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=                       Post-transition_metal                        =
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                            Introduction
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The metallic elements in the periodic table located between the
transition metals to their left and the chemically weak nonmetallic
metalloids to their right have received many names in the literature,
such as post-transition metals, poor metals, other metals, p-block
metals, basic metals, and chemically weak metals. The most common
name, 'post-transition metals', is generally used in this article.

Physically, these metals are soft (or brittle), have poor mechanical
strength, and usually have melting points lower than those of the
transition metals. Being close to the metal-nonmetal border, their
crystalline structures tend to show covalent or directional bonding
effects, having generally greater complexity or fewer nearest
neighbours than other metallic elements.

Chemically, they are characterised--to varying degrees--by covalent
bonding tendencies, acid-base amphoterism and the formation of anionic
species such as aluminates, stannates, and bismuthates (in the case of
aluminium, tin, and bismuth, respectively). They can also form Zintl
phases (half-metallic compounds formed between highly electropositive
metals and moderately electronegative metals or metalloids).


                        Applicable elements
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The post-transition metals are located on the periodic table between
the transition metals to their left and the chemically weak
nonmetallic metalloids or nonmetals to their right. Generally included
in this category are: the group 13-16 metals in periods 4-6 namely
gallium, indium and thallium, tin and lead, bismuth, and polonium; and
aluminium, a group 13 metal in period 3.

They can be seen at the bottom right in the accompanying plot of
electronegativity values and melting points.

The boundaries of the category are not necessarily sharp as there is
some overlapping of properties with adjacent categories (as occurs
with classification schemes generally).

Some elements otherwise counted as transition metals are sometimes
instead counted as post-transition metals namely the group 10 metal
platinum; the group 11 coinage metals copper, silver and gold; and,
more often, the group 12 metals zinc, cadmium and mercury.

Similarly, some elements otherwise counted as metalloids or nonmetals
are sometimes instead counted as post-transition metals namely
germanium, arsenic, selenium, antimony, tellurium, and polonium (of
which germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium are usually
considered to be metalloids). Astatine, which is usually classified as
a nonmetal or a metalloid, has been predicted to have a metallic
crystalline structure. If so, it would be a post-transition metal.

Elements 112-118 (copernicium, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium,
livermorium, tennessine, and oganesson) may be post-transition metals;
insufficient quantities of them have been synthesized to allow
sufficient investigation of their actual physical and chemical
properties.


                             Rationale
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The diminished metallic nature of the post-transition metals is
largely attributable to the increase in nuclear charge going across
the periodic table, from left to right.  The increase in nuclear
charge is partially offset by an increasing number of electrons but as
these are spatially distributed each extra electron does not fully
screen each successive increase in nuclear charge, and the latter
therefore dominates. With some irregularities, atomic radii contract,
ionisation energies increase, fewer electrons become available for
metallic bonding, and "ions [become] smaller and more polarizing and
more prone to covalency." This phenomenon is more evident in period
4-6 post-transition metals, due to inefficient screening of their
nuclear charges by their d10 and (in the case of the period 6 metals)
f14 electron configurations; the screening power of electrons
decreases in the sequence s > p > d > f. The reductions in
atomic size due to the interjection of the d- and f-blocks are
referred to as, respectively, the 'scandide' or 'd-block contraction',
and the 'lanthanide contraction'. Relativistic effects also "increase
the binding energy", and hence ionisation energy, of the electrons in
"the 6s shell in gold and mercury, and the 6p shell in subsequent
elements of period 6."


Group 10
==========
Platinum is a moderately hard metal (MH 3.5) of low mechanical
strength, with a close-packed face-centred cubic structure (BCN 12).
Compared to other metals in this category, it has an unusually high
melting point (2042 K v 1338 for gold). Platinum is more ductile than
gold, silver or copper, thus being the most ductile of pure metals,
but it is less malleable than gold. Like gold, platinum is a
chalcophile element in terms of its occurrence in the Earth's crust,
preferring to form covalent bonds with sulfur. It behaves like a
transition metal in its preferred oxidation states of +2 and +4. There
is very little evidence of the existence of simple metal ions in
aqueous media; most platinum compounds are (covalent) coordination
complexes. The oxide (PtO2) is amphoteric, with acidic properties
predominating; it can be fused with alkali hydroxides (MOH; M = Na, K)
or calcium oxide (CaO) to give anionic platinates, such as red Na2PtO3
and green K2PtO3. The hydrated oxide can be dissolved in hydrochloric
acid to give the hexachlormetallate(IV), H2PtCl6.

Like gold, which can form compounds containing the −1 auride ion,
platinum can form compounds containing platinide ions, such as the
Zintl phases BaPt, Ba3Pt2 and Ba2Pt, being the first (unambiguous)
transition metal to do so.

