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= Ramayana =
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Introduction
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The 'Ramayana' (; ), also known as 'Valmiki Ramayana', as
traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described
as a Sanskrit epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics
of Hinduism known as the 'Itihasas', the other being the
'Mahabharata'. The epic narrates the life of Rama, the seventh
'avatar' of the Hindu deity Vishnu, who is a prince of Ayodhya in the
kingdom of Kosala. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the
forest urged by his father King Dasharatha, on the request of Rama's
stepmother Kaikeyi; his travels across the forests in the Indian
subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana; the kidnapping
of Sita by Ravana, the king of Lanka, that resulted in bloodbath; and
Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya along with Sita to be crowned as a
king amidst jubilation and celebration.
Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the
7th-5th to 5th-4th century BCE, and later stages extend up to the 3rd
century CE, although the original date of composition is unknown. It
is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists
of nearly 24,000 shlokas (verses), divided into seven (chapters).
Each shloka is a couplet (two individual lines). The Ramayana belongs
to the genre of 'Itihasa', narratives of past events (), interspersed
with teachings on the goals of human life.
There are many versions of the 'Ramayana' in Indian languages,
including Buddhist and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian
('Reamker'), Indonesian, Filipino, Thai ('Ramakien'), Lao, Burmese,
Nepali, Maldivian, Vietnamese, Tibeto-Chinese, and Malay versions of
the Ramayana.
The 'Ramayana' was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and
the Hindu life and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to
the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, both Hindu and
Buddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of
virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of
a state (from , a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a
functioning society .
Etymology
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The name is composed of two words, and "travel, journey", with the
grammatical internal sandhi "joining" of the final short 'a' in 'Rāma'
and the initial short 'a' in 'ayana' to the longer form 'ā'. , the
name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In
the Atharvaveda, it means "dark-coloured or black" and is related to
the word "the darkness or stillness of night". The other meaning,
which can be found in the 'Mahabharata', is "pleasing, pleasant,
charming, lovely, beautiful". Thus, means "Rama's journey".
Dating
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Scholarly estimates of the earliest stage of the available text range
from the 7th-5th to 5th-4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending
to the 3rd century CE. According to Robert P. Goldman (1984), the
oldest parts of the 'Ramayana' date to the early 7th century BCE. The
core parts, states Goldman, cannot have been composed later than the
6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative neither mentioning
Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence of
Magadha (which rose to prominence in the 7th century BCE). The text
also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala, rather than its later
name of Saketa or its successor capital of Shravasti. In terms of
narrative time, the action of the 'Ramayana' predates the
'Mahabharata'. consider the Ramayana's oldest surviving version was
composed around 500 BCE.
Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first
and last books ('Balakanda' and 'Uttara Kanda', respectively) consider
to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions
between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars
since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus.
Genre
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The 'Ramayana' belongs to the genre of 'Itihasa', narratives of past
events (), which includes the epics 'Mahabharata' and 'Ramayana', and
the 'Puranas'. The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human
life. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal
characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and
king. Like the 'Mahabharata', 'Ramayana' presents the teachings of
ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory, interspersing
philosophical and ethical elements.
Structure
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In its extant form, Valmiki's 'Ramayana' is an epic poem containing
over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into seven s (Bālakāṇḍa,
Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa,
Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one
of the longest epic poems ever written.
Recensions
============
The 'Ramayana' text has several regional renderings, recensions, and
sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two
major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s).
Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the 'Ramayana', like the
'Mahabharata', is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more
distinctly the creation of one mind."
There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes
of Valmiki's 'Ramayana' (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by
the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in the
main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later
interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki. Both of these two kāndas
are absent in the oldest manuscript.
Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are
portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the
way the positions of women and Shudras are depicted shows that the
Uttara Kanda is a later insertion.
''Bāla Kāṇḍa''
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The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a
righteous man still left in the world, to which Nārada replies that
such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates
a new form of metre called 'śloka', in which he is granted the ability
to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys
Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the
court of King Rāma. Then the main narrative begins.
Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā,
Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have a son and in the desire to have
a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi.
Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa,
king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣhṇu had
opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Rāvaṇa. As a
consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to
Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā.
When Rāma was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the
court of Daśaratha seeking help against demons who were disturbing
sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his
constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive
instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to
destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much
lore of the landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the
princes.
The party then decides to attend King Janaka's sacrifice in the
kingdom of Mithilā, who has a bow that no one has been able to string.
Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that
whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter Sītā, whom
he found in the earth while plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not
only string the bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā;
the wedding is celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the
marriage party returns to Ayodhyā.
''Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa''
===================
After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses
his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his
subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī
was happy regarding this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā, a
wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had granted to
her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for
fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata.
The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's
demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute
submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout
the story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to
take her with him into exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his
brother into the forest.
After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief,
passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal
uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses
to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in the
forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that
is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's
orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile.
Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf
of his brother.
''Araṇya Kāṇḍa''
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In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks
of the river Godāvari, where they build cottages and live off the
land. One day, in the Pañcavati forest they are visited by a rākṣasī
named Śurpaṇakhā, sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers
and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa
stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her
brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama
defeats Khara and his rakshasas.
When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy
Rāma by capturing Sītā with the aid of the 'rakṣasa' Mārīca. Mārīca,
assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention.
Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture
it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade
Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā
under Lakṣmaṇa's guard.
After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his
life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to
assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if
he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of
hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs
Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to
leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that
no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally
clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's
hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā is tricked and is then
forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa.
Jatāyu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In
Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard of 'rakṣasīs'. Ravaṇa asks Sītā to
marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile,
Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and
immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet
Kabandha and the ascetic Śabarī, who directs them to Sugriva and
Hanuman.
''Kiṣkindhā Kāṇda''
=====================
'Kishkindha Kanda' is set in the land of Vānaras (Vana-nara) - Forest
dwelling humans. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee
of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva, the
banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva
and helps him by killing his elder brother Vāli thus regaining the
kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā.
However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying
his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tārā, (wife of
Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying
the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his
pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the
earth, only to return without success from the north, east, and west.
The southern search party under the leadership of Aṅgada and Hanumān
learns from a vulture named Sampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that
Sītā was taken to Lankā.
''Sundara Kāṇḍa''
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'Sundara Kanda' forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of
a detailed, vivid account of Hanumān's heroics. After learning about
Sītā, Hanumān assumes a gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across
the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets many challenges like facing a
Gandharva Kanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his
abilities. He encounters a mountain named Maināka who offers Hanuman
assistance and a place to rest. Hanumān refuses because there is
little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā.
After entering Lankā, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of
Lankā. Hanumān fights her and subjugates her in order to get into
Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier a vision or warning
from the gods, therefore, knows that Lankā's end is near if someone
defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies
on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in the Ashoka grove, where she is being
wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry him.
Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as a sign that Rāma
is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she
refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will
not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma - "When Rāma was
not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there,
Hanumān carried Sītā back to Rāma." She says that Rāma himself must
come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her
comb as a token to prove that she is still alive.
Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and telling him
about Sītā's location and desire to be rescued only by him, he decides
to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and
buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be
captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa
urging him to release Sīta. He is condemned and his tail is set on
fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps across the rooftops, sets
fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the
island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news.
''Yuddha Kāṇḍa''
==================
Also known as 'Lankā Kāṇḍa', this book describes the war between the
army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report
on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards the shore
of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade
brother Vibhiṣaṇa. The vānaras named Nala and Nīla construct the Rama
Setu.
The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues.
During a battle, Ravana's son Meghanāda hurls a powerful weapon at
Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic
form and flies from Lankā to the Himalayas. Upon reaching, Hanumān is
unable to identify the sanjeevani herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so
he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the
war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installs Vibhishaṇa on the
throne of Lanka.
On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the
wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over
the enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa".
However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity
of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened.
So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame
on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter.
When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays to Agni and enters into
it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person
from the burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to
Rāma, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The
episode of 'Agni Pariksha' varies in the versions of 'Ramāyaṇa' by
Valmiki and Tulsidas. In Tulsidas's 'Ramcharitmanas', Sītā was under
the protection of Agni (see Māyā Sītā) so it was necessary to bring
her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and
glorify Rama as the incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra
restores the dead Vanaras back to life.
After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy
they celebrate it like a festival. Deepavali is the day considered
that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period
of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king
Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā was celebrated
with his coronation. It is called 'Rāma pattabhisheka'. There are
mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva,
Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her
to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān. Rāma was so
thankful to Vibhisaṇa and wanted to give him a great gift. Rāma gave
his Aradhana Devata (Sri Ranganathaswamy) to Vibhishana as a gift.
Rama's rule itself was 'Rāma rājya' described to be a just and fair
rule. It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated
their happiness with 'diyas', and the festival of Deepavali is
connected with Rāma's return.
