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=                           Parallel_Lives                           =
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                            Introduction
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The 'Parallel Lives' (, 'Bíoi Parállēloi'; ) is a series of 48
biographies of famous men written in Greek by the Greco-Roman
philosopher, historian, and Apollonian priest Plutarch, probably at
the beginning of the second century. The lives are arranged in pairs
to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings. While any
historically valuable similarities are often forced, these stories of
contrasting characters hold great literary value.

The surviving 'Parallel Lives' comprises 23 pairs of biographies, each
pair consisting of one Greek and one Roman of similar destiny, such as
Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, or Demosthenes and Cicero.
There are also four singular 'Lives', recounting the stories of
Artaxerxes, Aratus, Galba, and Otho. Traces of other biographies point
to an additional twelve single 'Lives' that are now missing.

It is a work of considerable importance, not only as a source of
information about the individuals described, but also about the times
in which they lived.


                             Motivation
======================================================================
'Parallel Lives' was Plutarch's second set of biographical works,
following the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius.
Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive.

As he explains in the first paragraph of his 'Life of Alexander',
Plutarch was not concerned with writing histories, but with exploring
the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of
famous men. He wished to shed light on the actions and achievements of
the Greek men of the distant past through his comparisons with the
more recent past of Rome. George Wyndham's introduction in the 1895
publication of the 'Lives' writes of: "[Plutarch's] desire, as a man,
to draw the noble Grecians, long since dead, a little nearer to the
noonday of the living...By placing them side by side, he gave back to
the Greeks that touch which they had lost with the living in the death
of Greece, and to the Romans that distinction from everyday life which
they were fast beginning to lose". Plutarch's interest was primarily
ethical rather than historical ("For it is not Histories that I am
writing, but Lives."). Because the men he wrote about had been dead
nearly 300 years before Plutarch's time, his writing was largely based
off of manuscripts of uncertain accuracy. Plutarch himself had little
faith in the historic truth found in resources from the past. In his
life of Pericles, he states: "It is so hard to find out the truth of
anything by looking at the record of the past. The process of time
obscures the truth of former times, and even contemporaneous writers
disguise and twist the truth out of malice or flattery."


                            Translations
======================================================================
The 'Lives' were circulated enough throughout Rome after their
original production that they survived the Dark Ages. However, many of
the 'Lives' which appear in a list of his writings have not been
found. Among these are his biography of Hercules and his comparison of
Epaminondas of Greece and Scipio Africanus of Rome.

The first printed edition of his 'Parallel Lives' appeared in Rome
around 1470, translated into Latin from the original Greek. Several
more translations would appear through the end of the fifteenth
century, with an Italian translation in 1482 then in Spanish in 1491.
A German translation would be written in 1541.

The 'Lives' would gain massive popularity after the 1559 French
translation by Amyot, the Abbot of Bellozane. This reproduction of the
work was an immediate success. Six authorized editions were published
by the Parisian house of Vascosan by the end of 1579, and it was
largely pirated.

Amyot's translation served as a direct source for Thomas North's 1579
English translation, which phrase for phrase follows Amyot's French
version. This rendition would become an important source-material for
Shakespeare's 'Coriolanus, Julius Caesar', and 'Antony and Cleopatra'.

In 1683 a new English edition of the 'Lives' was published, this time
translated from the original Greek, unlike North's translation based
off of the French version. This translation has come to be known as
"Dryden's translation", despite the poet John Dryden only serving as
the project's editor and ultimately having no role in the actual
translation of the work. It was published by Jacob Tonson.

The most popular English translations that exist today are published
by Penguin Classics and Oxford World's Classics. Both of these
editions provide a solid translation of the entire 'Lives', as well as
introductions, notes, and bibliographies produced by leading experts
on Plutarch and the 'Parallel Lives.' Modern translations of
Plutarch's work has made 'Parallel Lives' accessible and digestible to
vast audiences.


                              Content
======================================================================
Plutarch structured 'Parallel Lives' by pairing lives of famous Greeks
with those of famous Romans. Eighteen of these close with a formal
comparison between its characters.

Plutarch's focus within the 'Lives' is to create a neat depiction of
character that fits into his comparison to the parallel life.
Historical context is neglected in favor of moral analysis in order to
create his desired anecdote. This can be seen in his deviation from
the sources he used to understand the characters he represented: "His
Eumenes is a far cry from any picture of Eumenes he can have found in
the historical literature he used. It is an artificial creation to
provide a counterpart to his Sertorius and can only be understood
against the background of the Sertorius." The 'Parallel Lives',
therefore, need to be understood primarily as literary biographies,
not as histories.

Within the biographies Plutarch presents both the positive and
negative attributes of each character. Rather than speaking of the
character’s lives in simple terms surrounding the events of their
lives, he describes the moral and psychological motivations behind
each figure. He uses them as ‘moral actors’, prompting
self-examination and self-improvement from the reader. Even when
making judgements on the characters within the text, Plutarch still
“poses questions to his readers and suggests alternative trains of
thought that might be possible for them to follow”. This encourages
the reader to acknowledge and appreciate contradicting viewpoints and
broaden their moral perspectives.

The table below gives the list of the biographies. Its order follows
the one found in the 'Lamprias Catalogue', the list of Plutarch's
works made by his hypothetical son Lamprias. The table also features
links to several English translations of Plutarch's 'Lives' available
online. While the four unpaired biographies are not considered to be
parts of the 'Parallel Lives', they can be included in the term
'Plutarch's Lives'.

All dates are BC.
rowspan="2" |№        colspan="3" |Greek      colspan="3" |Roman      rowspan="2"
|Comparison
!Life   !Years  !Translations   !Life   !Years  !Translations
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_THESEUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Theseus*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Thes.+1.1
**P**]
[https://archive.org/download/parallel_lives01_0810_librivox1/parallellives01_01_plutarchperrin.mp3
**LV**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/romulus.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_ROMULUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Romulus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/r_t_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_THESEUS_ROMULUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Theseus%2BRomulus*.html
**L**]
|1      |Theseus        |mythic |Romulus        | 771-717
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/lycurgus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_LYKURGUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lycurgus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/numa_pom.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_NUMA
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Numa*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/n_l_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_NUMA_WITH_LYKURGUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lycurgus+Numa*.html
**L**]
|2      |Lycurgus       |  820  |Numa Pompilius |715-673
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/themisto.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_THEMISTOKLES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Themistocles*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Them.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/camillus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_CAMILLUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Camillus*.html
**L**]
|3      |Themistocles   | 524-459       |Camillus       |446-365        |n/a
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/solon.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_SOLON
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Solon*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Sol.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/poplicol.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_POPLICOLA
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Publicola*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_s_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_SOLON_AND_POPLICOLA
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Solon%2BPublicola*.html
**L**]
|4      |Solon  |638-558        |Poplicola      |d. 503
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pericles.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PERIKLES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Per.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/fabius.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_FABIUS_MAXIMUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Fabius_Maximus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/fabius_p.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_PERIKLES_AND_FABIUS_MAXIMUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles%2BFabius_Maximus*.html
**L**]
|5      |Pericles       | 495-429       |Fabius Maximus |275-203
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/alcibiad.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_ALKIBIADES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alcibiades*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Alc.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/coriolan.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_CAIUS_MARCIUS_CORIOLANUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Coriolanus*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Cor.+1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/compared.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_ALKIBIADES_AND_CORIOLANUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alcibiades%2BCoriolanus*.html
**L**]
|6      |Alcibiades     |450-404        |Coriolanus     | 475
|7      |Epaminondas    |d. 362 |Lost   |Scipio Africanus or Aemilianus
|236-183 or 185-129     |Lost
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/phocion.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PHOKION
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Phocion*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Phoc.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cato_you.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_CATO
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Minor*.html
**L**]
|8      |Phocion        | 402 -  318    |Cato the Younger       |95-46  |n/a
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/agis.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Agis*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/tiberius.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Tiberius_Gracchus*.html
**L**]
| rowspan="2" |[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/t_c_comp.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Agis_and_Cleomenes+Gracchi*.html
**L**]
rowspan="2" |9-10       |Agis   | 245   |Tiberius Gracchus      |c. 164-133
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cleomene.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cleomenes*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/gracchus.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caius_Gracchus*.html
**L**]
|Cleomenes      |d. 219 |Gaius Gracchus |154-121
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/timoleon.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_TIMOLEON
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Timoleon*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/paulus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_AEMILIUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Aemilius*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/t_a_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_PAULUS_AEMILIUS_AND_TIMOLEON
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Timoleon%2BAemilius*.html
**L**]
|11     |Timoleon       | 411-337       |Aemilius Paullus       | 229-160
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/eumenes.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_EUMENES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Eumenes*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/sertoriu.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_SERTORIUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sertorius*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/s_e_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_SERTORIUS_AND_EUMENES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Eumenes+Sertorius*.html
**L**]
|12     |Eumenes        | 362-316       |Sertorius      | 123-72
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/aristide.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_ARISTEIDES
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Aristides*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Arist.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/mar_cato.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_MARCUS_CATO
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Major*.html
**L**]
|[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_Aristides_AND_CATO
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Aristides%2BCato_Major*.html
**L**]
|13     |Aristides      |530-468        |Cato the Elder |234-149
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pelopida.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PELOPIDAS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pelopidas*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/marcellu.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_MARCELLUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marcellus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_m_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#THE_COMPARISON_OF_PELOPIDAS_WITH_MARCELLUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pelopidas%2BMarcellus*.html
**L**]
|14     |Pelopidas      |d. 364 |Marcellus      |268-208
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/lysander.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_LYSANDER
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lysander*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Lys.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/sylla.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_SULLA
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/l_s_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_LYSANDER_AND_SULLA
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lysander%2BSulla*.html
**L**]
|15     |Lysander       |d. 395 |Sulla  |138-78
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pyrrhus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PYRRHUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pyrrhus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/c_marius.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_CAIUS_MARIUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html
**L**]
|16     |Pyrrhus        |319/318-272    |Marius |157-86 |n/a
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/philopoe.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_PHILOPOEMEN
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Philopoemen*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/flaminin.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_TITUS_FLAMININUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Flamininus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_f_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_PHILOPOEMEN_AND_TITUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Philopoemen%2BFlamininus*.html
**L**]
|17     |Philopoemen    |253-183        |Titus Flamininus       | 229-174
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/nicias.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_NIKIAS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Nicias*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Nic.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/crassus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_CRASSUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/crasus_n.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_NIKIAS_AND_CRASSUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Nicias+Crassus*.html
**L**]
|18     |Nicias |470-413        |Crassus        | 115-53
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cimon.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_KIMON
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cimon*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Cim.+1.1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/lucullus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#LIFE_OF_LUCULLUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lucullus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/l_c_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/1/14114/14114-h/14114-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_KIMON_AND_LUCULLUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cimon+Lucullus*.html
**L**]
|19     |Cimon  |510-450        |Lucullus       |118-57/56
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/dion.html **(D)**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Dion*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/m_brutus.html **(D)**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Brut.+1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_brutus.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Dion%2BBrutus*.html
**L**]
|20     |Dion   |408-354        |Brutus |85-42
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/agesilus.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_AGESILAUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Agesilaus*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pompey.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_POMPEIUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_a_comp.html **D**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_AGESILAUS_AND_POMPEIUS
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Agesilaus+Pompey*.html
**L**]
|21     |Agesilaus      | 444 -  360    |Pompey |106-48
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/alexandr.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_ALEXANDER
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Alex.+1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/caesar.html **(D)**]
[https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/1/4/14140/14140-h/14140-h.htm#LIFE_OF_C_CAESAR
**G**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Caes.+1
**P**1]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.03.0078&query=head%3D%232
**P**2]
|22     |Alexander      |356-323        |Julius Caesar (detailed article)       |100-44
|n/a
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/demosthe.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Demosthenes*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html **(D)**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_cicero.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Demosthenes+Cicero*.html
**L**]
|23     |Demosthenes    |384-322        |Cicero |106-43
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/demetrus.html **(D)**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Demetrius*.html
**L**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html **(D)**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html
**L**]
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Ant.+1
**P**]
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/d_antony.html **D**]
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Demetrius+Antony*.html
**L**]
|25     |Demetrius      |d. 283 |Mark Antony    |83-30

; Notes

The two-volume edition of Dryden's translation contains the following
biographies:

Volume 1. Theseus, Romulus, Lycurgus, Numa, Solon, Publicola,
Themistocles, Camillus, Pericles, Fabius, Alcibiades, Coriolanus,
Timoleon, Aemilius Paulus, Pelopidas, Marcellus, Aristides, Cato the
Elder, Philopoemen, Flamininus, Pyrrhus, Marius, Lysander, Sulla,
Cimon, Lucullus, Nicias, Crassus.

Volume 2. Sertorius, Eumenes, Agesilaus, Pompey, Alexander the Great,
Julius Caesar, Phocion, Cato the Younger, Agis, Cleomenes, Tiberius
Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Demosthenes, Cicero, Demetrius, Mark
Antony, Dion, Marcus Brutus, Aratus, Artaxerxes II, Galba, Otho.

# The Perseus project also contains a biography of Caesar Augustus, in
North's translation, but not from Plutarch's 'Parallel Lives':
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.03.0078&query=head%3D%235
P]
# Though the majority of the Parallel Lives were written with the
Greek hero (or heroes) placed in the first position followed by the
Roman hero, there are three sets of Lives where this order is
reversed: 'Aemilius Paulus/Timoleon', 'Coriolanus/Alcibiades' and
'Sertorius/Eumenes'.
# At the time of composing this table there appears some confusion in
the internal linking of the Perseus project webpages, responsible for
this split in two references.


                             Reception
======================================================================
Plutarch's 'Parallel Lives' has received widespread praise from
notable figures throughout its centuries of popularity. The 1559 first
French edition was hailed by French author and philosopher Montaigne,
who commented "We dunces would have been lost if this book had not
raised us out of the dirt". Beethoven, with the progression of his
deafness, wrote in 1801, "I have often cursed my Creator and my
existence.  Plutarch has shown me the path of resignation. 
If it is at all possible, I will bid defiance to my fate, though I
feel that as long as I live there will be moments when I shall be
God's most unhappy creature ... Resignation, what a wretched
resource!  Yet it is all that is left to me." British General
Gordon wrote "Certainly I would make Plutarch's 'Lives' a handbook for
our young officers.  It is worth any number of 'Arts of War' or
'Minor Tactics'." Ralph Waldo Emerson called the 'Lives' "a bible for
heroes."

The individual biographies have their own receptions in addition to
responses to the work as a whole. The life of Antonius has been cited
by multiple scholars as one of the masterpieces of the series.. Peter
D'Epiro praised his depiction of Alcibiades as "a masterpiece of
characterization." Academic Philip A. Stadter singled out Plutarch's
Pompey and Caesar as the greatest figures in the Roman biographies.
His biography of Caesar has been cited as proof that Plutarch is
"loaded with perception". Carl Rollyson's 'Essays in Biography' states
that "no biographer has surpassed him in summing up the essence of a
life - perhaps because no modern biographer has believed so intensely
as Plutarch did in 'the soul of men'."

Within each translation and reiteration of Plutarch's 'Lives',
translators and editors have manipulated his original work in order to
put foreword their own ideologies. George Wyndham's 1895 introduction
to the 'Lives' denounces how "Men cut down the genuine 'Lives' to
convenient lengths, for summaries and 'treasuries'...[they] epitomized
Plutarch's matter and pointed his moral, grinding them to the dust of
a classical dictionary and the ashes of a copybook headline". Here he
is speaking of incomplete republications of Plutarch's original work,
which had gained popularity but had been rehashed into brief,
incomplete outlines that lacked Plutarch's original depth. Rebecca
Nesvet argues that the 1683 translation of the text was constructed
with the intention of incorporating a message of religious tolerance.
Jacob Tonson, with assistance from John Dryden, republished 'Lives'
confirming Plutarch's paganism and demonstrating clearly that
"adherence to a faith outside the one his readers were expected to
follow should not disqualify a rational individual from political
involvement in leadership". While the original text of 'Parallel
Lives' was produced to progress certain moral ideals, translators of
the work have deviated from the original text to incorporate their own
ethics.

Plutarch's 'Parallel' 'Lives' has remained relevant centuries after
being authored. His merging of biography and ethical commentary
continues to be an invaluable reflection on human nature. Put quite
plainly: "We find Plutarch surprisingly relevant today because nothing
really has changed in human nature over the nineteen centuries since
Plutarch wrote".


                              See also
======================================================================
* Historic recurrence


                           External links
======================================================================
*
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/home.html
University of Chicago English text of Plutarch's 'Parallel Lives'.]
*
* Schettino, Maria Teresa, and Mark Beck. “The Use of Historical
Sources.” In 'A Companion to Plutarch', 417-36. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118316450.ch28.


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