each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning)
and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to
'.
* Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59
are the apocryphal '. Hymns 148 and 6066 are attributed to the ' clan,
the rest to other (Angirasa) poets.
* Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to 'Soma Pavamana',
the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.
* Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later
language, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It
contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is
important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic
civilization and the Purusha sukta which has been important in studies
of Vedic sociology. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129) which
deals with multiple speculations about the creation of universe, and
whether anyone can know the right answer. The marriage hymns (10.85)
and the death hymns (10.1018) still are of great importance in the
performance of the corresponding Grhya rituals.
Rigveda Brahmanas
===================
Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the ' (i.e.
"possessed of many verses"), as the followers of the 'Rigveda' are
called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and
the Kaushitakins. The 'Aitareya-brahmana' and the 'Kaushitaki-' (or
'Sankhayana-') 'brahmana' evidently have for their groundwork the same
stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however,
considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their
stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends
common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight.
There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.
The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and
more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to
infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists
of 30 chapters ('adhyaya'); while the Aitareya has 40, divided into
eight books (or pentads, 'pancaka'), of five chapters each. The last
10 adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition
though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Pāṇini
(c. 5th century BCE), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical
sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting
of 30 and 40 adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion
occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but
not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father
Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of
the inauguration of kings.
While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice,
the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds
of 'haviryajna', or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, etc., whereupon
follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 710 contain the
practical ceremonial and 1130 the recitations ('shastra') of the
hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work,
ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of
Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely
enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school
of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have
no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is
frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in
opposition to the Paingya--the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival
school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the
manuscripts calls it--the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in
accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.
Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads
==================================
Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or
Aranyaka. The 'Aitareyaranyaka' is not a uniform production. It
consists of five books ('aranyaka'), three of which, the first and the
last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called
'mahavrata', or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra
form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed
by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second
and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are
also styled the 'Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad'. Again, the last four
chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareya
Upanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to
Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the
'Samhita-upanishad'. As regards the 'Kaushitaki-aranyaka', this work
consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata
ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the first, fifth,
and third books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four
adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly
interesting Kaushitaki (Brahmana-) Upanishad, of which we possess two
different recensions. The remaining portions (915) of the Aranyaka
treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the
'vamsha', or succession of teachers.
Significance
==============
The text is a highly stylized poetical Vedic Sanskrit with praise
addressed to the Vedic gods and chieftains. Most hymns, according to
Witzel, were intended to be recited at the annual New Year Soma
ritual. The text also includes some nonritual poetry, fragments of
mythology, archaic formulas, and a number of hymns with early
philosophical speculations. Composed by the poets of different clans,
including famed Vedic 'rishis' (sages) such as Vishvamitra and
Vasishtha, these signify the power of prestige therewith to 'vac'
(speech, sound), a tradition set in place. The text introduced the
prized concepts such as 'Rta' (active realization of truth, cosmic
harmony) which inspired the later Hindu concept of Dharma. The
Rigvedic verses formulate this 'Rta' as effected by 'Brahman', a
significant and non-self-evident truth. The text also contains hymns
of "highly poetical value"some in dialogue form, along with love
stories that likely inspired later Epic and classical poets of
Hinduism, states Witzel.
According to Nadkarni, several hymns of the 'Rigveda' embed cherished
virtues and ethical statements. For example, verses 5.82.7, 6.44.8,
9.113.4, 10.133.6 and 10.190.1 mention truthful speech, truthful
action, self-discipline and righteousness. Hymn 10.117 presents the
significance of charity and of generosity between human beings, how
helping someone in need is ultimately in the self-interest of the
helper, its importance to an individual and the society. According to
Jamison and Brereton, hymns 9.112 and 9.113 poetically state, "what
everyone [humans and all living beings] really want is gain or an easy
life", even a water drop has a goalnamely, "simply to seek Indra".
These hymns present the imagery of being in heaven as "freedom, joy
and satisfaction", a theme that appears in the Hindu Upanishads to
characterize their teachings of self-realization.