''Uttara Kanda''
==================
Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the
Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in
stories such as Sita's exile and the death of Shambuka, and together
with Bala Kanda it is considered by some scholars to be an
interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the
Yuddhakanda.
This kanda narrates Rama's reign in Ayodhya, the birth of Lava and
Kusha, the Ashvamedha yajna, and the last days of Rama. At the
expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita,
Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being
asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and
to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his
chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called 'Rama-Rajya' (a
place where the common folk are happy, fulfilled, and satisfied).
Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded to the
throne after Rama.
Versions
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As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the 'Ramayana' survive. In
particular, the 'Ramayana' related in north India differs in important
respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast
Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on
'Ramayana' in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia,
Laos, Vietnam and Maldives.
India
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There are diverse regional versions of the 'Ramayana' written by
various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each
other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic
without two of its kandas.
During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as
Kambaramayanam in Tamil, but references to Ramayana story appear in
Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. The Telugu rendition,
Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 13th
century and another of a purer Telugu rendition, called 'Molla
Ramayanam' written by Atukuri Molla in the 15th century.
The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the
14th-15th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali.
Valmiki's 'Ramayana' inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in
1576, an epic in Awadhi Hindi with a slant more grounded in a
different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an
acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known as 'Tulsi-krita Ramayana'.
Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of the 'Ramayana' in the 17th
century. Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified
text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu
Begum. Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes
from the narrative.
Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by 14th
century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha in the early 15th century; Vilanka
Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and 'Jagamohana Ramayana'
(also known as 'Dandi Ramayana') by 15th century poet Balarama Dasa,
both in Odia; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet
Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu
Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in
the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and
in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in
Kannada and Srimadramayana Kalpavrukshamu in Telugu by Viswanatha
Satyanarayana who received Jnanapeeth award for this work.
There is a sub-plot to the 'Ramayana', prevalent in some parts of
India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil
brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story.
Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the
Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave,
to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. Adbhuta Ramayana is a version
that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki - intended as a
supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the
narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration
of the events surrounding her birth - in this case to Ravana's wife,
Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the
Mahakali form.
The Gondi people have their own version of the Ramayana known as the
'Gond Ramayani', derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven
stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events
of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.
In 'Adiya Ramayana,' an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the
Adiya tribe of Wayanad, Sita is an Adiya woman hailing from Pulpally
in Wayanad. A notable difference in the version is that the Rama,
Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in
the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan,
Mathappan etc. interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the
ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren
jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes
and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha.
Early references in Tamil literature
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Even before Kambar wrote the Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12th century
CE, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana,
implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before
the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam
literature of Akanaṉūṟu (dated 1st century BCE) and Purananuru (dated
300 BC), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 2nd century CE) and
Manimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18), and the Alvar literature of
Kulasekhara Alvar, Thirumangai Alvar, Andal and Nammalvar (dated
between 5th and 10th centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars
have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva.
The entire Ramayana was rewritten as a Tamil Opera in the 18th century
CE by Arunachala Kavirayar in Srirangam. The opera, named the 'Rama
Natakam,' allowed access to those who could not read the original
version.
Buddhist version
==================
In the Buddhist variant of the 'Ramayana' (Dasaratha Jataka),
Dasharatha was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called
Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of
Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of
Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To
protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her
son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas
for a twelve-year exile.
After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned.
Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile
for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction
of Sītā. There is no Ravana in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war.
However, Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara
Sutra.
In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have
been a previous birth of the Buddha, and Sita as previous birth of
Yasodharā (Rahula-Mata).
Jain versions
===============
Vimalsuri was a Jain monk of the Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka sect. He is
best known for his composition '"Paumachariyam"', the earliest known
Jain version of the Ramayana and the oldest work of literature written
in Maharashtri Prakrit. Jain versions of the 'Ramayana' can also be
found in the various Jain agamas like Saṅghadāsagaṇī Vāchaka's
'Vasudevahiṇḍī' (circa 4th century CE), Ravisena's Padmapurana (story
of Padmaja and Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's
Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons),
Sanghadasa's 'Vasudevahindi' and 'Uttarapurana' by Gunabhadara.
According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of
Balarama, Vasudeva and prativasudeva.
Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth Baldeva, Vasudeva and
Prativasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the
Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to
Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of
two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each
half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravartins.
Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the 'jinacharitra'
(lives of jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3d-4th century BCE).