Darmstadtium should be similar to its lighter homologue platinum. It
is expected to have a close-packed body-centered cubic structure. It
should be a very dense metal, with a density of 26-27 g/cm3 surpassing
all stable elements. Darmstadtium chemistry is expected to be
dominated by the +2 and +4 oxidation states, similar to platinum.
Darmstadtium(IV) oxide (DsO2) should be amphoteric, and
darmstadtium(II) oxide (DsO) basic, exactly analogous to platinum.
There should also be a +6 oxidation state, similar to platinum.
Darmstadtium should be a very noble metal: the standard reduction
potential for the Ds2+/Ds couple is expected to be +1.7 V, more than
the +1.52 V for the Au3+/Au couple.


Group 11
==========
The group 11 metals are typically categorised as transition metals
given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they
have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity
values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled 'd'
subshell and free 's' electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their
high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the
left of group 11 experience interactions between 's' electrons and the
partially filled 'd' subshell that lower electron mobility."
Chemically, the group 11 metals in their +1 valence states show
similarities to other post-transition metals; they are occasionally
classified as such.



Copper is a soft metal (MH 2.5-3.0) with low mechanical strength. It
has a close-packed face-centred cubic structure (BCN 12). Copper
behaves like a transition metal in its preferred oxidation state of
+2. Stable compounds in which copper is in its less preferred
oxidation state of +1 (Cu2O, CuCl, CuBr, CuI and CuCN, for example)
have significant covalent character. The oxide (CuO) is amphoteric,
with predominating basic properties; it can be fused with alkali
oxides (M2O; M = Na, K) to give anionic oxycuprates (M2CuO2). Copper
forms Zintl phases such as Li7CuSi2 and M3Cu3Sb4 (M = Y, La, Ce, Pr,
Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, or Er).

Silver is a soft metal (MH 2.5-3) with low mechanical strength. It has
a close-packed face-centred cubic structure (BCN 12). The chemistry of
silver is dominated by its +1 valence state in which it shows
generally similar physical and chemical properties to compounds of
thallium, a main group metal, in the same oxidation state. It tends to
bond covalently in most of its compounds. The oxide (Ag2O) is
amphoteric, with basic properties predominating. Silver forms a series
of oxoargentates (M3AgO2, M = Na, K, Rb).  It is a constituent of
Zintl phases such as Li2AgM (M = Al, Ga, In, Tl, Si, Ge, Sn or Pb) and
Yb3Ag2.

Gold is a soft metal (MH 2.5-3) that is easily deformed. It has a
close-packed face-centred cubic structure (BCN 12). The chemistry of
gold is dominated by its +3 valence state; all such compounds of gold
feature covalent bonding, as do its stable +1 compounds. Gold oxide
(Au2O3) is amphoteric, with acidic properties predominating; it forms
anionic hydroxoaurates , where M = Na, K, ½Ba, Tl; and aurates such as
NaAuO2. Gold is a constituent of Zintl phases such as M2AuBi (M = Li
or Na); Li2AuM (M = In, Tl, Ge, Pb, Sn) and Ca5Au4.

Roentgenium is expected to be similar to its lighter homologue gold in
many ways. It is expected to have a close-packed body-centered cubic
structure. It should be a very dense metal, with its density of 22-24
g/cm3 being around that of osmium and iridium, the densest stable
elements. Roentgenium chemistry is expected to be dominated by the +3
valence state, similarly to gold, in which it should similarly behave
as a transition metal. Roentgenium oxide (Rg2O3) should be amphoteric;
stable compounds in the −1, +1, and +5 valence states should also
exist, exactly analogous to gold. Roentgenium is similarly expected to
be a very noble metal: the standard reduction potential for the
Rg3+/Rg couple is expected to be +1.9 V, more than the +1.52 V for the
Au3+/Au couple. The  cation is expected to be the softest among the
metal cations. Due to relativistic stabilisation of the 7s subshell,
roentgenium is expected to have a full s-subshell and a partially
filled d-subshell, instead of the free s-electron and full d-subshell
of copper, silver, and gold.


Group 12
==========
On the group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury), Smith observed
that, "Textbook writers have always found difficulty in dealing with
these elements." There is an abrupt and significant reduction in
physical metallic character from group 11 to group 12. Their chemistry
is that of main group elements. A 2003 survey of chemistry books
showed that they were treated as either transition metals or main
group elements on about a 50/50 basis. The IUPAC Red Book notes that
although the group 3−12 elements are commonly referred to as the
transition elements, the group 12 elements are not always included.
The group 12 elements do not satisfy the IUPAC Gold Book definition of
a transition metal.



Zinc is a soft metal (MH 2.5) with poor mechanical properties. It has
a crystalline structure (BCN 6+6) that is slightly distorted from the
ideal. Many zinc compounds are markedly covalent in character. The
oxide and hydroxide of zinc in its preferred oxidation state of +2,
namely ZnO and Zn(OH)2, are amphoteric; it forms anionic zincates in
strongly basic solutions. Zinc forms Zintl phases such as LiZn, NaZn13
and BaZn13. Highly purified zinc, at room temperature, is ductile. It
reacts with moist air to form a thin layer of carbonate that prevents
further corrosion.

Cadmium is a soft, ductile metal (MH 2.0) that undergoes substantial
deformation, under load, at room temperature. Like zinc, it has a
crystalline structure (BCN 6+6) that is slightly distorted from the
ideal. The halides of cadmium, with the exception of the fluoride,
exhibit a substantially covalent nature. The oxides of cadmium in its
preferred oxidation state of +2, namely CdO and Cd(OH)2, are weakly
amphoteric; it forms cadmates in strongly basic solutions. Cadmium
forms Zintl phases such as LiCd, RbCd13 and CsCd13. When heated in air
to a few hundred degrees, cadmium represents a toxicity hazard due to
the release of cadmium vapour; when heated to its boiling point in air
(just above 1000 K; 725 C; 1340 F; cf steel ~2700 K; 2425 C; 4400 F),
the cadmium vapour oxidizes, 'with a reddish-yellow flame, dispersing
as an aerosol of potentially lethal CdO particles.' Cadmium is
otherwise stable in air and in water, at ambient conditions, protected
by a layer of cadmium oxide.

Mercury is a liquid at room temperature. It has the weakest metallic
bonding of all, as indicated by its bonding energy (61 kJ/mol) and
melting point (−39 °C) which, together, are the lowest of all the
metallic elements. Solid mercury (MH 1.5) has a distorted crystalline
structure, with mixed metallic-covalent bonding, and a BCN of 6. "All
of the [Group 12] metals, but especially mercury, tend to form
covalent rather than ionic compounds." The oxide of mercury in its
preferred oxidation state (HgO; +2) is weakly amphoteric, as is the
congener sulfide HgS. It forms anionic thiomercurates (such as Na2HgS2
and BaHgS3) in strongly basic solutions. It forms or is a part of
Zintl phases such as NaHg and K8In10Hg. Mercury is a relatively inert
metal, showing little oxide formation at room temperature.

Copernicium is expected to be a liquid at room temperature, although
experiments have so far not succeeded in determining its boiling point
with sufficient precision to prove this. Like its lighter congener
mercury, many of its singular properties stem from its closed-shell
d10s2 electron configuration as well as strong relativistic effects.
Its cohesive energy is even less than that of mercury and is likely
only higher than that of flerovium. Solid copernicium is expected to
crystallise in a close-packed body-centred cubic structure and have a
density of about 14.7 g/cm3, decreasing to 14.0 g/cm3 on melting,
which is similar to that of mercury (13.534 g/cm3). Copernicium
chemistry is expected to be dominated by the +2 oxidation state, in
which it would behave like a post-transition metal similar to mercury,
although the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s orbitals means that
this oxidation state involves giving up 6d rather than 7s electrons. A
concurrent relativistic destabilisation of the 6d orbitals should
allow higher oxidation states such as +3 and +4 with electronegative
ligands, such as the halogens. A very high standard reduction
potential of +2.1 V is expected for the Cn2+/Cn couple. In fact, bulk
copernicium may even be an insulator with a band gap of 6.4±0.2 V,
which would make it similar to the noble gases such as radon, though
copernicium has previously been predicted to be a semiconductor or a
noble metal instead. Copernicium oxide (CnO) is expected to be
predominantly basic.


Group 13
==========
Aluminium sometimes is or is not counted as a post-transition metal.
It has a well shielded [Ne] noble gas core rather than the less well
shielded [Ar]3d10, [Kr]4d10 or [Xe]4f145d10 core of the
post-transition metals. The small radius of the aluminium ion combined
with its high charge make it a strongly polarizing species, prone to
covalency.

Aluminium in pure form is a soft metal (MH 3.0) with low mechanical
strength. It has a close-packed structure (BCN 12) showing some
evidence of partially directional bonding. It has a low melting point
and a high thermal conductivity. Its strength is halved at 200 °C, and
for many of its alloys is minimal at 300 °C. The latter three
properties of aluminium limit its use to situations where fire
protection is not required, or necessitate the provision of increased
fire protection. It bonds covalently in most of its compounds; has an
amphoteric oxide; and can form anionic aluminates. Aluminium forms
Zintl phases such as LiAl, Ca3Al2Sb6, and SrAl2. A thin protective
layer of oxide confers a reasonable degree of corrosion resistance. It
is susceptible to attack in low pH (<4) and high (> 8.5) pH
conditions, a phenomenon that is generally more pronounced in the case
of commercial purity aluminium and aluminium alloys. Given many of
these properties and its proximity to the dividing line between metals
and nonmetals, aluminium is occasionally classified as a metalloid.
Despite its shortcomings, it has a good strength-to-weight ratio and
excellent ductility; its mechanical strength can be improved
considerably with the use of alloying additives; its very high thermal
conductivity can be put to good use in heat sinks and heat exchangers;
and it has a high electrical conductivity. At lower temperatures,
aluminium increases its deformation strength (as do most materials)
whilst maintaining ductility (as do face-centred cubic metals
generally). Chemically, bulk aluminium is a strongly electropositive
metal, with a high negative
[http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/redoxeqia/introduction.html
electrode potential].

Gallium is a soft, brittle metal (MH 1.5) that melts at only a few
degrees above room temperature. It has an unusual crystalline
structure featuring mixed metallic-covalent bonding and low symmetry
(BCN 7 i.e. 1+2+2+2). It bonds covalently in most of its compounds,
has an amphoteric oxide; and can form anionic gallates. Gallium forms
Zintl phases such as Li2Ga7, K3Ga13 and YbGa2. It is slowly oxidized
in moist air at ambient conditions; a protective film of oxide
prevents further corrosion.

Indium is a soft, highly ductile metal (MH 1.0) with a low tensile
strength. It has a partially distorted crystalline structure (BCN 4+8)
associated with incompletely ionised atoms. The tendency of indium
'...to form covalent compounds is one of the more important properties
influencing its electrochemical behavior'. The oxides of indium in its
preferred oxidation state of +3, namely In2O3 and In(OH)3 are weakly
amphoteric; it forms anionic indates in strongly basic solutions.
Indium forms Zintl phases such as LiIn, Na2In and Rb2In3. Indium does
not oxidize in air at ambient conditions.

Thallium is a soft, reactive metal (MH 1.0), so much so that it has no
structural uses. It has a close-packed crystalline structure (BCN 6+6)
but an abnormally large interatomic distance that has been attributed
to partial ionisation of the thallium atoms. Although compounds in the
+1 (mostly ionic) oxidation state are the more numerous, thallium has
an appreciable chemistry in the +3 (largely covalent) oxidation state,
as seen in its chalcogenides and trihalides. It and aluminium are the
only Group 13 elements to react with air at room temperature, slowly
forming the amphoteric oxide Tl2O3. It forms anionic thallates such as
Tl3TlO3, Na3Tl(OH)6, NaTlO2, and KTlO2, and is present as the Tl−
thallide anion in the compound CsTl. Thallium forms Zintl phases, such
as Na2Tl, Na2K21Tl19, CsTl and Sr5Tl3H.

Nihonium is expected to have a hexagonal close-packed crystalline
structure, albeit based on extrapolation from those of the lighter
group 13 elements: its density is expected to be around 16 g/cm3. A
standard electrode potential of +0.6 V is predicted for the Nh+/Nh
couple. The relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons is very
high and hence nihonium should predominantly form the +1 oxidation
state; nevertheless, as for copernicium, the +3 oxidation state should
be reachable. Because of the shell closure at flerovium caused by
spin-orbit coupling, nihonium is also one 7p electron short of a
closed shell and would hence form a −1 oxidation state; in both the +1
and −1 oxidation states, nihonium should show more similarities to
astatine than thallium. The Nh+ ion is expected to also have some
similarities to the Ag+ ion, particularly in its propensity for
complexation. Nihonium oxide (Nh2O) is expected to be amphoteric.


Group 14
==========
Germanium is a hard (MH 6), very brittle semi-metallic element. It was
originally thought to be a poorly conducting metal but has the
electronic band structure of a semiconductor. Germanium is usually
considered to be a metalloid rather than a metal. Like carbon (as
diamond) and silicon, it has a covalent tetrahedral crystalline
structure (BCN 4). Compounds in its preferred oxidation state of +4
are covalent. Germanium forms an amphoteric oxide, GeO2 and anionic
germanates, such as Mg2GeO4. It forms Zintl phases such as LiGe,
K8Ge44 and La4Ge3.

Tin is a soft, exceptionally weak metal (MH 1.5); a 1-cm thick rod
will bend easily under mild finger pressure. It has an irregularly
coordinated crystalline structure (BCN 4+2) associated with
incompletely ionised atoms. All of the Group 14 elements form
compounds in which they are in the +4, predominantly covalent,
oxidation state; even in the +2 oxidation state tin generally forms
covalent bonds.  The oxides of tin in its preferred oxidation state of
+2, namely SnO and Sn(OH)2, are amphoteric; it forms stannites in
strongly basic solutions. Below 13 °C (55.4 °F) tin changes its
structure and becomes 'grey tin', which has the same structure as
diamond, silicon and germanium (BCN 4). This transformation causes
ordinary tin to crumble and disintegrate since, as well as being
brittle, grey tin occupies more volume due to having a less efficient
crystalline packing structure. Tin forms Zintl phases such as Na4Sn,
BaSn, K8Sn25 and Ca31Sn20. It has good corrosion resistance in air on
account of forming a thin protective oxide layer. Pure tin has no
structural uses. It is used in lead-free solders, and as a hardening
agent in alloys of other metals, such as copper, lead, titanium and
zinc.

Lead is a soft metal (MH 1.5, but hardens close to melting) which, in
many cases, is unable to support its own weight. It has a close-packed
structure (BCN 12) but an abnormally large inter-atomic distance that
has been attributed to partial ionisation of the lead atoms. It forms
a semi-covalent dioxide PbO2; a covalently bonded sulfide PbS;
covalently bonded halides; and a range of covalently bonded organolead
compounds such as the lead(II) mercaptan , lead tetra-acetate , and
the once common, anti-knock additive, tetra-ethyl lead . The oxide of
lead in its preferred oxidation state (PbO; +2) is amphoteric; it
forms anionic plumbates in strongly basic solutions. Lead forms Zintl
phases such as , ,  and . It has reasonable to good corrosion
resistance; in moist air it forms a mixed gray coating of oxide,
carbonate and sulfate that hinders further oxidation.

Flerovium is expected to be a liquid metal due to spin-orbit coupling
"tearing" apart the 7p subshell, so that its 7s27p1/22 valence
configuration forms a quasi-closed shell similar to those of mercury
and copernicium. Solid flerovium should have a face-centered cubic
structure and be a rather dense metal, with a density of around 14
g/cm3. Flerovium is expected to have a standard electrode potential of
+0.9 V for the Fl2+/Fl couple. Flerovium oxide (FlO) is expected to be
amphoteric, forming anionic flerovates in basic solutions.


Group 15
==========
Arsenic is a moderately hard (MH 3.5) and brittle semi-metallic
element. It is commonly regarded as a metalloid, or by some other
authors as either a metal or a non-metal. It exhibits poor electrical
conductivity which, like a metal, decreases with temperature. It has a
relatively open and partially covalent crystalline structure (BCN
3+3). Arsenic forms covalent bonds with most other elements. The oxide
in its preferred oxidation state (As2O3, +3) is amphoteric, as is the
corresponding oxoacid in aqueous solution (H3AsO3) and congener
sulfide (As2S3). Arsenic forms a series of anionic arsenates such as
Na3AsO3 and PbHAsO4, and Zintl phases such as Na3As, Ca2As and SrAs3.

Antimony is a soft (MH 3.0) and brittle semi-metallic element. It is
commonly regarded as a metalloid, or by some other authors as either a
metal or a non-metal. It exhibits poor electrical conductivity which,
like a metal, decreases with temperature. It has a relatively open and
partially covalent crystalline structure (BCN 3+3). Antimony forms
covalent bonds with most other elements. The oxide in its preferred
oxidation state (Sb2O3, +3) is amphoteric. Antimony forms a series of
anionic antimonites and antimonates such as NaSbO2 and AlSbO4, and
Zintl phases such as K5Sb4, Sr2Sb3 and BaSb3.

Bismuth is a soft metal (MH 2.5) that is too brittle for any
structural use. It has an open-packed crystalline structure (BCN 3+3)
with bonding that is intermediate between metallic and covalent. For a
metal, it has exceptionally low electrical and thermal conductivity.
Most of the ordinary compounds of bismuth are covalent in nature. The
oxide, Bi2O3 is predominantly basic but will act as a weak acid in
warm, very concentrated KOH. It can also be fused with potassium
hydroxide in air, resulting in a brown mass of potassium bismuthate.
The solution chemistry of bismuth is characterised by the formation of
oxyanions; it forms anionic bismuthates in strongly basic solutions.
Bismuth forms Zintl phases such as NaBi, Rb7In4Bi6 and Ba11Cd8Bi14.
Bailar et al. refer to bismuth as being, 'the least "metallic" metal
in its physical properties' given its brittle nature (and possibly)
'the lowest electrical conductivity of all metals.'

Moscovium is expected to be a quite reactive metal. A standard
reduction potential of −1.5 V for the Mc+/Mc couple is expected. This
increased reactivity is consistent with the quasi-closed shell of
flerovium and the beginning of a new series of elements with the
filling of the loosely bound 7p3/2 subshell, and is rather different
from the relative nobility of bismuth. Like thallium, moscovium should
have a common +1 oxidation state and a less common +3 oxidation state,
although their relative stabilities may change depending on the
complexing ligands or the degree of hydrolysis. Moscovium(I) oxide
(Mc2O) should be quite basic, like that of thallium, while
moscovium(III) oxide (Mc2O3) should be amphoteric, like that of
bismuth.


Group 16
==========
Selenium is a soft (MH 2.0) and brittle semi-metallic element. It is
commonly regarded as a nonmetal, but is sometimes considered a
metalloid or even a heavy metal. Selenium has a hexagonal polyatomic
(CN 2) crystalline structure. It is a semiconductor with a band gap of
1.7 eV, and a photoconductor meaning its electrical conductivity
increases a million-fold when illuminated. Selenium forms covalent
bonds with most other elements, noting it can form ionic selenides
with highly electropositive metals. The common oxide of selenium
(SeO3) is strongly acidic. Selenium forms a series of anionic
selenites and selenates such as Na2SeO3, Na2Se2O5, and Na2SeO4, as
well as Zintl phases such as Cs4Se16.

Tellurium is a soft (MH 2.25) and brittle semi-metallic element. It is
commonly regarded as a metalloid, or by some authors either as a metal
or a non-metal. Tellurium has a polyatomic (CN 2) hexagonal
crystalline structure. It is a semiconductor with a band gap of 0.32
to 0.38 eV. Tellurium forms covalent bonds with most other elements,
noting it has an extensive organometallic chemistry and that many
tellurides can be regarded as metallic alloys. The common oxide of
tellurium (TeO2) is amphoteric. Tellurium forms a series of anionic
tellurites and tellurates such as Na2TeO3, Na6TeO6, and Rb6Te2O9 (the
last containing tetrahedral  and trigonal bipyramidal  anions), as
well as Zintl phases such as NaTe3.

Polonium is a radioactive, soft metal with a hardness similar to lead.
It has a simple cubic crystalline structure characterised (as
determined by electron density calculations) by partially directional
bonding, and a BCN of 6. Such a structure ordinarily results in very
low ductility and fracture resistance however polonium has been
predicted to be a ductile metal. It forms a covalent hydride; its
halides are covalent, volatile compounds, resembling those of
tellurium. The oxide of polonium in its preferred oxidation state
(PoO2; +4) is predominantly basic, but amphoteric if dissolved in
concentrated aqueous alkali, or fused with potassium hydroxide in air.
The yellow polonate(IV) ion  is known in aqueous solutions of low Cl‒
concentration and high pH. Polonides such as Na2Po, BePo, ZnPo, CdPo
and HgPo feature Po2− anions; except for HgPo these are some of the
more stable of the polonium compounds.

Livermorium is expected to be less reactive than moscovium. The
standard reduction potential of the Lv2+/Lv couple is expected to be
around +0.1 V. It should be most stable in the +2 oxidation state; the
7p3/2 electrons are expected to be so weakly bound that the first two
ionisation potentials of livermorium should lie between those of the
reactive alkaline earth metals magnesium and calcium. The +4 oxidation
state should only be reachable with the most electronegative ligands.
Livermorium(II) oxide (LvO) should be basic and livermorium(IV) oxide
(LvO2) should be amphoteric, analogous to polonium.


Group 17
==========
Astatine is a radioactive element that has never been seen; a visible
quantity would immediately be vaporised due to its intense
radioactivity. It may be possible to prevent this with sufficient
cooling. Astatine is commonly regarded as a nonmetal, less commonly as
a metalloid and occasionally as a metal. Unlike its lighter congener
iodine, evidence for diatomic astatine is sparse and inconclusive. In
2013, on the basis of relativistic modelling, astatine was predicted
to be a monatomic metal, with a face-centered cubic crystalline
structure. As such, astatine could be expected to have a metallic
appearance; show metallic conductivity; and have excellent ductility,
even at cryogenic temperatures. It could also be expected to show
significant nonmetallic character, as is normally the case for metals
in, or in the vicinity of, the p-block. Astatine oxyanions AtO−,  and
are known, oxyanion formation being a tendency of nonmetals. The
hydroxide of astatine At(OH) is presumed to be amphoteric. Astatine
forms covalent compounds with nonmetals, including hydrogen astatide
HAt and carbon tetraastatide CAt4. At− anions have been reported to
form astatides with silver, thallium, palladium and lead. Pruszyński
et al. note that astatide ions should form strong complexes with soft
metal cations such as Hg2+, Pd2+, Ag+ and Tl3+; they list the astatide
formed with mercury as Hg(OH)At.

Tennessine, despite being in the halogen column of the periodic table,
is expected to go even further towards metallicity than astatine due
to its small electron affinity. The −1 state should not be important
for tennessine and its major oxidation states should be +1 and +3,
with +3 more stable: Ts3+ is expected to behave similarly to Au3+ in
halide media. As such, tennessine oxide (Ts2O3) is expected to be
amphoteric, similar to gold oxide and astatine(III) oxide.


Group 18
==========
Oganesson is expected to be a very poor "noble gas" and may even be
metallised by its large atomic radius and the weak binding of the
easily removed 7p3/2 electrons: certainly it is expected to be a quite
reactive element that is solid at room temperature and has some
similarities to tin, as one effect of the spin-orbit splitting of the
7p subshell is a "partial role reversal" of groups 14 and 18. Due to
the immense polarisability of oganesson, it is expected that not only
oganesson(II) fluoride but also oganesson(IV) fluoride should be
predominantly ionic, involving the formation of Og2+ and Og4+ cations.
Oganesson(II) oxide (OgO) and oganesson(IV) oxide (OgO2) are both
expected to be amphoteric, similar to the oxides of tin.


B-subgroup metals
===================
Superficially, the B-subgroup metals are the metals in Groups IB to
VIIB of the periodic table, corresponding to groups 11 to 17 using
current IUPAC nomenclature. Practically, the group 11 metals (copper,
silver and gold) are ordinarily regarded as transition metals (or
sometimes as coinage metals, or noble metals) whereas the group 12
metals (zinc, cadmium, and mercury) may or may not be treated as
B-subgroup metals depending on if the transition metals are taken to
end at group 11 or group 12. The 'B' nomenclature (as in Groups IB,
IIB, and so on) was superseded in 1988 but is still occasionally
encountered in more recent literature.

The B-subgroup metals show nonmetallic properties; this is
particularly apparent in moving from group 12 to group 16. Although
the group 11 metals have normal close-packed metallic structures they
show an overlap in chemical properties. In their +1 compounds (the
stable state for silver; less so for copper) they are typical
B-subgroup metals. In their +2 and +3 states their chemistry is
typical of transition metal compounds.


Pseudo metals and hybrid metals
=================================
The B-subgroup metals can be subdivided into 'pseudo metals' and
'hybrid metals'. The pseudo metals (groups 12 and 13, including boron)
are said to behave more like true metals (groups 1 to 11) than
non-metals. The hybrid metals As, Sb, Bi, Te, Po, At -- which other
authors would call metalloids -- partake about equally the properties
of both. The pseudo metals can be considered related to the hybrid
metals through the group 14 carbon column.


Base metals
=============
Mingos writes that while the p-block metals are typical, that are not
strongly reducing and that, as such, they are base metals requiring
oxidizing acids to dissolve them.


Borderline metals
===================
Parish writes that, 'as anticipated', the borderline metals of groups
13 and 14 have non-standard structures. Gallium, indium, thallium,
germanium, and tin are specifically mentioned in this context. The
group 12 metals are also noted as having slightly distorted
structures; this has been interpreted as evidence of weak directional
(i.e. covalent) bonding.


Chemically weak metals
========================
Rayner-Canham and Overton use the term 'chemically weak metals' to
refer to the metals close to the metal-nonmetal borderline. These
metals behave chemically more like the metalloids, particularly with
respect to anionic species formation. The nine chemically weak metals
identified by them are beryllium, magnesium, aluminium, gallium, tin,
lead, antimony, bismuth, and polonium.


Frontier metals
=================
Vernon  uses the term "frontier metal" to refer to the class of
chemically weak metals adjacent to the dividing line between metals.
He notes that several of them "are further distinguished by a series
of…knight's move relationships, formed between one element and the
element one period down and two groups to its right." For example,
copper(I) chemistry resembles indium(I) chemistry: "both ions are
found mostly in solid-state compounds such as CuCl and InCl; the
fluorides are unknown for both ions while the iodides are the most
stable." The name frontier metal is adapted from Russell and Lee, who
wrote that, "…bismuth and group 16 element polonium are generally
considered to be metals, although they occupy 'frontier territory' on
the periodic table, adjacent to the nonmetals."


Fusible metals
================
Cardarelli, writing in 2008, categorizes zinc, cadmium, mercury,
gallium, indium, thallium, tin, lead, antimony and bismuth as fusible
metals. Nearly 100 years earlier, Louis (1911) noted that fusible
metals were alloys containing tin, cadmium, lead, and bismuth in
various proportions, "the tin ranging from 10 to 20%."


Heavy metals (of low melting point)
=====================================
Van Wert grouped the periodic table metals into a. the light metals;
b. the heavy brittle metals of high melting point, c. the heavy
ductile metals of high melting point; d. the heavy metals of low
melting point (Zn, Cd, Hg; Ga, In, Tl; Ge, Sn; As, Sb, Bi; and Po),
and e. the strong, electropositive metals. Britton, Abbatiello and
Robins speak of 'the soft, low melting point, heavy metals in columns
lIB, IlIA, IVA, and VA of the periodic table, namely Zn, Cd, Hg; Al,
Ga, In, Tl; [Si], Ge, Sn, Pb; and Bi. The Sargent-Welch 'Chart of the
Elements' groups the metals into: light metals, the lanthanide series;
the actinide series; heavy metals (brittle); heavy metals (ductile);
and heavy metals (low melting point): Zn, Cd, Hg, [Cn]; Al, Ga, In,
Tl; Ge, Sn, Pb, [Fl]; Sb, Bi; and Po.


Less typical metals
=====================
Habashi groups the elements into eight major categories: [1] typical
metals (alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and aluminium); [2]
lanthanides (Ce-Lu); [3] actinides (Th-Lr); [4] transition metals (Sc,
Y, La, Ac, groups 4-10); [5] less typical metals (groups 11-12, Ga,
In, Tl, Sn and Pb); [6] metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Sb, Te, Bi and
Po); [7] covalent nonmetals (H, C, N, O, P, S and the halogens); and
[8] monatomic nonmetals (that is, the noble gases).


Metametals
============
The 'metametals' are zinc, cadmium, mercury, indium, thallium, tin and
lead. They are ductile elements but, compared to their metallic
periodic table neighbours to the left, have lower melting points,
relatively low electrical and thermal conductivities, and show
distortions from close-packed forms. Sometimes beryllium and gallium
are included as metametals despite having low ductility.


Ordinary metals
=================
Abrikosov distinguishes between 'ordinary metals', and transition
metals where the inner shells are not filled. The ordinary metals have
lower melting points and cohesive energies than those of the
transition metals. Gray identifies as ordinary metals: aluminium,
gallium, indium, thallium, nihonium, tin, lead, flerovium, bismuth,
moscovium, and livermorium. He adds that, 'in reality most of the
metals that people think of as ordinary are in fact transition
metals...'.


Other metals
==============
As noted, the metals falling between the transition metals and the
metalloids on the periodic table are sometimes called 'other metals'
(see also, for example, Taylor et al.). 'Other' in this sense has the
related meanings of, 'existing besides, or distinct from, that already
mentioned' (that is, the alkali and alkaline earth metals, the
lanthanides and actinides, and the transition metals); 'auxiliary';
'ancillary, secondary'. According to Gray there should be a better
name for these elements than 'other metals'.


p-block metals
================
The 'p-block metals' are the metals in groups 13‒16 of the periodic
table. Usually, this includes aluminium, gallium, indium and thallium;
tin and lead; and bismuth. Germanium, antimony and polonium are
sometimes also included, although the first two are commonly
recognised as metalloids. The p-block metals tend to have structures
that display low coordination numbers and directional bonding.
Pronounced covalency is found in their compounds; the majority of
their oxides are amphoteric.

Aluminium is an undisputed p-block element by group membership and its
[Ne] 3s2 3p1 electron configuration, but aluminium does not literally
come 'after' transition metals unlike p-block metals from period 4 and
on. The epithet "post-transition" in reference to aluminium is a
misnomer, and aluminium normally has no d electrons unlike all other
p-block metals.


Peculiar metals
=================
Slater divides the metals 'fairly definitely, though not perfectly
sharply' into the 'ordinary metals' and the 'peculiar metals', the
latter of which verge on the nonmetals. The peculiar metals occur
towards the ends of the rows of the periodic table and include
'approximately:' gallium, indium, and thallium; carbon, silicon '(both
of which have some metallic properties, though we have previously
treated them as nonmetals),' germanium and tin; arsenic, antimony, and
bismuth; and selenium '(which is partly metallic)' and tellurium. The
ordinary metals have centro-symmetrical crystalline structures whereas
the peculiar metals have structures involving directional bonding.
More recently, Joshua observed that the peculiar metals have mixed
metallic-covalent bonding.


Poor metals
=============
Farrell and Van Sicien use the term 'poor metal', for simplicity, 'to
denote one with a significant covalent, or directional character.'
Hill and Holman observe that, 'The term poor metals is not widely
used, but it is a useful description for several metals including tin,
lead and bismuth. These metals fall in a triangular block of the
periodic table to the right of the transition metals. They are usually
low in the activity (electrochemical) series and they have some
resemblances to non-metals.' Reid et al. write that 'poor metals' is,
'[A]n older term for metallic elements in Groups 13‒15 of the periodic
table that are softer and have lower melting points than the metals
traditionally used for tools.'


Post-transition metals
========================
An early usage of this name is recorded by Deming, in 1940, in his
well-known book 'Fundamental Chemistry.' He treated the transition
metals as finishing at group 10 (nickel, palladium and platinum). He
referred to the ensuing elements in periods 4 to 6 of the periodic
table (copper to germanium; silver to antimony; gold to polonium)--in
view of their underlying d10 electronic configurations--as
post-transition metals.


Semimetals
============
In modern use, the term 'semimetal' sometimes refers, loosely or
explicitly, to metals with incomplete metallic character in
crystalline structure, electrical conductivity or electronic
structure. Examples include gallium, ytterbium, bismuth, mercury and
neptunium. Metalloids, which are in-between elements that are neither
metals nor nonmetals, are also sometimes instead called semimetals.
The elements commonly recognised as metalloids are boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. In old chemistry, before
the publication in 1789 of Lavoisier's 'revolutionary' 'Elementary
Treatise on Chemistry', a semimetal was a metallic element with 'very
imperfect ductility and malleability' such as zinc, mercury or
bismuth.


Soft metals
=============
Scott and Kanda refer to the metals in groups 11 to 15, plus platinum
in group 10, as soft metals, excluding the very active metals, in
groups 1−3. They note many important non-ferrous alloys are made from
metals in this class, including sterling silver, brass (copper and
zinc), and bronzes (copper with tin, manganese and nickel).


Transition metals
===================
Historically, the transition metal series "includes those elements of
the Periodic Table which 'bridge the gap' between the very
electropositive alkali and allkaline earth metals and the
electronegative non-metals of the groups: nitrogen-phosphorus,
oxygen-sulfur, and the halogens." Cheronis, Parsons and Ronneberg
wrote that, "The transition metals of low melting point form a block
in the Periodic Table: those of Groups II 'b' [zinc, cadmium,
mercury], III 'b' [aluminium, gallium, indium, thallium], and
germanium, tin and lead in Group IV. These metals all have melting
points below 425 °C."


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                          Further reading
======================================================================
*Lowrie RS & Campbell-Ferguson HJ 1971, 'Inorganic and physical
chemistry', 2nd ed., chapter 25: The B-metals, Pergamon Press, Oxford,
pp. 306-318
*Parish RV 1977, 'The metallic elements', chapter 9: The 'p'-block
metals, Longman, London, pp. 178-199
*Phillips CSG & Williams RJP 1966, 'Inorganic chemistry', vol. 2:
Metals, Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 459-537
*Steele D 1966, 'The chemistry of the metallic elements', chapter 7:
The later B-subgroup metals, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 65-83


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