Monism debate
===============
While the older hymns of the 'Rigveda' reflect sacrificial ritual
typical of polytheism,
its younger parts, specifically mandalas 1 and 10, have been noted as
containing monistic or henotheistic speculations.
{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
|quote=Nasadiya Sukta (10.129):
There was neither non-existence nor existence then;
Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;
What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
There was neither death nor immortality then;
No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;
That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;
Other than that there was nothing beyond.
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;
Without distinctive marks, this all was water;
That which, becoming, by the void was covered;
That One by force of heat came into being;
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;
Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;
Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,
Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know.
|source =--'Rigveda' 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer /
Christian)*Original Sanskrit:
[
https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129]
Wikisource;
* Translation 1:
* Translation 2:
* Translation 3:
* Translation 4: This hymn is one of the roots of Hindu philosophy.}}
A widely cited example of such speculations is hymn 1.164.46:
Max Müller notably introduced the term "henotheism" for the philosophy
expressed here, avoiding the connotations of "monotheism" in
Judeo-Christian tradition.
Other widely cited examples of monistic tendencies include hymns
1.164, 8.36 and 10.31, Other scholars state that the 'Rigveda'
includes an emerging diversity of thought, including monotheism,
polytheism, henotheism and pantheism, the choice left to the
preference of the worshipper. and the Nasadiya Sukta (10.129), one of
the most widely cited Rigvedic hymns in popular western presentations.
Ruse (2015) commented on the old discussion of "monotheism" vs.
"henotheism" vs. "monism" by noting an "atheistic streak" in hymns
such as 10.130.
Examples from Mandala 1 adduced to illustrate the "metaphysical"
nature of the contents of the younger hymns include:
1.164.34: "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the
center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?",
"What is the ultimate source of human speech?";
1.164.34: "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the
unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?";
1.164.5: "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods
live?";
1.164.6: "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";
1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable
of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable
companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One
incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks
on.".
Shruti
========
The Vedas as a whole are classed as "shruti" in Hindu tradition. This
has been compared to the concept of divine revelation in Western
religious tradition, but Staal argues that "it is nowhere stated that
the Veda was revealed", and that 'shruti' simply means "that what is
heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from
teacher to pupil". The 'Rigveda', or other Vedas, do not anywhere
assert that they are apauruṣeyā, and this reverential term appears
only centuries after the end of the Vedic period in the texts of the
Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. The text of the 'Rigveda' suggests
it was "composed by poets, human individuals whose names were
household words" in the Vedic age, states Staal.
The authors of the Brahmanas literature discussed and interpreted the
Vedic ritual.
Sanskrit grammarians
======================
Yaska (4th c. BCE), a lexicographer, was an early commentator of the
'Rigveda' by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In his book
titled 'Nirukta' Yaska asserts that the 'Rigveda' in the ancient
tradition can be interpreted in three ways - from the perspective of
religious rites ('adhiyajna'), from the perspective of the deities
('adhidevata'), and from the perspective of the soul ('adhyatman').
The fourth way to interpret the 'Rigveda' also emerged in the ancient
times, wherein the gods mentioned were viewed as symbolism for
legendary individuals or narratives. It was generally accepted that
creative poets often embed and express double meanings, ellipses and
novel ideas to inspire the reader.
Medieval Hindu scholarship
============================
By the period of Puranic Hinduism, in the medieval period, the
language of the hymns had become "almost entirely unintelligible", and
their interpretation mostly hinged on mystical ideas and sound
symbolism.
According to the Puranic tradition, Ved Vyasa compiled all the four
Vedas, along with the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Vyasa then taught
the 'Rigveda' samhita to Paila, who started the oral tradition. An
alternate version states that Shakala compiled the 'Rigveda' from the
teachings of Vedic rishis, and one of the manuscript recensions
mentions Shakala.
Madhvacharya, a Hindu philosopher of the 13th century, provided a
commentary of the first 40 hymns of the 'Rigveda' in his book 'Rig
Bhashyam'. In the 14th century, Sayana wrote an exhaustive commentary
on the complete text of the 'Rigveda' in his book 'Rigveda Samhita'.