In the Jain epic of 'Ramayana', it is not Rama who kills Ravana as
told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated
Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill. Instead, it is
Lakshmana who kills Ravana (as Vasudeva killes Prativasudeva). In the
end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes a
Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana
go to Hell. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be
reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future
births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara
(omniscient teacher) of Jainism.
The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's 'Ramayana'.
Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra,
Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son
was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was
Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's
son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not
much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain
version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha,
and Sridama.
Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama
abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's
death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately,
he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama
predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in the fourth hell, will
attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the
future Tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will
be his Ganadhara.
Indonesia
===========
There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the
Javanese 'Kakawin Ramayana' and Balinese 'Ramakavaca'. The first half
of 'Kakawin Ramayana' is similar to the original Sanskrit version,
while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable
modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian
demigod, Semar, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up
the numerically significant four Punokawan or "clown servants".
'Kakawin Ramayana' is believed to have been written in Central Java
circa 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in the Mataram Kingdom.
The Javanese 'Kakawin Ramayana' is not based on Valmiki's epic, which
was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based on
'Ravanavadha' or the "Ravana massacre," which is the sixth or seventh
century poem by Indian poet Bhattikavya.
'Kakawin Ramayana' was further developed on the neighboring island of
Bali becoming the Balinese 'Ramakavaca'. The bas-reliefs of 'Ramayana'
and 'Krishnayana' scenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th century
Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta, as well as in the 14th century
Penataran temple in East Java. In Indonesia, the Ramayana is a deeply
ingrained aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese
and Sundanese people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual
guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for
example in wayang and traditional dances.
The Balinese 'kecak' dance for example, retells the story of the
Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana,
Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a
troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting
"cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the
burning of Lanka by Hanuman. In Yogyakarta, the 'Wayang Wong' Javanese
dance also retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of
the Ramayana in Java is the Ramayana Ballet performed on the Trimurti
Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main
prasad spires of the Prambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.
Malaysia
==========
The Malay adaptation of the Ramayana, also known as the Hikayat Seri
Rama, incorporates elements of both Hindu mythology and Islamic
mythology.
Myanmar (Burma)
=================
The Burmese adaptation of the Ramayana is known as the Yama Zatdaw.
Philippines
=============
The 'Maharadia Lawana', an epic poem of the Maranao people of the
Philippines, has been regarded as an indigenized version of the
Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by
Professor Juan R. Francisco and Nagasura Madale in 1968. The poem,
which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's
translation, narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia
Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality.
Francisco, an indologist from the University of the Philippines
Manila, believed that the 'Ramayana' narrative arrived in the
Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via
interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded
extensively with India.
By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place
names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's
narrative already had some notable differences from those of the
'Ramayana'. Francisco believed that this was a sign of
"indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been
introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the
Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was
"further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and
orientations."
Thailand
==========
Thailand's popular national epic 'Ramakien' (, from , 'glory of Ram')
is derived from the Hindu epic. In , Sita is the daughter of Ravana
and Mandodari ( and ). Vibhishana (), the astrologer brother of
Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana
throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka ().
While the main story is identical to that of 'Ramayana', many other
aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes,
weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as
being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is
portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an
elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.
Critical edition
==================
A critical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and
1970s, by the Oriental Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of
Baroda, India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across
India and the surrounding region. An English language translation of
the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit
scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California, Berkeley.
Another english translation of the critical edition of the Valmiki
Ramayana has been made by the late Mr. Bibek Debroy.
Commentaries
======================================================================
There are around thirty three commentaries on the Ramayana. Some of
the commentaries on the Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha's ' (also
known as '), Govindaraja's ' (also known as ), Sivasahaya's ',
Mahadeva Yogi's ', Ramanuja's , Ahobala's and ' by Nagoji Bhatta or
Ramavarma. The three commentaries ', ' and ' are known as ' (i.e.
commentary trio) and are more popular.
Vijayadashami
===============
Vijayadashami is a major Hindu festival celebrated every year at the
end of Durga Puja and Navaratri.
Diwali
========
Diwali, the festival of lights in Hinduism, is celebrated in joy of
Lord Rama returning to Ayodhya with his wife Sita and brother
Lakshmana.
In art
========
One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the
'Ramayana' has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian
subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam.
The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of
massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu
temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various
languages, notably Kambaramayanam by Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th
century, Telugu language 'Molla Ramayanam' by poet Molla and
Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th-century Kannada
poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana and 15th-century Bengali poet
Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th-century
Awadhi version, 'Ramcharitmanas', written by Tulsidas.
Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted through terracottas, stone
sculptures, bronzes and paintings. These include the stone panel at
Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh depicting Bharata's meeting with Rama
at Chitrakuta (3rd century CE).
The 'Ramayana' became popular in Southeast Asia from the 8th century
onward and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance
and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the
'Ramayana', known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many
places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.
In Indonesia, especially Java and Bali, 'Ramayana' has become a
popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow
puppet performances in the region. Sendratari Ramayana is the Javanese
traditional ballet in wayang orang style, routinely performed in the
cultural center of Yogyakarta. Large casts were part of outdoor and
indoor performances presented regularly at Prambanan Trimurti temple
for many years. Balinese dance dramas of 'Ramayana' were also
performed frequently in Balinese Hindu temples in Ubud and Uluwatu,
where scenes from Ramayana are an integral part of kecak dance
performances. Javanese Wayang ('Wayang Kulit' of 'purwa' and 'Wayang
Wong') also draw from 'Ramayana' or 'Mahabharata'.
'Ramayana' has also been depicted in many paintings, notably by the
Indonesian (Balinese) artists such as I Gusti Dohkar (before 1938), I
Dewa Poetoe Soegih, I Dewa Gedé Raka Poedja, Ida Bagus Made Togog
before 1948 period. Their paintings are currently in the National
Museum of World Cultures collections of Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam,
Netherlands. Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen also depicted 'Ramayana'
in 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the
Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.
In popular culture
======================================================================
Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist,
namely Ram Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ramayana Series by Ashok
Banker and a mythopoetic novel, 'Asura: Tale of the Vanquished' by
Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has
published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana
titled 'Sita', 'The Book Of Ram' and 'Hanuman's Ramayan'. A number of
plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based
upon the 'Ramayana'.
Quotes from the 'Ramayana' are used in "Live Gloriously", the main
theme for the video game 'Civilization VII'.
Stage
=======
One of the best known 'Ramayana' plays is Gopal Sharman's 'The
Ramayana', a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic
based on the Valmiki 'Ramayana'. The play has had more than 3,000
performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by
actress Jalabala Vaidya, wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman. 'The
Ramayana' has been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United
Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other
international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India.
Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass,
'Ramayana' has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in
Watsonville, California.
In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s
entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result
of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's
libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by
Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan
Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes
(National Artist for Dance).
Nomenclatures
===============
Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the
geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for
villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West
Bengal. It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a
greeting to each other.
Texts and translations
======================================================================
;Sanskrit text
* [
http://bombay.indology.info/ramayana/statement.html Electronic
version of the Sanskrit text], input by Muneo Tokunaga
* [
http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil.htm#Ram Sanskrit text]
on GRETIL
;Translations
Here is a list of notable English translations of the Ramayana in
chronological order:
* (Project Gutenberg).
** Griffith's translation was one of the earliest complete
translations of the Ramayana into English.
* Reprint: Dover Publications. 2012. .
** Dutt provided a condensed version of the Ramayana in verse form.
*
** This translation presents the Jain perspective on the Ramayana.
*
** Shastri's translation is notable for its attempt to retain the
poetic beauty of the original Sanskrit.
*
**Narayan's translation is a prose version that simplifies the story
for a modern audience while retaining its essential elements.
* 35th Anniversary Edition. 2012.
** Buck's version is a modern retelling that aims to make the story
accessible to contemporary readers.
*
** This translation is noted for its fidelity to the original text.
*
*
*
** This translation is part of the Princeton Library of Asian
Translations and is noted for its scholarly approach and detailed
annotations. The project spans multiple volumes and years.
*
** Sattar's translation is praised for its clarity and readability, as
well as for staying close to the original text.
*
** This translation provides an early form of the 'Ramayana',
emphasizing its foundational aspects.
*
** Debroy's translation is known for its fidelity to the original text
and detailed footnotes and commentary.
These translations reflect a range of approaches, from strict
adherence to the original Sanskrit text to more accessible modern
retellings.
See also
======================================================================
* Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvyaṃ
External links
======================================================================
*
* [
https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-ramayana-of-valmiki
'The Ramayana of Valmiki'] English translation by Hari Prasad Shastri,
1952 (revised edition with interwoven glossary)
*
[
http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1778&Itemid=28
A condensed verse translation] by Romesh Chunder Dutt sponsored by the
Liberty Fund
*
* [
https://books.google.com/books?id=XTXyDwAAQBAJ Absolute dating of
Ramayana]
*[
https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23629 Collection: Art of
the Ramayana] from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
License
=========
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana
