======================================================================
=                              Nonmetal                              =
======================================================================

                            Introduction
======================================================================
|A periodic table extract
alt=A grid with 7 rows labeled periods "1" to "7" and 10 columns
labeled as groups "1", "2", "3-11", and "12" to "18".   ¶ Most cells
represent one chemical element and are labeled with its 1 or 2 letter
symbol in a large font above its name. Cells in column 3 (labeled
"3-11") represent a series of elements and are labeled with the first
and last element's symbol.      ¶ Row 1 has cells in the first and last
columns, with an empty gap between. Rows 2-3 have 8 cells, with a gap
between the first 2 and last 6 columns. Rows 4-7 have cells in all 10
columns.        ¶ A bold falling staircase line separates the rightmost
6/5/4/3/2/1 cells in rows 2-7.  ¶ 17 cells above and right of the
staircase are tan-colored: both cells row 1 and all cells to its right
except the first one.   ¶ 9 cells along the staircase are specially
colored: gray in rows 2-5 and brown in rows 6-7: the first cell after
it in rows 2-7 and first cell before in rows 4/5/7.     ¶ The rest of the
cells have light gray letters on a white background.
|always/usually considered nonmetals
|metalloids, sometimes considered nonmetals
|status as nonmetal or metal unconfirmed

In the context of the periodic table, a nonmetal is a chemical element
that mostly lacks distinctive metallic properties. They range from
colorless gases like hydrogen to shiny crystals like iodine.
Physically, they are usually lighter (less dense) than elements that
form metals and are often poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Chemically, nonmetals have relatively high electronegativity or
usually attract electrons in a chemical bond with another element, and
their oxides tend to be acidic.

Seventeen elements are widely recognized as nonmetals. Additionally,
some or all of six borderline elements (metalloids) are sometimes
counted as nonmetals.

The two lightest nonmetals, hydrogen and helium, together account for
about 98% of the mass of the observable universe. Five nonmetallic
elements--hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and silicon--form the
bulk of Earth’s atmosphere, biosphere, crust and oceans, although
metallic elements are believed to be slightly more than half of the
overall composition of the Earth.

Chemical compounds and alloys involving multiple elements including
nonmetals are widespread. Industrial uses of nonmetals as the dominant
component include in electronics, combustion, lubrication and
machining.

Most nonmetallic elements were identified in the 18th and 19th
centuries. While a distinction between metals and other minerals had
existed since antiquity, a classification of chemical elements as
metallic or nonmetallic emerged only in the late 18th century. Since
then about twenty properties have been suggested as criteria for
distinguishing nonmetals from metals. In contemporary research usage
it is common to use a distinction between metal and not-a-metal based
upon the electronic structure of the solids; the elements carbon,
arsenic and antimony are then semimetals, a subclass of metals. The
rest of the nonmetallic elements are insulators, some of which such as
silicon and germanium can readily accommodate dopants that change the
electrical conductivity leading to semiconducting behavior.


                 Definition and applicable elements
======================================================================
:'Unless otherwise noted, this article describes the stable form of an
element at standard temperature and pressure (STP).'

Nonmetallic chemical elements are often broadly defined as those that
mostly lack properties commonly associated with metals--namely
shininess, pliability, good thermal and electrical conductivity (due
to their  band structure), and a general capacity to form basic
oxides. There is no widely accepted precise definition in terms of
these properties; any list of nonmetals is open to debate and
revision.

Fourteen elements are almost always recognized as nonmetals:




Three more are commonly classed as nonmetals, but some sources list
them as "metalloids", a term which refers to elements intermediate
between metals and nonmetals:


One or more of the six elements most commonly recognized as metalloids
are sometimes instead counted as nonmetals:


About 15-20% of the 118 known elements are thus classified as
nonmetals.


Physical
==========
Nonmetals vary greatly in appearance, being colorless, colored or
shiny.
For the colorless nonmetals (hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and the noble
gases), no absorption of light happens in the visible part of the
spectrum, and all visible light is transmitted.
The colored nonmetals (sulfur, fluorine, chlorine, bromine) absorb
some colors (wavelengths) and transmit the complementary or opposite
colors. For example, chlorine's "familiar yellow-green colour ... is
due to a broad region of absorption in the violet and blue regions of
the spectrum". The shininess of boron, graphite (carbon), silicon,
black phosphorus, germanium, arsenic, selenium, antimony, tellurium,
and iodine is a result of the electrons reflecting incoming visible
light.

About half of nonmetallic elements are gases under standard
temperature and pressure; most of the rest are solids. Bromine, the
only liquid, is usually topped by a layer of its reddish-brown fumes.
The gaseous and liquid nonmetals have very low densities, melting and
boiling points, and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. The
solid nonmetals have low densities and low mechanical strength (being
either hard and brittle, or soft and crumbly), and a wide range of
electrical conductivity.

This diversity stems from variability in crystallographic structures
and bonding arrangements. Covalent nonmetals existing as discrete
atoms like xenon, or as small molecules, such as oxygen, sulfur, and
bromine, have low melting and boiling points; many are gases at room
temperature, as they are held together by weak London dispersion
forces acting between their atoms or molecules, although the molecules
themselves have strong covalent bonds. In contrast, nonmetals that
form extended structures, such as long chains of selenium atoms,
sheets of carbon atoms in graphite, or three-dimensional lattices of
silicon atoms have higher melting and boiling points, and are all
solids. Nonmetals closer to the left or bottom of the periodic table
(and so closer to the metals) often have metallic interactions between
their molecules, chains, or layers; this occurs in boron, carbon,
phosphorus, arsenic, selenium, antimony, tellurium and iodine.

Some general physical differences between elemental metals and
nonmetals
Aspect !! Metals !! Nonmetals
|Appearance and form    |Shiny if freshly prepared or fractured; few
colored; all but one solid      |Shiny, colored or transparent; all but one
solid or gaseous
|Density        Often higher    Often lower
Plasticity      Mostly malleable and ductile    Often brittle solids
Electrical conductivity Good    Poor to good
Electronic structure    Metal or semimetalic    Semimetal, semiconductor,
or insulator
Covalently bonded nonmetals often share only the electrons required to
achieve a noble gas electron configuration. For example, nitrogen
forms diatomic molecules featuring a triple bonds between each atom,
both of which thereby attain the configuration of the noble gas neon.
In contrast antimony has buckled layers in which each antimony atom is
singly bonded with three other nearby atoms.

Good electrical conductivity occurs when there is metallic bonding,
however the electrons in some nonmetals are not metallic. Good
electrical and thermal conductivity associated with metallic electrons
is seen in carbon (as graphite, along its planes), arsenic, and
antimony. Good thermal conductivity occurs in boron, silicon,
phosphorus, and germanium; such conductivity is transmitted though
vibrations of the crystalline lattices (phonons of these elements.
Moderate electrical conductivity is observed in the semiconductors
boron, silicon, phosphorus, germanium, selenium, tellurium, and
iodine.

Many of the nonmetallic elements are hard and brittle, where
dislocations cannot readily move so they tend to undergo brittle
fracture rather than deforming. Some do deform such as white
phosphorus (soft as wax, pliable and can be cut with a knife at room
temperature), plastic sulfur, and selenium which can be drawn into
wires from its molten state. Graphite is a standard solid lubricant
where dislocations move very easily in the basal planes.


Allotropes
============
Over half of the nonmetallic elements exhibit a range of less stable
allotropic forms, each with distinct physical properties. For example,
carbon, the most stable form of which is graphite, can manifest as
diamond, buckminsterfullerene, amorphous and paracrystalline
variations. Allotropes also occur for nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
sulfur, selenium and iodine.


Chemical
==========
Some general chemistry-based differences between metals and nonmetals
colspan=2 | Aspect !! Metals !! Nonmetals
colspan=2 |Reactivity   Wide range: very reactive to noble
rowspan =2 | Oxides      lower  Basic   rowspan =2 | Acidic; never basic
higher   Increasingly acidic
colspan=2 |Compounds with metals        Alloys  Covalent or Ionic
colspan=2 | Ionization energy   Low to high     Moderate to very high
colspan=2 | Electronegativity   Low to high     Moderate to very high
Nonmetals have relatively high values of electronegativity, and their
oxides are usually acidic. Exceptions may occur if a nonmetal is not
very electronegative, or if its oxidation state is low, or both. These
non-acidic oxides of nonmetals may be amphoteric (like water, H2O) or
neutral (like nitrous oxide, N2O), but never basic.

They tend to gain electrons during chemical reactions, in contrast to
metallic elements which tend to donate electrons. This behavior is
related to the stability of electron configurations in the noble
gases, which have complete outer shells, empirically described by the
duet and octet rules of thumb, more correctly explained in terms of
valence bond theory.

The chemical differences between metals and nonmetals stem from
variations in how strongly atoms attract and retain electrons. Across
a period of the periodic table, the nuclear charge increases as more
protons are added to the nucleus. However, because the number of inner
electron shells remains constant, the effective nuclear charge
experienced by the outermost electrons also increases, pulling them
closer to the nucleus. This leads to a corresponding reduction in
atomic radius, and a greater tendency of these elements to gain
electrons during chemical reactions, forming negatively charged ions.
Nonmetals, which occupy the right-hand side of the periodic table,
exemplify this behavior.

Nonmetals typically exhibit higher ionization energies, electron
affinities, and standard electrode potentials than metals. The higher
these values are (including electronegativity) the more nonmetallic
the element tends to be. For example, the chemically very active
nonmetals fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine have an average
electronegativity of 3.19--a figure higher than that of any metallic
element.

The number of compounds formed by nonmetals is vast. The first 10
places in a "top 20" table of elements most frequently encountered in
895,501,834 compounds, as listed in the Chemical Abstracts Service
register for November 2, 2021, were occupied by nonmetals. Hydrogen,
carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen collectively appeared in most (80%) of
compounds. Silicon, a metalloid, ranked 11th. The highest-rated metal,
with an occurrence frequency of 0.14%, was iron, in 12th place.


Complications
===============
Adding complexity to the chemistry of the nonmetals are anomalies
occurring in the first row of each periodic table block; non-uniform
periodic trends; higher oxidation states; multiple bond formation; and
property overlaps with metals.


First row anomaly
===================
alt=A table with seven rows and ten columns. Rows are labeled on the
left with a period number from 1 through 7. Columns are labeled on the
bottom with a group number. Most cells represent a single chemical
element and have two lines of information: the element's symbol on the
top and its atomic number on the bottom. The table as a whole is
divided into four rectangular areas separated from each other by
narrow gaps. The first rectangle fills all seven rows of the first two
columns. The rectangle is labeled "s-block" at the top and its two
columns are labeled with group numbers "(1)" and "(2)" on the bottom.
The cells in the first row - hydrogen and helium, with symbols H and
He and atomic numbers 1 and 2 respectively - are both shaded red. The
second rectangle fills the bottom two rows (periods 6 and 7) of the
third column. Just above these cells is the label "f-block"; there is
no group label on the bottom. The topmost cell - labeled "La-Yb" for
elements 57-70 - is shaded green. The third rectangle fills the bottom
four rows (periods 4 through 7) of the fourth column. Just above these
cells is the label "d-block"; at the bottom is the label "(3-12)" for
the group numbers of these elements. The topmost cell - labeled
"Sc-Zn" for elements 21-30 - is shaded blue. The fourth and last
rectangle fills the bottom six rows (periods 2 through 7) of the last
six columns. Just above these cells is the label "p-block"; at the
bottom are labels "(13)" through "(18) for the group numbers of these
elements. The cells in the topmost row - for the elements boron (B,5),
carbon (C,6), nitrogen (N,7), oxygen (O,8), fluorine (Fl,9), and neon
(Ne,10) - are shaded yellow. Bold lines encircle the cells of the
nonmetals - the top two cells on the left and 21 cells in the upper
right of the table.
| **Condensed periodic table highlighting the first row of each
block:    and **
| colspan=1 | **Period**
| colspan=2 | ****
colspan=1       colspan=1       colspan=6
| **1**
| colspan=6 |  **p-block**
|s-block}};" | H  1     |s-block}};" | He 2
| **2**
Li 3    Be 4    |p-block}};" | B  5     |p-block}};" | C  6     |p-block}};" | N  7
|p-block}};" | O  8     |p-block}};" | F  9     |p-block}};" | Ne 10
| **3**
|  ****
Na 11   Mg 12   Al 13   Si 14   P  15   S  16   Cl 17   Ar 18
| **4**
K  19   Ca 20   |d-block}};" | Sc-Zn 21-30      Ga 31   Ge 32   As 33   Se 34   Br 35
Kr 36
| **5**
|  ****
Rb 37   Sr 38   Y-Cd 39-48      In 49   Sn 50   Sb 51   Te 52   I  53   Xe 54
| **6**
Cs 55   Ba 56   |f-block}};" | La-Yb 57-70      'Lu-Hg 71-80'   Tl 81   Pb 82   Bi
83      Po 84   At 85   Rn 86
| **7**
Fr 87   Ra 88   Ac-No 89-102    Lr-Cn 103-112   Nh 113  Fl 114  Mc 115  Lv 116  Ts
117     Og 118
'Group' '(1)'   '(2)'   '(3-12)'        '(13)'  '(14)'  '(15)'  '(16)'  '(17)'
'(18)'
| The first-row anomaly strength by block is **s** >> **p**
> **d** > **f**.
Starting with hydrogen, the first row anomaly primarily arises from
the electron configurations of the elements concerned. Hydrogen is
notable for its diverse bonding behaviors. It most commonly forms
covalent bonds, but it can also lose its single electron in an aqueous
solution, leaving behind a bare proton with high polarizing power.
Consequently, this proton can attach itself to the lone electron pair
of an oxygen atom in a water molecule, laying the foundation for
acid-base chemistry. Moreover, a hydrogen atom in a molecule can form
a second, albeit weaker, bond with an atom or group of atoms in
another molecule. Such bonding, "helps give snowflakes their hexagonal
symmetry, binds DNA into a double helix; shapes the three-dimensional
forms of proteins; and even raises water's boiling point high enough
to make a decent cup of tea."

Hydrogen and helium, as well as boron through neon, have small atomic
radii. The ionization energies and electronegativities among these
elements are higher than the periodic trends would otherwise suggest.

While it would normally be expected, on electron configuration
consistency grounds, that hydrogen and helium would be placed atop the
s-block elements, the significant first row anomaly shown by these two
elements justifies alternative placements. Hydrogen is occasionally
positioned above fluorine, in group 17, rather than above lithium in
group 1. Helium is almost always placed above neon, in group 18,
rather than above beryllium in group 2.


Secondary periodicity
=======================
An alternation in certain periodic trends, sometimes referred to as
secondary periodicity, becomes evident when descending groups 13 to
15, and to a lesser extent, groups 16 and 17. Immediately after the
first row of d-block metals, from scandium to zinc, the 3d electrons
in the p-block elements--specifically, gallium (a metal), germanium,
arsenic, selenium, and bromine--prove less effective at shielding the
increasing positive nuclear charge.

The Soviet chemist  gives two more tangible examples:
:"The toxicity of some arsenic compounds, and the absence of this
property in analogous compounds of phosphorus [P] and antimony [Sb];
and the ability of selenic acid [] to bring metallic gold [Au] into
solution, and the absence of this property in sulfuric [] and []
acids."


Higher oxidation states
=========================
:'Roman numerals such as III, V and VIII denote oxidation states'

Some nonmetallic elements exhibit oxidation states that deviate from
those predicted by the octet rule, which typically results in an
oxidation state of -3 in group 15, -2 in group 16, -1 in group 17, and
0 in group 18. Examples include ammonia NH3, hydrogen sulfide H2S,
hydrogen fluoride HF, and elemental xenon Xe. Meanwhile, the maximum
possible oxidation state increases from +5 in group 15, to +8 in group
18. The +5 oxidation state is observable from period 2 onward, in
compounds such as nitric acid HN(V)O3 and phosphorus pentafluoride
PCl5. Higher oxidation states in later groups emerge from period 3
onwards, as seen in sulfur hexafluoride SF6, iodine heptafluoride IF7,
and xenon(VIII) tetroxide XeO4. For heavier nonmetals, their larger
atomic radii and lower electronegativity values enable the formation
of compounds with higher oxidation numbers, supporting higher bulk
coordination numbers.


Property overlaps
===================
While certain elements have traditionally been classified as nonmetals
and others as metals, some overlapping of properties occurs. Writing
early in the twentieth century, by which time the era of modern
chemistry had been well-established (although not as yet more precise
quantum chemistry) Humphrey observed that:
:... these two groups, however, are not marked off perfectly sharply
from each other; some nonmetals resemble metals in certain of their
properties, and some metals approximate in some ways to the
non-metals.

Boron (here in its less stable amorphous form) shares some
similarities with metals
Examples of metal-like properties occurring in nonmetallic elements
include:
* Silicon has an electronegativity (1.9) comparable with metals such
as cobalt (1.88), copper (1.9), nickel (1.91) and silver (1.93);
* The electrical conductivity of graphite exceeds that of some metals;
* Selenium can be drawn into a wire;
* Radon is the most metallic of the noble gases and begins to show
some cationic behavior, which is unusual for a nonmetal; and
* In extreme conditions, just over half of nonmetallic elements can
form homopolyatomic cations.

Examples of nonmetal-like properties occurring in metals are:
*Tungsten displays some nonmetallic properties, sometimes being
brittle, having a high electronegativity, and forming only anions in
aqueous solution, and predominately acidic oxides.
*Gold, the "king of metals" has the highest electrode potential among
metals, suggesting a preference for gaining rather than losing
electrons. Gold's ionization energy is one of the highest among
metals, and its electron affinity and electronegativity are high, with
the latter exceeding that of some nonmetals. It forms the Au- auride
anion and exhibits a tendency to bond to itself, behaviors which are
unexpected for metals. In aurides (MAu, where M = Li-Cs), gold's
behavior is similar to that of a halogen. The reason for this is that
gold has a large enough nuclear potential that the electrons have to
be considered with relativistic effects included, which changes some
of the properties.

A relatively recent development involves certain compounds of heavier
p-block elements, such as silicon, phosphorus, germanium, arsenic and
antimony, exhibiting behaviors typically associated with transition
metal complexes. This is linked to a small energy gap between their
filled and empty molecular orbitals, which are the regions in a
molecule where electrons reside and where they can be available for
chemical reactions. In such compounds, this allows for unusual
reactivity with small molecules like hydrogen (H2), ammonia (NH3), and
ethylene (C2H4), a characteristic previously observed primarily in
transition metal compounds. These reactions may open new avenues in
catalytic applications.


                      Types {{anchor|Classes}}
======================================================================
Nonmetal classification schemes vary widely, with some accommodating
as few as two subtypes and others up to seven. For example, the
periodic table in the Encyclopaedia Britannica recognizes noble gases,
halogens, and other nonmetals, and splits the elements commonly
recognized as metalloids between "other metals" and "other nonmetals".
On the other hand, seven of twelve color categories on the Royal
Society of Chemistry periodic table include nonmetals.

|  **Group** (1, 13−18)
|  **Period**
13      14      15      16      1/17    18
| **1**
H       He
| **2**
B       C       N       O       F       Ne
| **3**
Si      P       S       Cl      Ar
| **4**
Ge      As      Se      Br      Kr
| **5**
Sb      Te      I       Xe
| **6**
Rn

|}
Starting on the right side of the periodic table, three types of
nonmetals can be recognized:


the inert noble gases--helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon;


the reactive halogen nonmetals--fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine;
and


the mixed reactivity "unclassified nonmetals", a set with no widely
used collective name--hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
sulfur, selenium. The descriptive phrase 'unclassified nonmetals' is
used here for convenience.

The elements in a fourth set are sometimes recognized as nonmetals:


the generally unreactive  metalloids, sometimes considered a third
category distinct from metals and nonmetals--boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium.

The boundaries between these types are not sharp. Carbon, phosphorus,
selenium, and iodine border the metalloids and show some metallic
character, as does hydrogen.

The greatest discrepancy between authors occurs in metalloid "frontier
territory". Some consider metalloids distinct from both metals and
nonmetals, while others classify them as nonmetals. Some categorize
certain metalloids as metals (e.g., arsenic and antimony due to their
similarities to heavy metals). Metalloids resemble the elements
universally considered "nonmetals" in having relatively low densities,
high electronegativity, and similar chemical behavior.


Noble gases
=============
Six nonmetals are classified as noble gases: helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, and the radioactive radon. In conventional periodic
tables they occupy the rightmost column. They are called 'noble' gases
due to their exceptionally low chemical reactivity.

These elements exhibit similar properties, being colorlessness,
odorless, and nonflammable. Due to their closed outer electron shells,
noble gases possess weak interatomic forces of attraction, leading to
exceptionally low melting and boiling points.

Chemically, the noble gases exhibit relatively high ionization
energies, negligible or negative electron affinities, and high to very
high electronegativities. The number of compounds formed by noble
gases is in the hundreds and continues to expand, with most of these
compounds involving the combination of oxygen or fluorine with either
krypton, xenon, or radon.


Halogen nonmetals
===================
Chemically, the halogen nonmetals have high ionization energies,
electron affinities, and electronegativity values, and are relatively
strong oxidizing agents. All four elements tend to form primarily
ionic compounds with metals, in contrast to the remaining nonmetals
(except for oxygen) which tend to form primarily covalent compounds
with metals.


Unclassified nonmetals
========================
Hydrogen behaves in some respects like a metallic element and in
others like a nonmetal. Like a metallic element it can, for example,
form a solvated cation in aqueous solution; it can substitute for
alkali metals in compounds such as the chlorides (NaCl cf. HCl) and
nitrates (KNO3 cf. HNO3), and in certain alkali metal complexes as a
nonmetal. It attains this configuration by forming a covalent or ionic
bond or by bonding as an ion to a lone pair of electrons.

Some or all of these nonmetals share several properties. Being
generally less reactive than the halogens, most of them can occur
naturally in the environment. Collectively, their physical and
chemical characteristics can be described as "moderately
non-metallic". When combined with metals, the unclassified nonmetals
can form interstitial or refractory compounds. They also exhibit a
tendency to bond to themselves, particularly in solid compounds.
Additionally, diagonal periodic table relationships among these
nonmetals mirror similar relationships among the metalloids.


Abundance
===========
Approximate composition
| **Universe**
75% *hydrogen    23% *helium      1% *oxygen
| **Atmosphere**
78% *nitrogen    21% *oxygen     0.5% *argon
| **Hydrosphere**
86% *oxygen      11% *hydrogen    2% *chlorine
| **Biomass**
63% *oxygen      20% *carbon     10% *hydrogen
| **Crust**
46% *oxygen      27% *silicon    8% aluminium
| **Earth**
32% iron         30% *oxygen     14% magnesium
The abundance of elements in the universe results from nuclear physics
processes like nucleosynthesis and radioactive decay.

The volatile noble gas nonmetal elements are less abundant in the
atmosphere than expected based upon their overall abundance due to
cosmic nucleosynthesis. Mechanisms to explain this difference is an
important aspect of planetary science. The element  is unexpectedly
depleted, and a possible explanation comes from theoretical models of
the high pressures in the Earth's core suggesting that there may be
around 1013 tons of xenon in the form of stable XeFe3 and XeNi3
intermetallic compounds.

Five nonmetals--hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and silicon--form
the bulk of the directly observable structure of the Earth: about 73%
of the crust, 93% of the biomass, 96% of the hydrosphere, and over 99%
of the atmosphere, as shown in the accompanying table. Silicon and
oxygen form stable tetrahedral structures, known as silicates. Here,
"the powerful bond that unites the oxygen and silicon ions is the
cement that holds the Earth's crust together." However, they make up
less than 50% of the total weight of the earth.

In the biomass, the relative abundance of the first four nonmetals
(and phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium marginally) is attributed to a
combination of relatively small atomic size, and sufficient spare
electrons. These two properties enable them to bind to one another and
"some other elements, to produce a molecular soup sufficient to build
a self-replicating system."


Extraction
============
Nine of the 23 nonmetallic elements are gases, or form compounds that
are gases, and are extracted from natural gas or liquid air, including
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and most of the noble gases. For
example, nitrogen and oxygen are extracted from liquid air through
fractional distillation and  sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide in
natural gas by reacting it with oxygen to yield water and sulfur.
Three nonmetals are extracted from seawater; the rest of the nonmetals
- and almost all metals - from mining solid ores.

|  **Group** (1, 13−18)
|  **Period**
13      14      15      16      1/17    18
| **1**
H        He
| **2**
|B      |C      |N      |O      |F      |Ne
| **3**
|Si     |P      |S      |Cl     |Ar
| **4**
|Ge     |As     |Se     |Br     |Kr
| **5**
|Sb     |Te     |I      |Xe
| **6**
|Rn
are extracted from these sources:

;from natural gas components: hydrogen (methane), helium, and sulfur
(hydrogen sulfide)

;from liquefied air: nitrogen, oxygen, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon

;from seawater brine: chlorine, bromine, and iodine

;from solid ores: boron (borates), carbon (natural graphite), silicon
(silica), phosphorus (phosphates), iodine (sodium iodate), radon
(uranium ore decay product), fluorine (fluorite);  and germanium,
arsenic, selenium, antimony, and tellurium (from their sulfides).


Uses
======
Nonmetallic elements are present in combination with other elements in
almost everything around us, from water to plastics and within
metallic alloys. There are some specific uses of the elements
themselves, although these are less common; extensive details can be
found in the specific pages of the relevant elements. A few examples
are:

# Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells, and is being explored for a
possible future low-carbon hydrogen economy.
# Carbon has many uses, ranging from decorative applications of
diamond jewelry to diamond in cutting blades and graphite as a solid
lubricant.
# Liquid nitrogen is extensively used as a coolant.
# Oxygen is a critical component of the air we breath. (While nitrogen
is also present, it is less used from the air, mainly by certain
bacteria.) Oxygen gas and liquid is also heavily used for combustion
in welding and cutting torches and as a component of rocket fuels.
# Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor. While ultra-pure
silicon is an insulator, by selectively adding electronic dopants it
can be used as a semiconductor where the chemical potential of the
electrons can be manipulated, this being exploited in a wide range of
electronic devices.
# The noble gases have a range of applications, including liquid
helium for cryogenic cooling, and argon to in gaseous fire suppression
to -damp fires around sensitive electrical equipment where water
cannot be used.
# Radon is a potentially hazardous indoor pollutant.


Background
============
Medieval chemical philosophers focused on metals, rarely investigating
nonmetallic minerals.


Organization of elements by types
===================================
In the late 1700s, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier published the
first modern list of chemical elements in his revolutionary 1789
'Traité élémentaire de chimie'. The 33 elements known to Lavoisier
were categorized into four distinct groups, including gases, metallic
substances, nonmetallic substances that form acids when oxidized, and
earths (heat-resistant oxides). Lavoisier's work gained widespread
recognition and was republished in twenty-three editions across six
languages within its first seventeen years, significantly advancing
the understanding of chemistry in Europe and America.  Lavoisier's
chemistry was "dualistic",: "salts" were combinations of "acid" and
"base"; acids where combinations of oxygen and metals while bases
where combinations of oxygen and nonmetals. This view prevailed
despite increasing evidence that chemicals like chlorine and ammonia
contained no oxygen, in large part due the vigious if sometimes
misguided defense by the Swedish chemist Berzelius.

In 1802 the term "metalloids" was introduced for elements with the
physical properties of metals but the chemical properties of
non-metals. In 1811 Berzelius used the term "metalloids" to describe
all nonmetallic elements, noting their ability to form negatively
charged ions with oxygen in aqueous solutions. Drawing on this, in
1864 the "Manual of Metalloids" divided all elements into either
metals or metalloids, with the latter group including elements now
called nonmetals.  Reviews of the book indicated that the term
"metalloids" was still endorsed by leading authorities, but there were
reservations about its appropriateness. While Berzelius' terminology
gained significant acceptance, it later faced criticism from some who
found it counterintuitive, misapplied, or even invalid.  The idea of
designating elements like arsenic as metalloids had been considered.
The use of the term "metalloids" persisted in France as textbooks of
chemistry appeared in the 1800s. During this period, "metals" as a
chemical category were characterized by a single property, their
affinity for oxygen, while "metalloids" were organized by comparison
of many characteristic analogous to the approach of naturalists.


Development of types
======================
In 1844, , a French doctor, pharmacist, and chemist, established a
basic taxonomy of nonmetals to aid in their study. He wrote:

:They will be divided into four groups or sections, as in the
following:
::Organogens--oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon
::Sulphuroids--sulfur, selenium, phosphorus
::Chloroides--fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine
::Boroids--boron, silicon.

Dupasquier's quartet parallels the modern nonmetal types. The
organogens and sulphuroids are akin to the unclassified nonmetals. The
chloroides were later called halogens. The boroids eventually evolved
into the metalloids, with this classification beginning from as early
as 1864. The then unknown noble gases were recognized as a distinct
nonmetal group after being discovered in the late 1800s. This taxonomy
was noted as a "natural classification" of the substance considering
all aspects rather than an single characteristic like oxygen affinity.
It was a significant departure from other contemporary
classifications, since it grouped together oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
and carbon.

In 1828 and 1859, the French chemist Dumas classified nonmetals as (1)
hydrogen; (2) fluorine to iodine; (3) oxygen to sulfur; (4) nitrogen
to arsenic; and (5) carbon, boron and silicon, thereby anticipating
the vertical groupings of Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table. Dumas' five
classes fall into modern groups 1, 17, 16, 15, and 14 to
13 respectively.


Nonmetals as terminology
==========================
By as early as 1866, some authors began preferring the term "nonmetal"
over "metalloid" to describe nonmetallic elements. In 1875, Kemshead
observed that elements were categorized into two groups: non-metals
(or metalloids) and metals. He noted that the term "non-metal",
despite its compound nature, was more precise and had become
universally accepted as the nomenclature of choice.


Structure, quantum mechanics and band structure
=================================================
The early terminologies were empirical categorizations based upon
observables. As the 20th century started there were significant
changes in understanding. The first was due to methods, mainly x-ray
crystallography, for determining how atoms are arranged in the various
materials. As early as 1784 René Just Haüy discovered that every face
of a crystal could be described by simple stacking patterns of blocks
of the same shape and size (law of decrements).  Haüy's study led to
the idea that crystals are a regular three-dimensional array (a
Bravais lattice) of atoms and molecules, with a single unit cell
repeated indefinitely, along with other developments in the early days
of physical crystallography. After Max von Laue demonstrated in 1912
that x-rays diffract, fairly quickly William Lawrence Bragg and his
father William Henry Bragg were able to solve previously unknown
structures. Building on this, it became clear that most of the simple
elemental metals had close packed structures. With this determined the
concept of dislocations originally developed by Vito Volterra in 1907
became accepted, for instance being used to explain the ductility of
metals by G. I. Taylor in 1934.

The second was the advent of quantum mechanics. In 1924 Louis de
Broglie in his PhD thesis 'Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'
introduced his theory of electron waves. This rapidly became part of
what was called by Erwin Schrödinger 'undulatory mechanics', now
called the Schrödinger equation, wave mechanics or more commonly in
contemporary usage quantum mechanics. While it was not so easy to
solve the mathematics in the early days, fairly rapidly ideas such as
the chemical bond terminology of Linus Pauling as well as electronic
band structure concepts were developed.From this the concept of
nonmetals as "not-a-metal" originates. The original approach to
describe metals and nonmetals was a band-structure with delocalized
electrons (i.e. spread out in space). A nonmetal has a gap in the
energy levels of the electrons at the Fermi level. In contrast, a
metal would have at least one  partially occupied band at the Fermi
level; in a semiconductor or insulator there are no delocalized states
at the Fermi level, see for instance Ashcroft and Mermin. (A semimetal
is similar to a metal, with a slightly more complex band structure.)
These definitions are equivalent to stating that metals conduct
electricity at absolute zero, as suggested by Nevill Francis Mott, and
the equivalent definition at other temperatures is also commonly used
as in textbooks such as 'Chemistry of the Non-Metals' by Ralf Steudel
and work on metal-insulator transitions.

Originally this band structure interpretation was based upon a
single-electron approach with the Fermi level in the band gap as
illustrated in the Figure, not including a complete picture of the
many-body problem where both exchange and correlation terms matter, as
well as relativistic effects such as spin-orbit coupling. For
instance, the passivity of gold is typically associated with
relativistic terms. A key addition by Mott and Rudolf Peierls was that
these could not be ignored. For instance, nickel oxide would be a
metal if a single-electron approach was used, but in fact has quite a
large band gap. As of 2024 it is more common to use an approach based
upon density functional theory where the many-body terms are included.
Although accurate calculations remain a challenge, reasonable results
are now available in many cases.

It is common to nuance the early definition of Alan Herries Wilson and
Mott which was for a  zero temperature. As discussed by Peter Edwards
and colleagues, as well as Fumiko Yonezawa,it is important to consider
the temperatures at which both metals and nonmetals are used. Yonezawa
provides a general definition for both general temperatures and
conditions (such as standard temperature and pressure):



The precise meaning of semiconductor needs a little care. In terms of
the temperature dependence of their conductivity they are all
classified as insulators; the pure forms are intrinsic semiconductors.
When they are doped their conductivity continues to increase with
temperature, and can become substantial; hence the ambiguities with an
empirical categorisation using conductivity described earlier. Indeed,
some elements that are normally considered as insulators have been
exploited as semiconductors. For instance diamond, which has the
largest band gap of the elements that are solids under normal
conditions, has a number of semiconductor applications.

Band structure definitions of metals and nonmetals are widely used in
current research into materials, and apply both to single elements
such as insulating boron as well as compounds such as strontium
titanate. The characteristics associated with metals and nonmetals in
early work such as their appearance and mechanical properties are now
understood to be consequences of how the atoms and electrons are
arranged.


                 Comparison of selected properties
======================================================================
The two tables in this section list some of the properties of five
types of elements (noble gases, halogen nonmetals, unclassified
nonmetals, metalloids and, for comparison, metals) based on their most
stable forms at standard temperature and pressure. The dashed lines
around the columns for metalloids signify that the treatment of these
elements as a distinct type can vary depending on the author, or
classification scheme in use.


Physical properties by element type
=====================================
Physical properties are listed in loose order of ease of their
determination.

Property        Element type
Metals  Metalloids      Unc. nonmetals  Halogen nonmetals       Noble gases
|General physical appearance    lustrous        |lustrous                       colorless       |Form and
density solid  (Hg liquid)      solid   solid or gas    solid or gas  (bromine
liquid) gas     |often high density such as iron, lead, tungsten        |low to
moderately high density |low density    |rowspan=2| low density |low
density |some light metals including beryllium, magnesium, aluminium
|all lighter than iron  |hydrogen, nitrogen lighter than air    |helium,
neon lighter than air   Plasticity      mostly malleable and ductile    |often
brittle phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, brittle   iodine brittle  not
applicable      |Electrical conductivity        good    |{{indented
plainlist|indent=0.9em  * ◇ moderate: boron, silicon, germanium,
tellurium       * ◇ good: arsenic, antimony     }}    {{indented
plainlist|indent=0.9em  * ◇ poor: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur  *
◇ moderate: phosphorus, selenium      * ◇ good: carbon        }}    {{indented
plainlist|indent=0.9em  * ◇ poor: fluorine, chlorine, bromine * ◇
moderate: I       }}    poor    |Electronic structure   metal (beryllium,
strontium, α-tin, ytterbium, bismuth are semimetals)   semimetal
(arsenic, antimony) or semiconductor            semiconductor () or insulator
insulator


Chemical properties by element type
=====================================
Chemical properties are listed from general characteristics to more
specific details.

Property        Element type
Metals  Metalloids       Unc. nonmetals Halogen nonmetals       Noble gases
|General chemical behavior              |weakly nonmetallic     moderately nonmetallic
strongly nonmetallic            |Oxides |basic; some amphoteric or acidic
|amphoteric or weakly acidic    |acidic or neutral      |acidic |metastable
XeO3 is acidic; stable XeO4 strongly so few glass formers       |all glass
formers |some glass formers     |no glass formers reported      |no glass
formers reported        |ionic, polymeric, layer, chain, and molecular
structures      |polymeric in structure |       |       |       |Compounds with metals  alloys
or intermetallic compounds      |tend to form alloys or intermetallic
compounds               mainly ionic    simple compounds at STP not known       |Ionization
energy (kJ mol−1) ‡       low to high     |moderate       moderate to high        high    high
to very high    376 to 1,007    762 to 947      941 to 1,402    1,008 to 1,681  1,037
to 2,372        average 643     average 833     average 1,152   average 1,270   average
1,589   |Electronegativity (Pauling) ‡      low to high     moderate        moderate to
high    high    high (radon) to very high       0.7 to 2.54     1.9 to 2.18     2.19 to
3.44    2.66 to 3.98    ca. 2.43 to 4.7 average 1.5     average 2.05    average
2.65    average 3.19    average 3.3

† Hydrogen can also form alloy-like hydrides
‡ The labels 'low', 'moderate', 'high', and 'very high' are
arbitrarily based on the value spans listed in the table


                              See also
======================================================================
* CHON (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen)
* List of nonmetal monographs
* Metallization pressure
* Nonmetal (astrophysics)
* Period 1 elements (hydrogen & helium)
* Properties of nonmetals (and metalloids) by group


Bibliography
==============
* Abbott D 1966, 'An Introduction to the Periodic Table', J. M. Dent
& Sons, London
* Addison WE 1964, 'The Allotropy of the Elements', Oldbourne Press,
London
* Atkins PA et al. 2006, 'Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry',
4th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Aylward G and Findlay T 2008, 'SI Chemical Data', 6th ed., John
Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton,
* Bache AD 1832,
[https://books.google.com/books?id=mSZGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA248 "An essay
on chemical nomenclature, prefixed to the treatise on chemistry; by J.
J. Berzelius"], 'American Journal of Science', vol. 22, pp. 248-277
* Baker et al. PS 1962, 'Chemistry and You', Lyons and Carnahan,
Chicago
* Barton AFM 2021, 'States of Matter, States of Mind', CRC Press, Boca
Raton,
* Beach FC (ed.) 1911, 'The Americana: A universal reference library',
vol. XIII, Mel-New, Metalloid, Scientific American Compiling
Department, New York
* Beard A, Battenberg, C & Sutker BJ 2021, "Flame retardants", in
'Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Beiser A 1987, 'Concepts of modern physics', 4th ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York,
* Benner SA, Ricardo A & Carrigan MA 2018, "Is there a common
chemical model for life in the universe?", in Cleland CE & Bedau
MA (eds.), 'The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary
Perspectives from Philosophy and Science', Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge,
* Benzhen et al. 2020, Metals and non-metals in the periodic table,
'Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A', vol. 378,
20200213
* Berger LI 1997, 'Semiconductor Materials', CRC Press, Boca Raton,
* Bertomeu-Sánchez JR, Garcia-Belmar A & Bensaude-Vincent B 2002,
"Looking for an order of things: Textbooks and chemical
classifications in nineteenth century France", 'Ambix', vol. 49, no.
3,
* Berzelius JJ 1811, 'Essai sur la nomenclature chimique', 'Journal de
Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle', vol. LXXIII, pp. 253‒286
* Bhuwalka et al. 2021, "Characterizing the changes in material use
due to vehicle electrification", 'Environmental Science &
Technology' vol. 55, no. 14,
* Bogoroditskii NP & Pasynkov VV 1967, 'Radio and Electronic
Materials', Iliffe Books, London
* Bohlmann R 1992, "Synthesis of halides", in Winterfeldt E (ed.),
'Heteroatom manipulation', Pergamon Press, Oxford,
* Boreskov GK 2003, 'Heterogeneous Catalysis', Nova Science, New York,
* Brady JE & Senese F 2009, 'Chemistry: The study of Matter and
its Changes', 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York,
* Brande WT 1821, 'A Manual of Chemistry', vol. II, John Murray,
London
* Brandt HG & Weiler H, 2000, "Welding and cutting", in 'Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Brannt WT 1919, 'Metal Worker's Handy-book of Receipts and
Processes', HC Baird & Company, Philadelphia
* Brown TL et al. 2014, 'Chemistry: The Central Science', 3rd ed.,
Pearson Australia: Sydney,
* Burford N, Passmore J & Sanders JCP 1989, "The preparation,
structure, and energetics of homopolyatomic cations of groups 16 (the
chalcogens) and 17 (the halogens)", in Liebman JF & Greenberg A
(eds.), 'From atoms to polymers: isoelectronic analogies', VCH, New
York,
* Bynum WF, Browne J & Porter R 1981 (eds), 'Dictionary of the
History of Science', Princeton University Press, Princeton,
* Cahn RW & Haasen P, 'Physical Metallurgy: Vol. 1', 4th ed.,
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam,
* Cao C et al. 2021, "Understanding periodic and non-periodic
chemistry in periodic tables", 'Frontiers in Chemistry', vol. 8, no.
813,
* Carapella SC 1968, "Arsenic" in Hampel CA (ed.), 'The Encyclopedia
of the Chemical Elements', Reinhold, New York
* Carmalt CJ & Norman NC 1998, "Arsenic, antimony and bismuth:
Some general properties and aspects of periodicity", in Norman NC
(ed.), 'Chemistry of Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth', Blackie Academic
& Professional, London, pp. 1-38,
* Carrasco et al. 2023, "Antimonene: a tuneable post-graphene material
for advanced applications in optoelectronics, catalysis, energy and
biomedicine", 'Chemical Society Reviews', vol. 52, no. 4, p.
1288-1330,
* Challoner J 2014, 'The Elements: The New Guide to the Building
Blocks of our Universe', Carlton Publishing Group,
*
* Chambers C & Holliday AK 1982, 'Inorganic Chemistry',
Butterworth & Co., London,
* Chandra X-ray Observatory 2018,
'[https://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/illustrations/chemistry_universe.html
Abundance Pie Chart]', accessed 26 October 2023
* Chapin FS, Matson PA & Vitousek PM 2011, Earth's climate system,
in 'Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology,' Springer, New York,
* Charlier J-C, Gonze X, Michenaud J-P 1994, "First-principles study
of the stacking effect on the electronic properties of graphite(s)",
'Carbon', vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 289-99,
* Chedd G 1969, 'Half-way elements: The technology of metalloids',
Double Day, Garden City, NY
* Chemical Abstracts Service 2021,
[https://www.cas.org/cas-data/cas-registry CAS REGISTRY database] as
of November 2, Case #01271182
* Chen K 1990, 'Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating
Systems,' Marcel Dekker, New York,
* Chung DD 1987, "Review of exfoliated graphite", 'Journal of
Materials Science', vol. 22,
* Clugston MJ & Flemming R 2000, 'Advanced Chemistry', Oxford
University Press, Oxford,
* Cockell C 2019, 'The Equations of Life: How Physics Shapes
Evolution', Atlantic Books, London,
* Cook CG 1923, 'Chemistry in Everyday Life: With Laboratory Manual',
D Appleton, New York
* Cotton A et al. 1999, 'Advanced Inorganic Chemistry', 6th ed.,
Wiley, New York,
* Cousins DM, Davidson MG & García-Vivó D 2013, "Unprecedented
participation of a four-coordinate hydrogen atom in the cubane core of
lithium and sodium phenolates", 'Chemical Communications', vol. 49,
* Cox PA 1997, 'The Elements: Their Origins, Abundance, and
Distribution', Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Cox T 2004, 'Inorganic Chemistry', 2nd ed., BIOS Scientific
Publishers, London,
* Crawford FH 1968, 'Introduction to the Science of Physics',
Harcourt, Brace & World, New York
* Cressey D 2010,
[http://blogs.nature.com/news/2010/11/chemists_redefine_hydrogen_bon.html
"Chemists re-define hydrogen bond"] , 'Nature newsblog', accessed
August 23, 2017
* Crichton R 2012, 'Biological Inorganic Chemistry: A New Introduction
to Molecular Structure and Function', 2nd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Criswell B 2007, "Mistake of having students be Mendeleev for just a
day", 'Journal of Chemical Education', vol. 84, no. 7, pp. 1140-1144,
* Crow JM 2013,
[https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/main-group-renaissance/6230.article
Main group renaissance], 'Chemistry World', 31 May, accessed 26
December 2023
* Csele M 2016, 'Lasers', in 'Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry,'
* Dalton L 2019,
[https://cen.acs.org/materials/inorganic-chemistry/Argon-reacts-nickel-under-pressure/97/web/2019/10
"Argon reacts with nickel under pressure-cooker conditions"],
'Chemical & Engineering News', accessed November 6, 2019
* de Clave E 1651, 'Nouvelle Lumière philosophique des vrais principes
et élémens de nature, et qualité d'iceux, contre l'opinion commune,'
Olivier de Varennes, Paris
* Daniel PL & Rapp RA 1976, "Halogen corrosion of metals", in
Fontana MG & Staehle RW (eds.), 'Advances in Corrosion Science and
Technology', Springer, Boston,
* de L'Aunay L 1566, 'Responce au discours de maistre Iacques Grevin,
docteur de Paris, qu'il a escript contre le livre de maistre Loys de
l'Aunay, medecin en la Rochelle, touchant la faculté de l'antimoine'
(Response to the Speech of Master Jacques Grévin,... Which He Wrote
Against the Book of Master Loys de L'Aunay,... Touching the Faculty of
Antimony), De l'Imprimerie de Barthelemi Berton, La Rochelle
* Davis et al. 2006, "Atomic iodine lasers", in Endo M & Walter RF
(eds) 2006, 'Gas Lasers,' CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida,
* DeKock RL & Gray HB 1989, 'Chemical structure and bonding',
University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA,
* Desai PD, James HM & Ho CY 1984,
[https://web.archive.org/web/20160817165930/http://www.nist.gov/data/PDFfiles/jpcrd260.pdf
"Electrical resistivity of aluminum and manganese"], 'Journal of
Physical and Chemical Reference Data', vol. 13, no. 4,
* Donohue J 1982, 'The Structures of the Elements', Robert E. Krieger,
Malabar, Florida,
* Dorsey MG 2023, 'Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the
Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II', Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York, pp. 12-13,
* Douglade J, Mercier R 1982, Structure cristalline et covalence des
liaisons dans le sulfate d’arsenic(III), As2(SO4)3, 'Acta
Crystallographica Section B', vol. 38, no, 3, 720-723,
*  Du Y, Ouyang C, Shi S & Lei M 2010, Ab initio studies on atomic
and electronic structures of black phosphorus, 'Journal of Applied
Physics', vol. 107, no. 9, pp. 093718-1-4,
* Duffus JH 2002, " 'Heavy metals'--A meaningless term?", 'Pure and
Applied Chemistry', vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 793-807,
* Dumas JBA 1828, 'Traité de Chimie Appliquée aux Arts', Béchet Jeune,
Paris
* Dumas JBA 1859, 'Mémoire sur les Équivalents des Corps Simples',
Mallet-Bachelier, Paris
* Dupasquier A 1844, 'Traité élémentaire de chimie industrielle',
Charles Savy Juene, Lyon
* Eagleson M 1994, 'Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry', Walter de
Gruyter, Berlin,
* Earl B & Wilford D 2021, 'Cambridge O Level Chemistry', Hodder
Education, London,
* Edwards PP 2000, "What, why and when is a metal?", in Hall N (ed.),
'The New Chemistry', Cambridge University, Cambridge, pp. 85-114,
* Edwards PP et al. 2010, "... a metal conducts and a non-metal
doesn't", 'Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A', 2010,
vol, 368, no. 1914,
* Edwards PP & Sienko MJ 1983, "On the occurrence of metallic
character in the periodic table of the elements", 'Journal of Chemical
Education', vol. 60, no. 9, ,
* Elliot A 1929, "The absorption band spectrum of chlorine",
'Proceedings of the Royal Society A', vol. 123, no. 792, pp. 629-644,
* Emsley J 1971, 'The Inorganic Chemistry of the Non-metals', Methuen
Educational, London,
* Emsley J 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC
'Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements'], Oxford
University Press, Oxford,
* 'Encyclopaedia Britannica', 2021,
[https://cdn.britannica.com/45/7445-050-BB332C27/version-periodic-table-elements.jpg
Periodic table], accessed September 21, 2021
* Engesser TA & Krossing I 2013, "Recent advances in the syntheses
of homopolyatomic cations of the non metallic elements , , , , , ,
and ", 'Coordination Chemistry Reviews', vol. 257, nos. 5-6, pp.
946-955,
* Erman P & Simon P 1808, "Third report of Prof. Erman and State
Architect Simon on their joint experiments", 'Annalen der Physik',
vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 347-367
* Evans RC 1966, 'An Introduction to Crystal Chemistry', 2nd ed.,
Cambridge University, Cambridge
* Faraday M 1853, 'The Subject Matter of a Course of Six Lectures on
the Non-metallic Elements', (arranged by John Scoffern), Longman,
Brown, Green, and Longmans, London
* Field JE (ed.) 1979, 'The Properties of Diamond,' Academic Press,
London,
* Florez et al. 2022, "From the gas phase to the solid state: The
chemical bonding in the superheavy element flerovium", 'The Journal of
Chemical Physics', vol. 157, 064304,
* Fortescue JAC 2012, 'Environmental Geochemistry: A Holistic
Approach', Springer-Verlag, New York,
* Fox M 2010, 'Optical Properties of Solids', 2nd ed., Oxford
University Press, New York,
* Fraps GS 1913, 'Principles of Agricultural Chemistry', The Chemical
Publishing Company, Easton, PA
* Fraústo da Silva JJR & Williams RJP 2001, 'The Biological
Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life', 2nd ed.,
Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Gaffney J & Marley N 2017, 'General Chemistry for Engineers',
Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Ganguly A 2012, 'Fundamentals of Inorganic Chemistry', 2nd ed.,
Dorling Kindersley (India), New Delhi
* Gargaud M et al. (eds.) 2006, 'Lectures in Astrobiology, vol. 1,
part 1: The Early Earth and Other Cosmic Habitats for Life', Springer,
Berlin,
* Gatti M, Tokatly IV & Rubio A, 2010, Sodium: a charge-transfer
insulator at high pressures, 'Physical Review Letters', vol. 104, no.
21,
* Georgievskii VI 1982, Mineral compositions of bodies and tissues of
animals, in Georgievskii VI, Annenkov BN & Samokhin VT (eds),
'Mineral Nutrition of Animals: Studies in the Agricultural and Food
Sciences,' Butterworths, London,
* Gillespie RJ, Robinson EA 1959, The sulfuric acid solvent system, in
Emeléus HJ, Sharpe AG (eds), 'Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and
Radiochemistry', vol. 1, pp. 386-424, Academic Press, New York
* Gillham EJ 1956, A semi-conducting antimony bolometer, 'Journal of
Scientific Instruments', vol. 33, no. 9,
* Glinka N 1960, 'General chemistry', Sobolev D (trans.), Foreign
Languages Publishing House, Moscow
* Godfrin H & Lauter HJ 1995, "Experimental properties of 3He
adsorbed on graphite", in Halperin WP (ed.), 'Progress in Low
Temperature Physics, volume 14', Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam,
* Godovikov AA & Nenasheva N 2020, 'Structural-chemical
Systematics of Minerals', 3rd ed., Springer, Cham, Switzerland,
* Goldsmith RH 1982, "Metalloids", 'Journal of Chemical Education',
vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 526-527,
* Goldwhite H & Spielman JR 1984, 'College Chemistry', Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, San Diego,
* Goodrich BG 1844, 'A Glance at the Physical Sciences', Bradbury,
Soden & Co., Boston
* Gresham et al. 2015, Lubrication and lubricants, in 'Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,' John Wiley & Sons, ,
accessed Jun 3, 2024
* Grondzik WT et al. 2010, 'Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for
Buildings,' 11th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
* Government of Canada 2015,
'[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305173014/http://science.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=en#46;gc.ca
Periodic table of the elements]', accessed August 30, 2015
* Graves Jr JL 2022, 'A Voice in the Wilderness: A Pioneering
Biologist Explains How Evolution Can Help Us Solve Our Biggest
Problems', Basic Books, New York, ,
* Green D 2012, 'The Elements', Scholastic, Southam, Warwickshire,
* Greenberg A 2007, 'From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story',
John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 978-0-471-75154-0
* Greenwood NN 2001, Main group element chemistry at the millennium,
'Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions', no. 14, pp.
2055-66,
* Greenwood NN & Earnshaw A 2002, 'Chemistry of the Elements', 2nd
ed., Butterworth-Heinemann,
* Grochala W 2018, "On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic
Table of Elements", 'Foundations of Chemistry', vol. 20, pp. 191-207,
* Hall RA 2021, 'Pop Goes the Decade: The 2000s,' ABC-CLIO, Santa
Barbara, California,
* Haller EE 2006, [https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/922705
"Germanium: From its discovery to SiGe devices"], 'Materials Science
in Semiconductor Processing', vol. 9, nos 4-5, accessed 9 October 2013
* Hampel CA & Hawley GG 1976, 'Glossary of Chemical Terms', Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
* Hanley JJ & Koga KT 2018, "Halogens in terrestrial and cosmic
geochemical systems: Abundances, geochemical behaviors, and analytical
methods" in 'The Role of Halogens in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial
Geochemical Processes: Surface, Crust, and Mantle', Harlov DE &
Aranovich L (eds.), Springer, Cham,
* Harbison RD, Bourgeois MM & Johnson GT 2015, 'Hamilton and
Hardy's Industrial Toxicology', 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken,
* Hare RA & Bache F 1836, 'Compendium of the Course of Chemical
Instruction in the Medical Department of the University of
Pennsylvania', 3rd ed., JG Auner, Philadelphia
* Harris TM 1803, 'The Minor Encyclopedia', vol. III, West &
Greenleaf, Boston
* Hein M & Arena S 2011, 'Foundations of College Chemistry', 13th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey,
* Hengeveld R & Fedonkin MA 2007, "Bootstrapping the energy flow
in the beginning of life", 'Acta Biotheoretica', vol. 55,
* Herman ZS 1999, "The nature of the chemical bond in metals, alloys,
and intermetallic compounds, according to Linus Pauling", in Maksić,
ZB, Orville-Thomas WJ (eds.), 1999, 'Pauling's Legacy: Modern
Modelling of the Chemical Bond', Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Hermann A, Hoffmann R & Ashcroft NW 2013, "Condensed astatine:
Monatomic and metallic", 'Physical Review Letters', vol. 111,
* Hérold A 2006,
[https://web.archive.org/web/20120215003543/http://depa.pquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/An_arrangement_of_the_chemical_elements_5006.pdf
"An arrangement of the chemical elements in several classes inside the
periodic table according to their common properties"], 'Comptes Rendus
Chimie', vol. 9, no. 1,
* Herzfeld K 1927, "On atomic properties which make an element a
metal", 'Physical Review', vol. 29, no. 5,
* Hill G, Holman J & Hulme PG 2017, 'Chemistry in Context', 7th
ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Hoefer F 1845, 'Nomenclature et Classifications Chimiques', J.-B.
Baillière, Paris
* Holderness A & Berry M 1979, 'Advanced Level Inorganic
Chemistry', 3rd ed., Heinemann Educational Books, London,
* Horvath AL 1973, "Critical temperature of elements and the periodic
system", 'Journal of Chemical Education', vol. 50, no. 5,
* House JE 2008, 'Inorganic Chemistry', Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* House JE 2013, 'Inorganic Chemistry', 2nd ed., Elsevier, Kidlington,
* Huang Y 2018, Thermodynamics of materials corrosion, in Huang Y
& Zhang J (eds), 'Materials Corrosion and Protection', De Gruyter,
Boston, pp. 25-58,
* Humphrey TPJ 1908, "Systematic course of study, Chemistry and
physics", 'Pharmaceutical Journal', vol. 80, p. 58
* Hussain et al. 2023, "Tuning the electronic properties of molybdenum
di-sulphide monolayers via doping using first-principles
calculations", 'Physica Scripta', vol. 98, no. 2,
* Imberti C & Sadler PJ, 2020, "150 years of the periodic table:
New medicines and diagnostic agents", in Sadler PJ & van Eldik R
2020, 'Advances in Inorganic Chemistry', vol. 75, Academic Press,
* '[https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/ IUPAC
Periodic Table of the Elements]', accessed October 11, 2021
* Janas D, Cabrero-Vilatela, A & Bulmer J 2013, "Carbon nanotube
wires for high-temperature performance", 'Carbon', vol. 64, pp.
305-314,
* Jenkins GM & Kawamura K 1976, 'Polymeric Carbons--Carbon Fibre,
Glass and Char', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
* Jentzsch AV & Matile S 2015, "Anion transport with halogen
bonds", in Metrangolo P & Resnati G (eds.), 'Halogen Bonding I:
Impact on Materials Chemistry and Life Sciences', Springer, Cham,
* Jensen WB 1986, Classification, symmetry and the periodic table,
'Computers & Mathematics with Applications', vol. 12B, nos. 1/2,
pp. 487−510,
* Johnson RC 1966, 'Introductory Descriptive Chemistry', WA Benjamin,
New York
* Jolly WL 1966, 'The Chemistry of the Non-metals', Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
* Jones BW 2010, 'Pluto: Sentinel of the Outer Solar System',
Cambridge University, Cambridge,
* Jordan JM 2016 " 'Ancient episteme' and the nature of fossils: a
correction of a modern scholarly error", 'History and Philosophy of
the Life Sciences', vol. 38, no, 1, pp. 90-116,
* Kaiho T 2017, 'Iodine Made Simple', CRC Press, e-book,
* Keeler J & Wothers P 2013, 'Chemical Structure and Reactivity:
An Integrated Approach', Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Kemshead WB 1875, 'Inorganic chemistry', William Collins, Sons,
& Company, London
* Kernion MC & Mascetta JA 2019, 'Chemistry: The Easy Way', 6th
ed., Kaplan, New York,
* King AH 2019, "Our elemental footprint", 'Nature Materials', vol.
18,
* King RB 1994, 'Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry', vol. 3, John
Wiley & Sons, New York,
* King RB 1995, 'Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements', VCH, New
York,
* Kiiski et al. 2016, "Fertilizers, 1. General", in Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,
* Kläning UK & Appelman EH 1988, "Protolytic properties of
perxenic acid", 'Inorganic Chemistry', vol. 27, no. 21,
*
* Kneen WR, Rogers MJW & Simpson P 1972, 'Chemistry: Facts,
Patterns, and Principles', Addison-Wesley, London,
* Knight J 2002, 'Science of Everyday Things: Real-life chemistry',
Gale Group, Detroit,
* Koenig SH 1962, in 'Proceedings of the International Conference on
the Physics of Semiconductors', held at Exeter, July 16-20, 1962, The
Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London
* Kosanke et al. 2012, 'Encyclopedic Dictionary of Pyrotechnics (and
Related Subjects)', Part 3 - P to Z, Pyrotechnic Reference Series No.
5, Journal of Pyrotechnics, Whitewater, Colorado,
* Kubaschewski O 1949, "The change of entropy, volume and binding
state of the elements on melting", 'Transactions of the Faraday
Society', vol. 45,
* Labinger JA 2019, "The history (and pre-history) of the discovery
and chemistry of the noble gases", in Giunta CJ, Mainz VV &
Girolami GS (eds.), '150 Years of the Periodic Table: A Commemorative
Symposium', Springer Nature, Cham, Switzerland,
* Lanford OE 1959, 'Using Chemistry', McGraw-Hill, New York
* Larrañaga MD, Lewis RJ & Lewis RA 2016, 'Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary', 16th ed., Wiley, Hoboken, New York,
* Lavoisier A 1790, 'Elements of Chemistry', R Kerr (trans.), William
Creech, Edinburgh
* Lee JD 1996, 'Concise Inorganic Chemistry', 5th ed., Blackwell
Science, Oxford,
* Lémery N 1699, 'Traité universel des drogues simples, mises en ordre
alphabetique', L d'Houry, Paris, p. 118
* Lewis RJ 1993, 'Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary', 12th ed.,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
* Lewis RS & Deen WM 1994, "Kinetics of the reaction of nitric
oxide with oxygen in aqueous solutions", 'Chemical Research in
Toxicology', vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 568-574,
* Liptrot GF 1983, 'Modern Inorganic Chemistry', 4th ed., Bell &
Hyman,
* Los Alamos National Laboratory 2021,
'[https://periodic.lanl.gov/index.shtml Periodic Table of Elements: A
Resource for Elementary, Middle School, and High School Students]',
accessed September 19, 2021
* Lundgren A & Bensaude-Vincent B 2000,
'[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Wki6iUlkvUC&pg=PA409
Communicating chemistry: textbooks and their audiences, 1789-1939]',
Science History, Canton, MA,
* MacKay KM, MacKay RA & Henderson W 2002, 'Introduction to Modern
Inorganic Chemistry', 6th ed., Nelson Thornes, Cheltenham,
* Mackin M 2014, 'Study Guide to Accompany Basics for Chemistry',
Elsevier Science, Saint Louis,
* Malone LJ & Dolter T 2008, 'Basic Concepts of Chemistry', 8th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
* Mann et al. 2000, Configuration energies of the d-block elements,
'Journal of the American Chemical Society', vol. 122, no. 21, pp.
5132-5137,
* Maosheng M 2020, "Noble gases in solid compounds show a rich display
of chemistry with enough pressure", 'Frontiers in Chemistry', vol. 8,
* Maroni M, Seifert B & Lindvall T (eds) 1995, "Physical
pollutants", in 'Indoor Air Quality: A Comprehensive Reference Book',
Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Martin JW 1969, 'Elementary Science of Metals', Wykeham
Publications, London
* Matson M & Orbaek AW 2013, 'Inorganic Chemistry for Dummies',
John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken,
* Matula RA 1979, "Electrical resistivity of copper, gold, palladium,
and silver", 'Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data', vol.
8, no. 4,
* Mazej Z 2020, "Noble-gas chemistry more than half a century after
the first report of the noble-gas compound", 'Molecules', vol. 25, no.
13, , ,
* McMillan P 2006, "A glass of carbon dioxide", 'Nature', vol. 441,
* Mendeléeff DI 1897, 'The Principles of Chemistry', vol. 2, 5th ed.,
trans. G Kamensky, AJ Greenaway (ed.), Longmans, Green & Co.,
London
* Messler Jr RW 2011, 'The Essence of Materials for Engineers', Jones
and Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, Massachusetts,
* Mewes et al. 2019, "Copernicium: A relativistic noble liquid",
'Angewandte Chemie International Edition', vol. 58, pp. 17964-17968,
* Mingos DMP 2019, "The discovery of the elements in the Periodic
Table", in Mingos DMP (ed.), 'The Periodic Table I. Structure and
Bonding', Springer Nature, Cham,
* Moeller T 1958, 'Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to
Equilibrium and Solution Chemistry', McGraw-Hill, New York
* Moeller T et al. 1989, 'Chemistry: With Inorganic Qualitative
Analysis', 3rd ed., Academic Press, New York,
* Moody B 1991, 'Comparative Inorganic Chemistry', 3rd ed., Edward
Arnold, London,
* Moore JT 2016, 'Chemistry for Dummies', 2nd ed., ch. 16, Tracking
periodic trends, John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken,
*  Morgan JW, & Anders E 1980, "Chemical composition of earth,
venus, and mercury", 'Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences', vol. 77, no. 12, pp.  6973-6977
* Morely HF & Muir MM 1892, 'Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry', vol.
3, Longman's Green, and Co., London
* Moss, TS 1952, 'Photoconductivity in the Elements', Butterworths
Scientific, London
* Myers RT 1979, "Physical and chemical properties and bonding of
metallic elements", 'Journal of Chemical Education', vol. 56, no. 11,
pp. 712-73,
* Obodovskiy I 2015, 'Fundamentals of Radiation and Chemical Safety',
Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Oderberg DS 2007, '[https://books.google.com/books?id=O0pqmkvkhtIC
Real Essentialism]', Routledge, New York,
* Ostriker JP & Steinhardt PJ 2001, "The quintessential universe",
'Scientific American', vol. 284, no. 1, pp. 46-53 ,
* 'Oxford English Dictionary' 1989, "nonmetal"
* Orisakwe OE 2012, Other heavy metals: antimony, cadmium, chromium
and mercury, in Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S & Fucic A (eds),
'Toxicity of Building Materials', Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, pp.
297-333,
* Parameswaran P et al. 2020, "Phase evolution and characterization of
mechanically alloyed hexanary Al16.6Mg16.6Ni16.6Cr16.6Ti16.6Mn16.6
high entropy alloy", 'Metal Powder Report', vol. 75, no. 4,
* Parish RV 1977, 'The Metallic Elements', Longman, London,
* Partington JR 1944, 'A Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry', 5th ed.,
Macmillan & Co., London
* Partington JR 1964, 'A history of chemistry', vol. 4, Macmillan,
London
* Pascoe KJ 1982, 'An Introduction to the Properties of Engineering
Materials', 3rd ed., Von Nostrand Reinhold (UK), Wokingham, Berkshire,
* Pauling L 1947, 'General chemistry: An introduction to descriptive
chemistry and modern chemical theory', WH Freeman, San Francisco
* Pawlicki T, Scanderbeg DJ & Starkschall G 2016, 'Hendee's
Radiation Therapy Physics', 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
NJ, p. 228,
* Petruševski VM & Cvetković J 2018, "On the 'true position' of
hydrogen in the Periodic Table", 'Foundations of Chemistry', vol. 20,
pp. 251-260,
* Phillips CSG & Williams RJP 1965, 'Inorganic Chemistry', vol. 1,
Principles and non-metals, Clarendon Press, Oxford
* Pitzer K 1975, "Fluorides of radon and elements 118", 'Journal of
the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications', no. 18,
* Porterfield WW 1993, 'Inorganic Chemistry', Academic Press, San
Diego,
* Povh B & Rosina M 2017, 'Scattering and Structures: Essentials
and Analogies in Quantum Physics', 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin,
* Powell P & Timms P 1974, 'The Chemistry of the Non-Metals',
Chapman and Hall, London,
* Power PP 2010, Main-group elements as transition metals, 'Nature',
vol. 463, 14 January 2010, pp. 171-177,
* Puddephatt RJ & Monaghan PK 1989, 'The Periodic Table of the
Elements', 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford,
* Rahm M, Zeng T & Hoffmann R 2019, "Electronegativity seen as the
ground-state average valence electron binding energy", 'Journal of the
American Chemical Society', vol. 141, no. 1, pp. 342-351,
* Ramdohr P 1969, 'The Ore Minerals and Their Intergrowths', Pergamon
Press, Oxford
* Rao CNR & Ganguly PA 1986, "New criterion for the metallicity of
elements", 'Solid State Communications', vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 5-6,
* Rao KY 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BfyWUnv_-rEC
'Structural chemistry of glasses'], Elsevier, Oxford,
* Rayner-Canham G 2018, "Organizing the transition metals", in Scerri
E & Restrepo G (Ed's.) 'Mendeleev to Oganesson: A
multidisciplinary perspective on the periodic table', Oxford
University, New York,
* Rayner-Canham G 2020, 'The Periodic Table: Past, Present and
Future', World Scientific, New Jersey,
* Redmer R, Hensel F & Holst B (eds) 2010, "Metal-to-Nonmetal
Transitions", Springer, Berlin,
* Regnault MV 1853, 'Elements of Chemistry', vol. 1, 2nd ed., Clark
& Hesser, Philadelphia
* Reilly C 2002, 'Metal Contamination of Food', Blackwell Science,
Oxford,
* Reinhardt et al. 2015,
'[https://www.boconline.co.uk/en/images/Inerting-in-the-chemical-industry_tcm410-166975.pdf
Inerting in the chemical industry],' Linde, Pullach, Germany, accessed
October 19, 2021
* Remy H 1956, 'Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry', Anderson JS
(trans.), Kleinberg J (ed.), vol. II, Elsevier, Amsterdam
* Renouf E 1901, "Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie", 'Science', vol.
13, no. 320,
* Restrepo G, Llanos EJ & Mesa H 2006, "Topological space of the
chemical elements and its properties", 'Journal of Mathematical
Chemistry', vol. 39,
* Rieck GD 1967, 'Tungsten and its Compounds',  Pergamon Press, Oxford
* Ritter SK 2011,
[https://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i9/Case-Missing-Xenon.html "The case
of the missing xenon"], 'Chemical & Engineering News', vol. 89,
no. 9,
* Rochow EG 1966, 'The Metalloids', DC Heath and Company, Boston
* Rosenberg E 2013, Germanium-containing compounds, current knowledge
and applications, in Kretsinger RH, Uversky VN & Permyakov EA
(eds), 'Encyclopedia of Metalloproteins', Springer, New York,
* Roscoe HE & Schorlemmer FRS 1894, 'A Treatise on Chemistry:
Volume II: The Metals', D Appleton, New York
* Royal Society of Chemistry 2021,
[https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table#:~:text=Classification-,Metal,Non,--metal
Periodic Table: Non-metal], accessed September 3, 2021
* Rudakiya DM & Patel Y 2021, Bioremediation of metals,
metalloids, and nonmetals, in Panpatte DG & Jhala YK (eds),
'Microbial Rejuvenation of Polluted Environment', vol. 2, Springer
Nature, Singapore, pp. 33-49,
* Rudolph J 1973,
'[https://archive.org/details/chemistryformode0000unse Chemistry for
the Modern Mind]', Macmillan, New York
* Russell AM & Lee KL 2005,
[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC 'Structure-Property
Relations in Nonferrous Metals'], Wiley-Interscience, New York,
* Salinas JT 2019 'Exploring Physical Science in the Laboratory',
Moreton Publishing, Englewood, Colorado,
* Salzberg HW 1991, 'From Caveman to Chemist: Circumstances and
Achievements', American Chemical Society, Washington, DC,
* Sanderson RT 1967, 'Inorganic Chemistry', Reinhold, New York
* Scerri E (ed.) 2013, '30-Second Elements: The 50 Most Significant
Elements, Each Explained In Half a Minute', Ivy Press, London,
* Scerri E 2020, 'The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance',
Oxford University Press, New York,
* Schaefer JC 1968, "Boron" in Hampel CA (ed.), 'The Encyclopedia of
the Chemical Elements', Reinhold, New York
* Schmedt auf der Günne J, Mangstl M & Kraus F 2012, "Occurrence
of difluorine F2 in nature--In situ proof and quantification by NMR
spectroscopy", 'Angewandte Chemie International Edition', vol. 51, no.
31,
* Schweitzer GK & Pesterfield LL 2010, 'Aqueous Chemistry of the
Elements', Oxford University Press, Oxford,
* Scott D 2014, 'Around the World in 18 Elements', Royal Society of
Chemistry, e-book,
* Scott EC & Kanda FA 1962, 'The Nature of Atoms and Molecules: A
General Chemistry', Harper & Row, New York
* Scott WAH 2001, 'Chemistry Basic Facts', 5th ed., HarperCollins,
Glasgow,
* Seese WS & Daub GH 1985, 'Basic Chemistry', 4th ed.,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
* Segal BG 1989, 'Chemistry: Experiment and Theory', 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York,
* Shanabrook BV, Lannin JS & Hisatsune IC 1981, "Inelastic light
scattering in a onefold-coordinated amorphous semiconductor",
'Physical Review Letters', vol. 46, no. 2, 12 January,
* Shang et al. 2021, "Ultrahard bulk amorphous carbon from collapsed
fullerene", 'Nature', vol. 599, pp. 599-604,
* Shchukarev SA 1977, New views of D. I. Mendeleev's system. I.
Periodicity of the stratigraphy of atomic electronic shells in the
system, and the concept of Kainosymmetry", 'Zhurnal Obshchei Kimii',
vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 246-259
* Shkol’nikov EV 2010, "Thermodynamic characterization of the
amphoterism of oxides M2O3 (M = , , ) and their hydrates in aqueous
media, 'Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry', vol. 83, no. 12, pp.
2121-2127,
* Sidorov TA 1960, "The connection between structural oxides and their
tendency to glass formation", 'Glass and Ceramics', vol. 17, no. 11,
* Siekierski S & Burgess J 2002, 'Concise Chemistry of the
Elements', Horwood Press, Chichester,
* Slye OM Jr 2008, "Fire extinguishing agents", in 'Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Smith A 1906, 'Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry', The Century
Co., New York
* Smith A & Dwyer C 1991, 'Key Chemistry: Investigating Chemistry
in the Contemporary World: Book 1: Materials and Everyday Life',
Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria,
* Smith DW 1990,
'[https://archive.org/details/inorganicsubstan0000smit Inorganic
Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Chemistry]',
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
* Smits et al. 2020, "Oganesson: A noble gas element that is neither
noble nor a gas", 'Angewandte Chemie International Edition', vol. 59,
pp. 23636-23640,
* Smulders E & Sung E 2011, "Laundry Detergents, 2, Ingredients
and Products", In 'Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Spencer JN, Bodner GM, Rickard LY 2012, 'Chemistry: Structure &
Dynamics', 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
* Stein L 1969, "Oxidized radon in halogen fluoride solutions",
'Journal of the American Chemical Society', vol. 19, no. 19,
* Stein L 1983, "The chemistry of radon", 'Radiochimica Acta', vol.
32,
* Steudel R 2020, 'Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses - Structures
- Bonding - Applications', in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz,
Berlin, Walter de Gruyter,
* Still B 2016 '[https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofperi0000stil/
The Secret Life of the Periodic Table]', Cassell, London,
* Stillman JM 1924, 'The Story of Early Chemistry', D. Appleton, New
York
* Stott RWA 1956, 'Companion to Physical and Inorganic Chemistry',
Longmans, Green and Co, London
* Stuke J 1974, "Optical and electrical properties of selenium", in
Zingaro RA & Cooper WC (eds.), 'Selenium', Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, pp. 174
* Strathern P 2000, 'Mendeleyev's dream: The Quest for the Elements',
Hamish Hamilton, London,
* Suresh CH & Koga NA 2001, "A consistent approach toward atomic
radii”, 'Journal of Physical Chemistry A', vol. 105, no. 24.
* Tang et al. 2021, "Synthesis of paracrystalline diamond", 'Nature',
vol. 599, pp. 605-610,
* Taniguchi M, Suga S, Seki M, Sakamoto H, Kanzaki H, Akahama Y, Endo
S, Terada S & Narita S 1984, "Core-exciton induced resonant
photoemission in the covalent semiconductor black phosphorus", 'Solid
State Communications', vo1. 49, no. 9, pp. 867-7,
* Taylor MD 1960, 'First Principles of Chemistry', Van Nostrand,
Princeton
* 'The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science' 1864,
[https://archive.org/details/s713id13683310/page/22/mode/2up?view=theater
"Notices of books: Manual of the Metalloids"], vol. 9, p. 22
* 'The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science' 1897, "Notices
of books: A Manual of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical", by WA
Tilden", vol. 75, pp. 188-189
* Thornton BF & Burdette SC 2010,
[http://acshist.scs.illinois.edu/bulletin_open_access/v35-2/v35-2%20p86-96.pdf
"Finding eka-iodine: Discovery priority in modern times"], 'Bulletin
for the History of Chemistry', vol. 35, no. 2, accessed September 14,
2021
* Tidy CM 1887, 'Handbook of Modern Chemistry', 2nd ed., Smith, Elder
& Co., London
* Timberlake KC 1996, 'Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic,
and Biological Chemistry', 6th ed., HarperCollinsCollege,
* Toon R 2011,
[https://edu.rsc.org/feature/the-discovery-of-fluorine/2020249.article
"The discovery of fluorine"], 'Education in Chemistry', Royal Society
of Chemistry, accessed 7 October 2023
* Tregarthen L 2003, 'Preliminary Chemistry', Macmillan Education:
Melbourne,
* Tyler PM 1948, 'From the Ground Up: Facts and Figures of the Mineral
Industries of the United States', McGraw-Hill, New York
* Vassilakis AA, Kalemos A & Mavridis A 2014, "Accurate first
principles calculations on chlorine fluoride ClF and its ions ClF±",
'Theoretical Chemistry Accounts', vol. 133, no. 1436,
* Vernon R 2013, "Which elements are metalloids?", 'Journal of
Chemical Education', vol. 90, no. 12, pp. 1703‒1707,
* Vernon R 2020, "Organising the metals and nonmetals", 'Foundations
of Chemistry', vol. 22, pp. 217‒233 (open access)
* Vij et al. 2001, Polynitrogen chemistry. Synthesis,
characterization, and crystal structure of surprisingly stable
fluoroantimonate salts of N5+. 'Journal of the American Chemical
Society', vol. 123, no. 26, pp. 6308−6313,
* Wächtershäuser G 2014, "From chemical invariance to genetic
variability", in Weigand W and Schollhammer P (eds.), 'Bioinspired
Catalysis: Metal Sulfur Complexes', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
* Wakeman TH 1899,
[http://iapsop.com/archive/materials/freethinkers_magazine/free_thought_magazine_v17_1899.pdf
"Free thought--Past, present and future"], 'Free Thought Magazine',
vol. 17
* Wang HS, Lineweaver CH & Ireland TR 2018, The elemental
abundances (with uncertainties) of the most Earth-like planet,
'Icarus', vol. 299, pp. 460-474,
* Wasewar KL 2021, "Intensifying approaches for removal of selenium",
in Devi et al. (eds.), 'Selenium contamination in water', John Wiley
& Sons, Hoboken, pp. 319-355,
* Weeks ME & Leicester HM 1968, 'Discovery of the Elements', 7th
ed., 'Journal of Chemical Education', Easton, Pennsylvania
* Weetman C & Inoue S 2018, The road travelled: After main-group
elements as transition metals, 'ChemCatChem', vol. 10, no. 19, pp.
4213-4228,
* Welcher SH 2009, 'High marks: Regents Chemistry Made Easy', 2nd ed.,
High Marks Made Easy, New York,
* Weller et al. 2018, 'Inorganic Chemistry', 7th ed., Oxford
University Press, Oxford,
* Wells AF 1984, 'Structural Inorganic Chemistry', 5th ed., Clarendon
Press, Oxford,
* White JH 1962, 'Inorganic Chemistry: Advanced and Scholarship
Levels', University of London Press, London
* Whiteford GH & and Coffin RG 1939, 'Essentials of College
Chemistry', 2nd ed., Mosby Co., St Louis
* Whitten KW & Davis RE 1996, 'General Chemistry', 5th ed.,
Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia,
* Wibaut P 1951, 'Organic Chemistry', Elsevier Publishing Company, New
York
* Wiberg N 2001, '[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mtth5g59dEIC
Inorganic Chemistry]', Academic Press, San Diego,
* Williams RPJ 2007, "Life, the environment and our ecosystem",
'Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry', vol. 101, nos. 11-12,
* Windmeier C & Barron RF 2013, "Cryogenic technology", in
'Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Winstel G 2000, "Electroluminescent materials and devices", in
'Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,'
* Wismer RK 1997, 'Student Study Guide, General Chemistry: Principles
and Modern Applications,' 7th ed.,  Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
* Woodward et al. 1999, "The electronic structure of metal oxides", In
Fierro JLG (ed.), 'Metal Oxides: Chemistry and Applications', CRC
Press, Boca Raton,
* World Economic Forum 2021,
[https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/12/abundance-elements-earth-crust/
Visualizing the abundance of elements in the Earth's crust], accessed
21 March 2024
* Wulfsberg G 2000, 'Inorganic Chemistry', University Science Books,
Sausalito, California,
* Yamaguchi M & Shirai Y 1996, "Defect structures", in Stoloff NS
& Sikka VK (eds.), 'Physical Metallurgy and Processing of
Intermetallic Compounds', Chapman & Hall, New York,
* Yang J 2004, "Theory of thermal conductivity", in Tritt TM (ed.),
'Thermal Conductivity: Theory, Properties, and Applications', Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 1-20,
* Yin et al. 2018, Hydrogen-assisted post-growth substitution of
tellurium into molybdenum disulfide monolayers with tunable
compositions, 'Nanotechnology', vol. 29, no 14,
* Yoder CH, Suydam FH & Snavely FA 1975, 'Chemistry', 2nd ed,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York,
* Young JA 2006, "Iodine", 'Journal of Chemical Education', vol. 83,
no. 9,
* Young et al. 2018, 'General Chemistry: Atoms First', Cengage
Learning: Boston,
* Zhao J, Tu Z & Chan SH 2021, "Carbon corrosion mechanism and
mitigation strategies in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC):
A review", 'Journal of Power Sources', vol. 488, #229434,
* Zhigal'skii GP & Jones BK 2003, 'The Physical Properties of Thin
Metal Films', Taylor & Francis, London,
* Zhu W 2020, 'Chemical Elements In Life', World Scientific,
Singapore,
* Zhu et al. 2014, "Reactions of xenon with iron and nickel are
predicted in the Earth's inner core", 'Nature Chemistry', vol. 6, ,
* Zhu et al. 2022, Introduction: basic concept of boron and its
physical and chemical properties, in 'Fundamentals and Applications of
Boron Chemistry', vol. 2, Zhu Y (ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam,
* Zumdahl SS & DeCoste DJ 2010, 'Introductory Chemistry: A
Foundation', 7th ed., Cengage Learning, Mason, Ohio,


License
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonmetal

You are viewing proxied material from gopherpedia.com. The copyright of proxied material belongs to its original authors. Any comments or complaints in relation to proxied material should be directed to the original authors of the content concerned. Please see the disclaimer for more details.