This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by Max Müller in the
year 1856. H.H. Wilson also translated this book into English as
'Rigveda Sanhita' in the year 1856. Sayanacharya studied at the
Sringeri monastery.
A number of other commentaries ('s') were written during the medieval
period, including the commentaries by Skandasvamin (pre-Sayana,
roughly of the Gupta period), Udgitha (pre-Sayana), Venkata-Madhava
(pre-Sayana, to 12th centuries) and Mudgala (after Sayana, an
abbreviated version of Sayana's commentary).
Some notable commentaries from Medieval period include:
!Title !Commentary !Year !Language !Notes
|Rig Bhashyam |Madhvacharya |1285 |Sanskrit |Commentary on the first
40 hymns of the 'Rigveda'. The original book has been translated into
English by Prof.K.T. Pandurangi accessible
[
http://www.tatvavada.org/eng/works/pdf/rgb.pdf here]
|Rigveda Samhita |Sāyaṇācārya |1360 |Sanskrit |Sāyaṇācārya, a
Sanskrit scholar, wrote a treatise on the Vedas in the book 'Vedartha
Prakasha' (meaning "of Vedas made as a manifest"). The 'Rigveda'
Samhita is available here. This book was translated from Sanskrit to
English by Max Müller in the year 1856. H. H. Wilson also translated
this book into English as 'Rigveda Sanhita' in the year 1856.
Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements
====================================
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, reformers like Swami Dayananda
Saraswati (founder of the Arya Samaj) and Sri Aurobindo (founder of
Sri Aurobindo Ashram) discussed the philosophies of the Vedas.
According to Robson, Dayananda believed "there were no errors in the
Vedas (including the 'Rigveda'), and if anyone showed him an error, he
would maintain that it was a corruption added later".
According to Dayananda and Aurobindo the Vedic scholars had a
monotheistic conception. Sri Aurobindo gave commentaries, general
interpretation guidelines, and a partial translation in 'The secret of
Veda' (1946). Sri Aurobindo finds Sayana's interpretation to be
ritualistic in nature, and too often having inconsistent
interpretations of Vedic terms, trying to fit the meaning to a narrow
mold. According to Aurobindo, if Sayana's interpretation were to be
accepted, it would seem as if the Rig Veda belongs to an unquestioning
tradition of faith, starting from an original error. Aurobindo
attempted to interpret hymns to Agni in the 'Rigveda' as mystical.
Aurobindo states that the Vedic hymns were a quest after a higher
truth, define the 'Rta' (basis of Dharma), conceive life in terms of a
struggle between the forces of light and darkness, and sought the
ultimate reality.
Contemporary Hinduism
=======================
The 'Rigveda', in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the
ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with some
hymns still in use in major rites of passage ceremonies, but the
literal acceptance of most of the textual essence is long gone.
Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu
heritage, through incorporating Rigvedic hymns in their compositions,
such as in 'Hamsadhvani' and 'Subhapantuvarali' of Carnatic music, and
these have remained popular among the Hindus for decades.
According to Axel Michaels, "most Indians today pay lip service to the
Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." According to
Louis Renou, the Vedic texts are a distant object, and "even in the
most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a
simple raising of the hat". According to Andrea Pinkney, "the social
history and context of the Vedic texts are extremely distant from
contemporary Hindu religious beliefs and practice", and the reverence
for the Vedas in contemporary Hinduism illustrates the respect among
the Hindus for their heritage.
Hindu nationalism
===================
The Rig Veda plays a role in the modern construction of a Hindu
identity, portraying Hindus as the original inhabitants of India. The
'Rigveda' has been referred to in the "Indigenous Aryans" and Out of
India theory. Dating the Rig Veda as contemporaneous with (or even
preceding) the Indus Valley civilisation, an argument is made that the
IVC was Aryan, and the bearer of the Rig Veda. Indian nationalist Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, in his 'Orion: Or Researches Into The Antiquity Of
The Vedas' (1893) has concluded that the date of composition of the
'Rigveda' dates at least as far back as 60004000 BCE based on his
astronomical research into the position of the constellation Orion.
These theories are controversial, and not accepted or propagated in
mainstream scholarship.
Translations
======================================================================
The 'Rigveda' is considered particularly difficult to translate, owing
to its length, poetic nature, the language itself, and the absence of
any close contemporary texts for comparison. Staal describes it as the
most "obscure, distant and difficult for moderns to understand". As a
result, he says, it "is often misinterpreted" - with many early
translations containing straightforward errors - "or worse: used as a
peg on which to hang an idea or a theory." Another issue is technical
terms such as 'mandala', conventionally translated "book", but more
literally rendered "cycle". Karen Thomson, author of a series of
revisionary word studies and editor of the Metrically Restored Text
Online at the University of Texas at Austin, argues, as linguists in
the nineteenth century had done (Friedrich Max Müller, Rudolf von
Roth, William Dwight Whitney, Theodor Benfey, John Muir, Edward Vernon
Arnold), that the apparent obscurity derives from the failure to
discard a mass of assumptions about ritual meaning inherited from
Vedic tradition.
The first published translation of any portion of the 'Rigveda' in any
European language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen, working
from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. In 1849, Max
Müller published his six-volume translation into German, the first
printed edition and most studied. H. H. Wilson was the first to make a
translation of the Rig Veda into English, published from 185088.
Wilson's version was based on a commentary of the complete text by
Sayana, a 14th-century Sanskrit scholar, which he also translated.
Translations have since been made in several languages, including
French and Russian. Karl Friedrich Geldner completed the first
scholarly translation into German in the 1920s, which was published
after his death. Translations of shorter cherrypicked anthologies have
also been published, such as those by Wendy Doniger in 1981 and Walter
Maurer in 1986, although Jamison and Brereton say they "tend to create
a distorted view" of the text. In 1994, Barend A. van Nooten and Gary
B. Holland published the first attempt to restore the entirety of the
'Rigveda' to its poetic form, systematically identifying and
correcting sound changes and sandhi combinations which had distorted
the original metre and meaning.
Some notable translations of the Rig Veda include:
Title Commentary/Translation Year Language Notes
'Rigvedae specimen' Friedrich August Rosen 1830 Latin Partial
translation with 121 hymns (London, 1830). Also known as 'Rigveda
Sanhita, Liber Primus, Sanskrite Et Latine' (). Based on manuscripts
brought back from India by Henry Thomas Colebrooke.
'Rig-Veda, oder die heiligen Lieder der Brahmanen' Max Müller 1849
German Partial translation published by W. H. Allen and Co., London,
and later F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig. In 1873, Müller published an
editio princeps titled
'[
https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigvedains00unkngoog The Hymns of
the Rig-Veda in the Samhita Text]'. He also translated a few hymns in
English ('Nasadiya Sukta').
'[
https://archive.org/details/rigvedasanhita01wils Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā:
A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns]' H. H. Wilson English Published
as 6 volumes, by N. Trübner & Co., London.
'Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes' A. Langlois 1870 French Partial
translation. Re-printed in Paris, 194851 ().
[
https://archive.org/details/derrigvedaoderd00ludwgoog Der Rigveda]
Alfred Ludwig 1876 German Published by Verlag von F. Tempsky, Prague.
'[
https://archive.org/details/rigveda02grasgoog Rig-Veda]' Hermann
Grassmann 1876 German Published by F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig
'[
http://www.aryasamajjamnagar.org/rigvedabook.htm Rigved Bhashyam]'
Dayananda Saraswati Hindi Incomplete translation. Later translated
into [
http://elibrary.thearyasamaj.org/elib/categories/14/Ved English]
by Dharma Deva Vidya Martanda (1974).
'The Hymns of the Rig Veda' Ralph T.H. Griffith English Revised as
'The Rig Veda' in 1896. Revised by J. L. Shastri in 1973. Griffith's
philology was outdated even in the 19th century and questioned by
scholars.
'[
https://archive.org/details/derrigvedainaus00geldgoog Der Rigveda
in Auswahl]' Karl Friedrich Geldner 1907 German Published by
Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart. Geldner's 1907 work was a partial
translation; he completed a full translation in the 1920s, which was
published after his death, in 1951. This translation was titled
'[
http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rigveda.pdf Der Rig-Veda: aus dem
Sanskrit ins Deutsche Übersetzt]'. Harvard Oriental Studies, vols.
