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= Olaudah_Equiano =
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Introduction
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Olaudah Equiano (; c. 1745 - 31 March 1797), known for most of his
life as Gustavus Vassa (), was a writer and abolitionist. According to
his memoir, he was from the village of Essaka in present day southern
Nigeria. Enslaved as a child in West Africa, he was shipped to the
Caribbean and sold to a Royal Navy officer. He was sold twice more
before purchasing his freedom in 1766.
As a freedman in London, Equiano supported the British abolitionist
movement, in the 1780s becoming one of its leading figures. Equiano
was part of the abolitionist group the Sons of Africa, whose members
were Africans living in Britain. His 1789 autobiography, 'The
Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano', sold so well
that nine editions were published during his life and helped secure
passage of the British Slave Trade Act 1807, which abolished the slave
trade. 'The Interesting Narrative' gained renewed popularity among
scholars in the late 20th century and remains a useful primary source.
Early life and enslavement
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According to his 1789 memoir, Equiano was born around 1745 in the Igbo
village of Essaka in what is now southern Nigeria. He claimed his home
was part of the Kingdom of Benin.
Equiano recounted an incident of an attempted kidnapping of children
in his Igbo village, which was foiled by adults. When he was around
the age of eleven, he and his sister were left alone to look after
their family premises, as was common when adults went out of the house
to work. They were kidnapped and taken far from their home, separated
and sold to slave traders. He tried to escape but was thwarted. After
his owners changed several times, Equiano happened to meet with his
sister but they were separated again. Six or seven months after he had
been kidnapped, he arrived at the coast where he was taken on board a
European slave ship. He was transported with 244 other enslaved
Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to Barbados in the British West
Indies. He and a few other slaves were sent on for sale in the Colony
of Virginia.
Literary scholar Vincent Carretta argued in his 2005 biography of
Equiano that the activist could have been born in colonial South
Carolina rather than Africa, based on a 1759 parish baptismal record
that lists Equiano's place of birth as Carolina and a 1773 ship's
muster that indicates South Carolina. Carretta's conclusion is
disputed by other scholars who believe the weight of evidence supports
Equiano's account of coming from Africa.
In Virginia, Equiano was bought by Michael Henry Pascal, a lieutenant
in the Royal Navy. Pascal renamed the boy "Gustavus Vassa", after the
16th-century King of Sweden Gustav Vasa who began the Protestant
Reformation in Sweden. Equiano had already been renamed twice: he was
called Michael while on board the slave ship that brought him to the
Americas, and Jacob by his first owner. This time, Equiano refused and
told his new owner that he would prefer to be called Jacob. His
refusal, he says, "gained me many a cuff" and eventually he submitted
to the new name. He used this name for the rest of his life, including
on all official records; he only used Equiano in his autobiography.
Pascal took Equiano with him when he returned to England and had him
accompany him as a valet during the Seven Years' War with France
(1756-1763). Equiano gives witness reports of the Siege of Louisbourg
(1758), the Battle of Lagos (1759) and the Capture of Belle Île
(1761). Also trained in seamanship, Equiano was expected to assist the
ship's crew in times of battle; his duty was to haul gunpowder to the
gun decks. Pascal favoured Equiano and sent him to his sister-in-law
in Great Britain so that he could attend school and learn to read and
write.
Equiano converted to Christianity and was baptised at St Margaret's,
Westminster, on 9 February 1759, when he was described in the parish
register as "a Black, born in Carolina, 12 years old". His godparents
were Mary Guerin and her brother, Maynard, who were cousins of his
master Pascal. They had taken an interest in him and helped him to
learn English. Later, when Equiano's origins were questioned after his
book was published, the Guerins testified to his lack of English when
he first came to London.
In December 1762, Pascal sold Equiano to Captain James Doran of the
'Charming Sally' at Gravesend, from where he was transported back to
the Caribbean, to Montserrat, in the Leeward Islands. There, he was
sold to Robert King, an American Quaker merchant from Philadelphia who
traded in the Caribbean.
Release
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Robert King forced Equiano to work on his shipping routes and in his
stores. In 1765, when Equiano was about 20 years old, King promised
that for his purchase price of 40 pounds (40) he could buy his
freedom. King taught him to read and write more fluently, guided him
along the path of religion, and allowed Equiano to engage in
profitable trading for his own account, as well as on his owner's
behalf. Equiano sold fruits, glass tumblers and other items between
Georgia and the Caribbean islands. King allowed Equiano to buy his
freedom, which he achieved in 1766. The merchant urged Equiano to stay
on as a business partner. However, Equiano found it dangerous and
limiting to remain in the British colonies as a freedman. While
loading a ship in Georgia, he was almost kidnapped back into
enslavement.
Freedom
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By about 1768, Equiano had gone to Britain. He continued to work at
sea, travelling sometimes as a deckhand based in England. In 1773 on
the Royal Navy ship HMS 'Racehorse', he travelled to the Arctic in an
expedition towards the North Pole. On that voyage he worked with Dr
Charles Irving, who had developed a process to distill seawater and
later made a fortune from it. Two years later, Irving recruited
Equiano for a project on the Mosquito Coast in Central America, where
he was to use his African background to help select slaves and manage
them as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Irving and Equiano had a
working relationship and friendship for more than a decade, but the
plantation venture failed. Equiano met with George, the "Musquito
king's son".
Equiano left the Mosquito Coast in 1776 and arrived at Plymouth,
England, on 7 January 1777.
Pioneer of the abolitionist cause
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Equiano settled in London, where in the 1780s he became involved in
the abolitionist movement. The movement to end the slave trade had
been particularly strong among Quakers, but the Society for Effecting
the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 as a
non-denominational group, with Anglican members, in an attempt to
influence parliament directly. Under the Test Act, only those prepared
to receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rites
of the Church of England were permitted to serve as MPs. Equiano had
been influenced by George Whitefield's evangelism.
As early as 1783, Equiano informed abolitionists such as Granville
Sharp about the slave trade; that year he was the first to tell Sharp
about the 'Zong' massacre, which was being tried in London as
litigation for insurance claims. It became a 'cause célèbre' for the
abolitionist movement and contributed to its growth.
On 21 October 1785 he was one of eight delegates from Africans in
America to present an 'Address of Thanks' to the Quakers at a meeting
in Gracechurch Street, London. The address referred to 'A Caution to
Great Britain and her Colonies' by Anthony Benezet, founder of the
Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.
Equiano was befriended and supported by abolitionists, many of whom
encouraged him to write and publish his life story. He was supported
financially in this effort by philanthropic abolitionists and
religious benefactors. His lectures and preparation for the book were
promoted by, among others, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon.
Memoir
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Entitled 'The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or
Gustavus Vassa, the African' (1789), the book went through nine
editions in his lifetime, with translations into Russian, German and
Dutch. It is one of the earliest-known examples of published writing
by an African writer to be widely read in England. By 1792, it was a
best seller and had been published in Russia, Germany, Holland and the
United States. It was the first influential slave narrative of what
became a large literary genre. But Equiano's experience in slavery was
quite different from that of most slaves; he did not participate in
field work, he served his owners personally and went to sea, was
taught to read and write, and worked in trading.
Equiano's personal account of slavery, his journey of advancement, and
his experiences as a black immigrant caused a sensation on
publication. The book fuelled a growing anti-slavery movement in Great
Britain, Europe and the New World. His account surprised many with the
quality of its imagery, description and literary style.
In his account, Equiano gives details about his hometown and the laws
and customs of the Eboe people. After being captured as a boy, he
described communities he passed through as a captive on his way to the
coast. His biography details his voyage on a slave ship and the
brutality of slavery in the colonies of the West Indies, Virginia and
Georgia.
Equiano commented on the reduced rights that freed people of colour
had in these same places, and they also faced risks of kidnapping and
enslavement. Equiano embraced Christianity at the age of 14 and its
importance to him is a recurring theme in his autobiography. He was
baptised into the Church of England in 1759; he described himself in
his autobiography as a "protestant of the church of England" but also
flirted with Methodism.
Several events in Equiano's life led him to question his faith. He was
distressed in 1774 by the kidnapping of his friend, a black cook named
John Annis. Annis and his former enslaver, William Kirkpatrick, had
initially "parted by consent" but Kirkpatrick reneged, seeking to
kidnap and re-enslave Annis. Kirkpatrick was ultimately successful,
forcibly removing Annis from the British ship 'Anglicania' where both
he and Equiano served. This was in violation of the decision in the
Somersett Case (1772), that slaves could not be taken from England
without their permission, as common law did not support the
institution in England & Wales. Kirkpatrick had Annis transported
to Saint Kitts, where he was punished severely and worked as a
plantation labourer until he died. With the aid of Granville Sharp,
Equiano tried to get Annis released before he was shipped from England
but was unsuccessful. He heard that Annis was not free from suffering
until he died in slavery. Despite his questioning, he affirms his
faith in Christianity, as seen in the penultimate sentence of his work
that quotes the prophet Micah (): "After all, what makes any event
important, unless by its observation we become better and wiser, and
learn 'to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before God?
In his account, Equiano also told of his settling in London. He
married an English woman and lived with her in Soham, Cambridgeshire,
where they had two daughters. He became a leading abolitionist in the
1780s, lecturing in numerous cities against the slave trade. Equiano
records his and Granville Sharp's central roles in the anti-slave
trade movement, and their effort to publicise the 'Zong' massacre,
which became known in 1783.
Reviewers have found that his book demonstrated the full and complex
humanity of Africans as much as the inhumanity of slavery. The book
was considered an exemplary work of English literature by a new
African author. Equiano did so well in sales that he achieved
independence from his benefactors. He travelled throughout England,
Scotland and Ireland promoting the book, spending eight months in
Ireland alone between 1792 and 1793. He worked to improve economic,
social and educational conditions in Africa. Specifically, he became
involved in working in Sierra Leone, a colony founded in 1792 for
freed slaves by Britain in West Africa.
Later years, radical connections
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During the American Revolutionary War, Britain had recruited black
people to fight with it by offering freedom to those who left rebel
masters. In practice, it also freed women and children, and attracted
thousands of slaves to its lines in New York City, which it occupied,
and in the South, where its troops occupied Charleston, South
Carolina. When British troops were evacuated at the end of the war,
their officers also evacuated these former American slaves. They were
resettled in the Caribbean, in Nova Scotia, in Sierra Leone in Africa,
and in London. Britain refused to return the slaves, which the United
States sought in peace negotiations.
In 1783, following the United States' gaining independence, Equiano
became involved in helping the Black Poor of London, who were mostly
those former African-American slaves freed during and after the
American Revolution by the British. There were also some freed slaves
from the Caribbean, and some who had been brought by their owners to
England and freed later after the decision that Britain had no basis
in common law for slavery. The black community numbered about 20,000.
After the Revolution some 3,000 former slaves had been transported
from New York to Nova Scotia, where they became known as Black
Loyalists, among other Loyalists also resettled there. Many of the
freedmen found it difficult to make new lives in London or Canada.
Equiano was appointed "Commissary of Provisions and Stores for the
Black Poor going to Sierra Leone" in November 1786. This was an
expedition to resettle London's Black Poor in Freetown, a new British
colony founded on the west coast of Africa, in present-day Sierra
Leone. The blacks from London were joined by more than 1,200 Black
Loyalists who chose to leave Nova Scotia. They were aided by John
Clarkson, younger brother of abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Jamaican
maroons, as well as slaves liberated from illegal slave-trading ships
after Britain abolished the slave trade, also settled at Freetown in
the early decades. Equiano was dismissed from the new settlement after
protesting against financial mismanagement and he returned to London.
Equiano was a prominent figure in London and often served as a
spokesman for the black community. He was one of the leading members
of the Sons of Africa, a small abolitionist group composed of free
Africans in London. They were closely allied with the Society for the
Abolition of the Slave Trade. Equiano's comments on issues were
published in newspapers such as the 'Public Advertiser' and the
'Morning Chronicle'. He replied to James Tobin in 1788, in the 'Public
Advertiser', attacking two of his pamphlets and a related book from
1786 by Gordon Turnbull. Equiano had more of a public voice than most
Africans or Black Loyalists and he seized various opportunities to use
it.
Equiano was an active member of the radical working-class London
Corresponding Society (LCS), which campaigned for democratic reform.
In 1791-92, touring the British Isles with his autobiography and
drawing on abolitionist networks he brokered connections for the LCS,
including what may have been the Society's first contacts with the
United Irishmen. In Belfast, where his appearance in May 1791 was
celebrated by abolitionists who five years previously had defeated
plans to commission vessels in the port for the Middle Passage,
Equiano was hosted by the leading United Irishman, publisher of their
Painite newspaper the 'Northern Star', Samuel Neilson. Following the
onset of war with revolutionary France, leading members of the LCS,
including Thomas Hardy with whom Equiano lodged in 1792, were charged
with treason, and in 1799, following evidence of communication between
leading members and the insurrectionary United Irishmen, the society
was suppressed.
Marriage and family
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On 7 April 1792, Equiano married Susannah Cullen, a local woman, in St
Andrew's Church, Soham, Cambridgeshire. The original marriage register
containing the entry for Vassa and Cullen is held today by the
Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. He included his marriage in
every edition of his autobiography from 1792 onwards. The couple
settled in the area and had two daughters, Anna Maria (1793-1797) and
Joanna (1795-1857), who were baptised at Soham church.
Susannah died in February 1796, aged 34, and Equiano died a year
later, on 31 March 1797. Soon afterwards, Anna died at the age of
four, leaving Joanna to inherit Equiano's estate when she was 21 years
old; it was then valued at £950 (950). Anna Maria is commemorated by a
plaque at St Andrew's Church, Chesterton, Cambridge. Joanna Vassa
married the Reverend Henry Bromley, a Congregationalist minister, in
1821. They are both buried at the non-denominational Abney Park
Cemetery in Stoke Newington, London; the Bromleys' monument is now a
Grade II listed building.
Last days and will
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Equiano drew up his will on 28 May 1796. At the time he was living at
the Plaisterers' Hall, then on Addle Street, in Aldermanbury in the
City of London. He moved to John Street (now Whitfield Street), close
to Whitefield's Tabernacle, Tottenham Court Road. At his death on 31
March 1797, he was living in Paddington Street, Westminster. Equiano's
death was reported in American as well as British newspapers.
Equiano was buried at Whitefield's Tabernacle on 6 April. The entry in
the register reads "Gustus Vasa, 52 years, St Mary Le bone". His
burial place has been lost. The small burial ground lay on either side
of the chapel and is now Whitfield Gardens. The site of the chapel is
now the American International Church.
Equiano's will, in the event of his daughters' deaths before reaching
the age of 21, bequeathed half his wealth to the Sierra Leone Company
for a school in Sierra Leone, and half to the London Missionary
Society.
Controversy related to memoir
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Following publication in 1967 of a newly edited version of his memoir
by Paul Edwards, interest in Equiano revived. Scholars from Nigeria
have also begun studying him. For example, O. S. Ogede identifies
Equiano as a pioneer in asserting "the dignity of African life in the
white society of his time".
In researching his life, some scholars since the late 20th century
have disputed Equiano's account of his origins. In 1999 while editing
a new version of Equiano's memoir, Vincent Carretta, a professor of
English at the University of Maryland, found two records that led him
to question the former slave's account of being born in Africa. He
first published his findings in the journal 'Slavery and Abolition'.
At a 2003 conference in England, Carretta defended himself against
Nigerian academics, like Obiwu, who accused him of "pseudo-detective
work" and indulging "in vast publicity gamesmanship". In his 2005
biography, Carretta suggested that Equiano may have been born in South
Carolina rather than Africa, as he was twice recorded from there.
Carretta wrote:
Equiano was certainly African by descent. The circumstantial evidence
that Equiano was also African-American by birth and African-British by
choice is compelling but not absolutely conclusive. Although the
circumstantial evidence is not equivalent to proof, anyone dealing
with Equiano's life and art must consider it.
According to Carretta, Equiano/Vassa's baptismal record and a naval
muster roll document him as from South Carolina. Carretta interpreted
these anomalies as possible evidence that Equiano had made up the
account of his African origins, and adopted material from others. But
Paul Lovejoy, Alexander X. Byrd and Douglas Chambers note how many
general and specific details Carretta can document from sources that
related to the slave trade in the 1750s as described by Equiano,
including the voyages from Africa to Virginia, sale to Pascal in 1754,
and others. They conclude he was more likely telling what he
understood as fact, rather than creating a fictional account; his work
is shaped as an autobiography.
Lovejoy wrote that:
circumstantial evidence indicates that he was born where he said he
was, and that, in fact, 'The Interesting Narrative' is reasonably
accurate in its details, although, of course, subject to the same
criticisms of selectivity and self-interested distortion that
characterize the genre of autobiography.
Lovejoy uses the name of Vassa in his article, since that was what the
man used throughout his life, in "his baptism, his naval records,
marriage certificate and will". He emphasises that Vassa only used his
African name in his autobiography.
Other historians also argue that the fact that many parts of Equiano's
account can be proven lends weight to accepting his account of African
birth. As historian Adam Hochschild has written:
In the long and fascinating history of autobiographies that distort
or exaggerate the truth. ... Seldom is one crucial portion of a memoir
totally fabricated and the remainder scrupulously accurate; among
autobiographers ... both dissemblers and truth-tellers tend to be
consistent.
He also noted that "since the 'rediscovery' of Vassa's account in the
1960s, scholars have valued it as the most extensive account of an
eighteenth-century slave's life and the difficult passage from slavery
to freedom".
Legacy
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* The Equiano Society was formed in London in November 1996. Its main
objective is to publicise and celebrate the life and work of Olaudah
Equiano.
* In 1789 Equiano moved to 10 Union Street (now 73 Riding House
Street). A City of Westminster commemorative green plaque was unveiled
there on 11 October 2000 as part of Black History Month. Student
musicians from Trinity College of Music played a fanfare composed by
Professor Ian Hall for the unveiling.
* Equiano is honoured in the Church of England and remembered in its
Calendar of saints with a Lesser Festival on 30 July, along with
Thomas Clarkson and William Wilberforce who worked for abolition of
the slave trade and slavery.
* In 2007, the year of the celebration in Britain of the bicentenary
of the abolition of the slave trade, Equiano's life and achievements
were included in the National Curriculum, together with William
Wilberforce. In December 2012 'The Daily Mail' claimed that both would
be dropped from the curriculum, a claim which itself became subject to
controversy. In January 2013 Operation Black Vote launched a petition
to request Education Secretary Michael Gove to keep both Equiano and
Mary Seacole in the National Curriculum. American Rev. Jesse Jackson
and others wrote a letter to 'The Times' protesting against the mooted
removal of both figures from the National Curriculum.
* A statue of Equiano, made by pupils of Edmund Waller School, was
erected in Telegraph Hill Lower Park, New Cross, London, in 2008.
* The head of Equiano is included in Martin Bond's 1997 sculpture
'Wall of the Ancestors' in Deptford, London
* Author Ann Cameron adapted Equiano's autobiography for children,
leaving most of the text in Equiano's own words; the book was
published in 1995 in the U.S. by Random House as 'The Kidnapped
Prince: The Life of Olaudah Equiano', with an introduction by
historian Henry Louis Gates Jr.
* On 16 October 2017, Google Doodle honoured Equiano by celebrating
the 272nd year since his birth.
* A crater on Mercury was named "Equiano" in 1976.
* The exoplanet HD 43197 b was officially named Equiano in 2019 as
part of NameExoWorlds.
* In 2019, Google Cloud named a subsea cable running from Portugal
through the West Coast of Africa and terminating in South Africa after
Equiano.
* In 2022, the city of Cambridge honoured Equiano by renaming
Riverside Bridge to Equiano Bridge.
* In 2025, Equiano featured in "Rise Up: Resistance, Revolution,
Abolition" at the Fitzwilliam Museum of Cambridge University an
exhibition focused on individuals whose contributions were vital to
British abolition such as often-forgotten Black Georgians.
* In 2025, Equiano was one of five individuals celebrated in LGBTQ+
history month.
Representation in other media
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* The Gambian actor Louis Mahoney played Equiano in the BBC television
mini-series 'The Fight Against Slavery' (1975).
* A 28-minute documentary, 'Son of Africa: The Slave Narrative of
Olaudah Equiano' (1996), produced by the BBC and directed by Alrick
Riley, uses dramatic reconstruction, archival material and interviews
to provide the social and economic context for his life and the slave
trade.
Numerous works about Equiano have been produced for and since the 2007
bicentenary of Britain's abolition of the slave trade:
* Equiano was portrayed by the Senegalese musician Youssou N'Dour in
the film 'Amazing Grace' (2006).
* 'African Snow' (2007), a play by Murray Watts, takes place in the
mind of John Newton, a captain in the slave trade who later became an
Anglican cleric and hymnwriter. It was first produced at the York
Theatre Royal as a co-production with Riding Lights Theatre Company,
transferring to the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End and a
national tour. Newton was played by Roger Alborough and Equiano by
Israel Oyelumade.
* Kent historian Dr Robert Hume wrote a children's book entitled
'Equiano: The Slave with the Loud Voice' (2007), illustrated by Cheryl
Ives.
* David and Jessica Oyelowo appeared as Olaudah and his wife in 'Grace
Unshackled - The Olaudah Equiano Story' (2007), a radio adaptation of
Equiano's autobiography, created by Focus on the Family Radio Theatre.
* The British jazz artist Soweto Kinch's first album, 'Conversations
with the Unseen' (2003), contains a track entitled "Equiano's Tears".
* Equiano was portrayed by Jeffery Kissoon in Margaret Busby's 2007
play 'An African Cargo', staged at London's Greenwich Theatre.
* Equiano is portrayed by Danny Sapani in the BBC series 'Garrow's
Law' (2010).
* The Nigerian writer Chika Unigwe has written a fictional memoir of
Equiano: 'The Black Messiah', originally published in Dutch as 'De
zwarte messias' (2013).
* In Jason Young's 2007 short animated film, 'The Interesting
Narrative of Olaudah Equiano', Chris Rochester portrayed Equiano.
* A TikTok series under the account @equiano.stories recounts "the
true story of Olaudah Equiano", a collection of episodes reimagining
the childhood of Equiano. The story is captured as a self-recorded,
first-person account, within the format of Instagram Stories/TikTok
posts, using video, still images, and text.
* In 2022, a documentary entitled 'The Amazing Life of Olaudah
Equiano' was broadcast by BBC Radio 4, produced by Marc Wadsworth and
Deborah Hobson.
*Katie Sweeting, author and English professor at Hudson County
Community College, wrote Remnant, a historical novel about Equiano’s
daughter Joanna Vassa Bromley and his sister, name unknown.
See also
======================================================================
* Ottobah Cugoano, an African abolitionist active in Britain in the
late 18th century
* Phillis Wheatley, recognised in the 18th century as the first
African-American author of a published book of poetry
* List of civil rights leaders
* List of slaves
Further reading
======================================================================
* 'The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or
Gustavus Vassa, the African' at Wikisource.
* For the history of the 'Narrative's' publication, see James Green,
"The Publishing History of Olaudah Equiano's Interesting Narrative",
'Slavery and Abolition' 16, no. 3 (1995): 362-375.
* S. E. Ogude, "Facts into fiction: Equiano's narrative reconsidered",
'Research into African Literatures', Vol. 13, No. 1, 1982
* S. E. Ogude, "Olaudah Equiano and the tradition of Defoe", 'African
Literature Today', Vol. 14, 1984
* James Walvin, 'An African's Life: The Life and Times of Olaudah
Equiano, 1745-1797' (London: Continuum, 1998)
* Luke Walker, 'Olaudah Equiano: The Interesting Man' (Wrath and Grace
Publishing, 2017)
External links
======================================================================
*
*
*
*
*
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20141009222043/http://www.dacb.org/stories/nigeria/equiano_olaudah.html
Frederick Quinn, "Olaudah Equiano"], 'Dictionary of African Christian
Biography', article reproduced with permission from 'African Saints:
Saints, Martyrs, and Holy People from the Continent of Africa',
copyright © 2002 by Frederick Quinn, New York: Crossroads Publishing
Company.
* [
http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/index.htm Olaudah Equiano, or
Gustavus Vassa, the African], Brycchan Carey website, Carey 2003-2005.
Includes Carey's comprehensive collection of resources for the study
of Equiano. The Nativity section
[
http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/nativity.htm Where was Olaudah
Equiano born?] includes a detailed comparison of differing data
related to his place of birth.
* [
http://www.equiano.org/ The Equiano Project] , The Equiano Society
and Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery.
* [
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p276.html Part I: "Olaudah
Equiano"], 'Africans in America', PBS.
*
[
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml
"Historic figures: Olaudah Equiano"], BBC.
* [
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Olaudah-Equiano
Biography,Book,Autobiography,Fact]
License
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Original Article:
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