3337 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 19517). Reprinted by Harvard
University Press (2003) .
'[
https://archive.org/details/hymnsfromrigveda00macdiala/page/n8
Hymns from the Rigveda]' A. A. Macdonell 1917 English Partial
translation (30 hymns). Published by Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Series of articles in Journal of the University of Bombay Hari
Damodar Velankar English Partial translation (Mandala 2, 5, 7 and 8).
Later published as independent volumes.
'[
http://www.aurobindo.ru/workings/sa/11/hymns_to_the_mystic_fire_eng.pdf
Rig Veda - Hymns to the Mystic Fire] ' Sri Aurobindo 1946 English
Partial translation published by N. K. Gupta, Pondicherry. Later
republished several times ()
|'[
https://archive.org/details/RigvedaSamhithaAsthanaMahavidvanHPVenkataRao
RigVeda Samhita]' Pandit H.P. Venkat Rao, LaxmanAcharya and a couple
of other Pandits 1947 Kannada Sources from Saayana Bhashya,
SkandaSvami Bhashya, Taittareya Samhita, Maitrayini Samhita and other
Samhitas. The Kannada translation work was commissioned by Maharaja of
Mysore Jayachama Rajendra Wodeyar. The translations were compiled into
11 volumes.
'[
https://archive.org/details/RigVedaInHindi Rig Veda]' Ramgovind
Trivedi 1954 Hindi
'Études védiques et pāṇinéennes' Louis Renou French Appears in a
series of publications, organized by the deities. Covers most of the
'Rigveda', but leaves out significant hymns, including the ones
dedicated to Indra and the Asvins.
'[
http://literature.awgp.org/hindibook/vedPuranDarshan/rigved/ ऋग्वेद
संहिता]' Shriram Sharma 1950s Hindi
'Hymns from the Rig-Veda' Naoshiro Tsuji 1970 Japanese Partial
translation
'Rigveda: Izbrannye Gimny' Tatyana Elizarenkova 1972 Russian Partial
translation, extended to a full translation published during 19891999.
'Rigveda Parichaya' Nag Sharan Singh 1977 English / Hindi Extension
of Wilson's translation. Republished by Nag, Delhi in 1990 ().
'[
http://www.vedicgranth.org/home/the-great-authors/mr-jambunathan/veda
Rig Veda] ' M. R. Jambunathan Tamil Two volumes, both released
posthumously.
'[
https://web.archive.org/web/20071005042338/http://www.forizslaszlo.com/irodalom/ind/irodalom_rigveda_himnuszok_en.html
Rigvéda - Teremtéshimnuszok]' ('Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda')
Laszlo Forizs (hu) 1995 Hungarian Partial translation published in
Budapest ()
'The Rig Veda' Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty 1981 English Partial
translation (108 hymns), along with critical apparatus. Published by
Penguin (). A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as
an Appendix.
|[
https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/mandal-01/
Rigved Subodh Bhasya] |Pandit Shripad Damodar Satwalekar |1985 |Hindi,
Marathi |Given meaning of each word/words, then gave the bhava-arth.
Published by Swadhyay Mandal.
'Pinnacles of India's Past: Selections from the Rgveda' Walter H.
Maurer 1986 English Partial translation published by John Benjamins.
'The Rig Veda' Bibek Debroy, Dipavali Debroy 1992 English Partial
translation published by B. R. Publishing (). The work is in verse
form, without reference to the original hymns or mandalas. Part of
'Great Epics of India: Veda' series, also published as 'The Holy
Vedas'.
'The Holy Vedas: A Golden Treasury' Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar 1983
English
' H. H. Wilson, Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi 2001 English
4-volume set published by Parimal (). Revised edition of Wilson's
translation. Replaces obsolete English forms with more modern
equivalents (e.g. "thou" with "you"). Includes the original Sanskrit
text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus.
'Ṛgveda for the Layman' Shyam Ghosh 2002 English Partial translation
(100 hymns). Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
'Rig-Veda' Michael Witzel, Toshifumi Goto 2007 German Partial
translation (Mandala 1 and 2). The authors are working on a second
volume. Published by Verlag der Weltreligionen ().
'ऋग्वेद' Govind Chandra Pande 2008 Hindi Partial translation (Mandala
3 and 5). Published by Lokbharti, Allahabad
'The Hymns of Rig Veda' Tulsi Ram 2013 English Published by
Vijaykumar Govindram Hasanand, Delhi
'The Rigveda' Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton 2014 English
3-volume set published by Oxford University Press (). Funded by the
United States' National Endowment for the Humanities in 2004.
|Rigveda Samhita |Prasanna Chandra Gautam |2014, 2016 |English, Hindi
|Sanskrit Text with Word To Word Meaning and English Translation and
Hindi Translation (with Mahesh Chandra Gautam). Also contains Essence
of a verse.
See also
======================================================================
* Atri's Eclipse
*
*
Notes
======================================================================
{{reflist|group=note|35em|refs=
}}
Bibliography
======================================================================
Editions
*
**
**
* editio princeps: Friedrich Max Müller, 'The Hymns of the Rigveda,
with Sayana's commentary', London, 184975, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols.,
Oxford, 189092.
* Theodor Aufrecht, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877.
* . The editorial board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke
(Managing Editor), V. K. , M. M. , and T. S. .
* B. van Nooten und G. Holland, 'Rig Veda, a metrically restored
text', Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London,
England, 1994.
* Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English translation Notes and
indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W. F. Webster, originally in 1888,
Published Nag Publishers 1990, 11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar, Delhi-7.
Commentary
* Sayana (14th century)
** ed. Müller 184975 (German translation);
** ed. Müller (original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on 24
manuscripts).
** ed. Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Pune
(2nd ed. 1972) in 5 volumes.
* Rgveda-Samhitā Srimat-sāyanāchārya virachita--sametā, ed. by
Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samśodhana Mandala, Pune-9,
1972, in 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit
based on over 60 manuscripts).
*
* Sri Aurobindo, 'Hymns to the Mystic Fire' (Commentary on the Rig
Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin
[
http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html Rig Veda - Hymns to the
Mystic Fire - Sri Aurobindo - INDEX]
* Raimundo Pannikar (1972), 'The Vedic Experience', University of
California Press
Philology
*
* Vashishtha Narayan Jha, 'A Linguistic Analysis of the
Rgveda-Padapatha' Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi (1992).
* Bjorn Merker,
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024500/http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c12.htm
Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective], Mongolian Studies, Journal of
the Mongolian Society XI, 1988.
*
*
* --'Die Religion des Veda'. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart
1927; Darmstadt 1977
* --'Vedic Hymns', The Sacred Books of the East Vol l. 46 ed.
Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford 1897
* Adolf Kaegi, 'The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians'
(trans. R. Arrowsmith), Boston, Ginn and Co. (1886), 2004 reprint: .
*
Historical
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Lal, B.B. 2005. 'The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic
Flora and Fauna & Archaeology', New Delhi, Aryan Books
International.
* Talageri, Shrikant: 'The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis', 2000.
*
*
*
*
*
External links
======================================================================
Text
* [
https://holybooks.com/rig-veda/ The Rig Veda] The complete Rig Veda
in English translation at holybooks.com
* [
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/index.htm Devanagari and
transliteration] experimental online text at: sacred-texts.com
* [
http://www.detlef108.de/Rigveda.htm ITRANS, Devanagari,
transliteration] online text and PDF, several versions prepared by
Detlef Eichler
* [
http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/RV/index.html
Transliteration, metrically restored] online text, at: Linguistics
Research Center, Univ. of Texas
* '[
http://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#veda The Hymns of the
Rigveda]', Editio Princeps by Friedrich Max Müller (large PDF files of
book scans). Two editions: London, 1877 (Samhita and Pada texts) and
Oxford, 189092, with Sayana's commentary.
*
Dictionary
*
[
http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/GRAScan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php
Rigvedic Dictionary by Hermann Grassmann] (online database,
uni-koeln.de)
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda
