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=                                Mozi                                =
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                            Introduction
======================================================================
Mozi, personal name Mo Di,


was a Chinese philosopher, logician, and founder of the Mohist school
of thought, making him one of the most important figures of the
Warring States period (221 BCE). Alongside Confucianism, Mohism became
the most prominent, organized schools of the Hundred Schools of
Thought throughout the period. The 'Mozi' is an anthology of writings
traditionally attributed to Mozi and to his followers.

Born in what is now Tengzhou, Shandong, Mozi and his followers argued
strongly against both Confucianism and Taoism, with a philosophy
emphasizing universal love, social order, the will of Heaven, sharing,
and honoring the worthy. Mohism was actively developed and practiced
across  Warring States-era China, but fell out of favor following the
establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE.

While tradition assumes the destruction of many Mohist texts in 213
BCE as part of Emperor Qin Shi Huang's burning of books and burying of
scholars, traces of Mohism can still be seen late in the early Han
(from 202 BCE), in syncretic texts like the Huainanzi of . As
Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han
dynasty (202 BCE220 CE), Mohism disappeared almost entirely by the
middle of the Western Han period of 202 BCE to 9 CE. Mozi is
referenced in the 6th-century CE 'Thousand Character Classic', which
records that he was saddened when he saw the dyeing of pure white
silk, which embodied his conception of austerity as simplicity and
chastity.


                                Life
======================================================================
Most historians believe that Mozi was a member of the lower artisan
class who managed to climb his way to an official post. Mozi was a
native of the state of Lu (modern Tengzhou, Shandong), although for a
time he served as a minister in the state of Song. Similar to
Confucius, Mozi was known to have maintained a school for those who
desired to become officials serving in the different ruling courts of
the Warring States.

Mozi was a carpenter and was extremely skilled in creating devices
(see Lu Ban). Though he did not hold a high official position, Mozi
was sought out by various rulers as an expert on fortification. He was
schooled in Confucianism in his early years, although he viewed
Confucianism as being too fatalistic, with an overemphasis on
elaborate celebrations and funerals, which Mozi considered to be
detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of the common people.
Mozi managed to attract a large following during his lifetime,
rivaling that of Confucius. His followers--mostly technicians and
craftspeople--were organized in a disciplined order that studied both
Mozi's philosophical and technical writings.

According to some accounts of the popular understanding of Mozi at the
time, he had been hailed by many as the greatest hero to come from
Henan. His passion was said to be for the good of the people, without
concern for personal gain or even for his own life or death. His
tireless contribution to society was praised by many, including
Confucius's disciple Mencius. Mencius wrote in 'Jinxin' () that Mozi
believed in love for all mankind, noting that, as long as something
benefitted mankind, Mozi would pursue it even if it meant "hurting his
head or his feet". Zhang Tai Yan said that, in terms of moral virtue,
even Confucius and Laozi could not compare to Mozi.

Mozi travelled from one crisis zone to another throughout the ravaged
landscape of the Warring States, trying to dissuade rulers from their
plans of conquest. According to the chapter "Gongshu" in the 'Mozi',
he once walked for ten days to the state of Chu in order to forestall
an attack on the State of Song. At the Chu court, Mozi engaged in nine
simulated war games with Gongshu Ban, the chief military strategist of
Chu, and overturned each one of his stratagems. When Gongshu Ban
threatened him with death, Mozi informed the king that his disciples
had already trained the soldiers of Song in his fortification methods,
so it would be useless to kill him. The Chu king was forced to call
off the war. On the way back, however, the soldiers of Song, not
recognizing Mozi, would not allow him to enter their city, and he had
to spend a night freezing in the rain. After this episode, he also
prevented the state of Qi from attacking the State of Lu. He taught
that the defense of a city did not depend only on fortification,
weaponry, and food supply, but rather that it was also important to
keep talented people close by and to put trust in them.


                             Philosophy
======================================================================
Mozi's moral teachings emphasized introspection, self-reflection, and
authenticity, rather than obedience to rituals. He observed that
people often learned about the world through adversity. By reflecting
on one's own successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge
rather than mere conformity to ritual. Mozi exhorted people to lead a
life of asceticism and self-restraint, renouncing both material and
spiritual extravagance.

Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the Xia dynasty and the ancients of
Chinese mythology, but he also criticized the Confucian belief that
modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. Mozi
argued that what is thought of as "ancient" was actually innovative in
its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day
innovation. Though Mozi did not believe that history necessarily
progresses, as did Han Fei Zi, he shared the latter's critique of fate
(, 'mìng'). Mozi believed that people were capable of changing their
circumstances and directing their own lives, which could be achieved
by applying one's senses to observing the world, as well as judging
objects and events by their causes, functions, and historical bases.
This was the "three-prong method" Mozi recommended for testing the
truth or falsehood of statements. His students later expanded upon
this theory to form the School of Names.

Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched
Chinese ideal of strong attachments to family and clan structures with
the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" (, 'jiān ài').
He argued directly against Confucians, who had philosophized that it
was natural and correct for people to care about different people in
different degrees. Mozi, in contrast, argued that people in principle
should care for all people equally, a notion that philosophers in
other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as
implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and
family.

Overlooked by those critics, however, was a passage in the chapter on
"Self-Cultivation" which stated, "When people near-by are not
befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a
distance." This point was also precisely articulated by a Mohist in a
debate with Mencius (in the 'Mengzi'), where the Mohist argued, in
relation to carrying out universal love, that "we begin with what is
near." Also, in the first chapter in the 'Mozi' on the topic of
universal love, Mozi argued that the best way of being filial to one's
parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational
principle was therefore that benevolence, as well as malevolence, is
requited, and that one would be treated by others as one treats
others. Mozi quoted a popular passage from the 'Book of Odes' to bring
home this point: "When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a
plum." One's parents will be treated by others as one treats the
parents of others. Mozi also differentiated between "intention" and
"actuality", thereby placing a central importance on the will to love,
even though in practice it might very well be impossible to bring
benefit to everyone.

In addition, Mozi argued that benevolence comes to human beings "as
naturally as fire turns upward or water turns downward", provided that
persons in positions of authority illustrate benevolence in their own
lives. In differentiating between the ideas of "universal" ('jian')
and "differential" ('bie'), Mozi said that "universal" originated from
righteousness while "differential" entailed human effort.

Mozi also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although
he is often thought to have only worshipped them pragmatically. In
fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarked that, even
if they did not exist, communal gatherings for the sake of making
sacrificial offering would play a role in strengthening social bonds.
Furthermore, for Mozi the will of Heaven (, 'tiān') was that people
should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring
benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they
would love others "as they love themselves". According to Mozi, Heaven
should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to
punishment. For Mozi, Heaven was not the "amoral", mystical nature of
the Daoists; rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded
good and punished evil. Similar in some ways to the beliefs systems
found in the Abrahamic religions, Mozi believed that all living things
lived in a realm ruled by Heaven, and Heaven possessed a will which
was independent from, and higher than, the will of people. Thus Mozi
wrote that "Universal love is the Way of Heaven", since "Heaven
nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status." Mozi's
ideal of government, which advocated a meritocracy based on talent
rather than background, also followed his idea of Heaven.

Mozi opposed the Confucian idea of "Destiny", promoting instead an
idea of "anti-fatalism" (). Where the Confucian philosophy held that a
person's life, death, wealth, poverty, and social status were entirely
dependent upon destiny and therefore could not be changed, Mozi argued
that hard work and virtuous acts could change one's position in life.


Ethics
========
Mohist ethics is considered a form of consequentialism, according to
which the morality of an action, statement, teaching, policy,
judgment, and so on, is determined by the consequences that it brings
about. In particular, Mozi thought that actions should be measured by
the way they contribute to the benefit of all members of society. With
this criterion, Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare,
expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving
no useful purpose. According to the 'Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy', Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century
BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably
sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as
constitutive of human welfare". Consequentialist theories vary over
exactly which consequences are relevant, though they all share the
same basic outcome-based structure. With Mozi's overwhelming focus on
"benefit" (, 'li') among other ends, and his explicit focus on making
moral evaluations in light of them, Mozi's ethics indeed shares this
consequentalist structure. For interpreting Mozi, however, there is
some debate over how to understand the consequences Mozi seems most
concerned with, and therefore over which kind of consequentialism to
ascribe to him.

Some believe the best descriptor to be state consequentialism.
According to this reading, Mohist ethics makes moral evaluations based
on how well the action, statement, etc., in question contributes to
the stability of a state. Such state-related goods include social
order, material wealth, and population growth. By centering his
ethical theory around the promotion of such state-related ends, Mozi
shows himself to be a state consequentialist. Unlike hedonistic
utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods
in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth,
and increase in population". During Mozi's era, war and famines were
common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a
harmonious society. Mozi opposed wars because they wasted life and
resources while interfering with the fair distribution of wealth, yet
he recognized the need for strong urban defenses so he could maintain
the harmonious society he desired. The "material wealth" of Mohist
consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and
the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against
warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to
social stability. Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in 'The
Cambridge History of Ancient China', writes that the moral goods of
Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction;
more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have
plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on
unproblematically". In contrast to Jeremy Bentham, Mozi did not
believe that individual happiness was important; the consequences of
the state outweigh the consequences of individual actions.

Alternative readings locate the main focus of Mozi's consequentialism
in the welfare of the people themselves rather than that of the state
as a whole. Such interpretations as Chris Fraser's argue that it is a
mistake to view Mozi's focus on the collective well-being of a
population as a focus on the well-being of the state itself rather
than its constituents. In this way, Mozi tended to evaluate actions
based on whether they provide benefit to the people, which he measured
in terms of an enlarged population (states were sparsely populated in
his day), a prosperous economy, and social order. Indeed these are
collective goods rather than individual ones, which is a major
difference between Mohist consequentialism and modern, Western
versions. However, this reading emphasizes that collective goods are
better considered as aggregated individual goods rather than as state
goods.

This consequentialist structure supports Mohist ethics and politics,
which survives in the form of 10 core doctrines:

# Promoting the Worthy
# Identifying Upward
# Universal Love (sometimes called "Inclusive Care")
# Condemning Aggression
# Moderation in Use
# Moderation in Burials
# Heaven's Intent
# Understanding Ghosts
# Condemning Music
# Condemning Fatalism

Each of these doctrines is justified on the grounds that it produces
the best consequences for society, and that all people stand to
benefit from adopting them. Promoting the worthy, for example,
encourages people in positions of power to hire competent and worthy
subordinates to fill posts, rather than hire friends and relatives
instead. The reasoning here is that someone better qualified for the
job will perform better and enable society as a whole to benefit.
Identifying upward refers to the idea that people in subordinate
positions in society must look to their superiors as models for their
own conduct. Provided that the superiors are indeed morally competent
and worthy of emulation, the rest of society will always have a
reliable guide for their own actions, thereby giving rise to social
benefits.

Universal love refers to the basic normative attitude the Mohists
encourage us to adopt towards others. The idea is that people ought to
consider all others as being part of their scope of moral concern.
Indeed this is perhaps the most infamous of Mohist doctrines, and was
criticized early on by philosophers such as Mengzi, who held that the
doctrine was akin to renouncing one's family. However, close readings
of the texts by modern scholars have shown the demands of Mohist
universal love to be much more mild and reasonable. Additionally,
given the accretional nature of the texts, the audience of such texts
may have changed depending upon the Mohists' social influence, and so
the demands for universal love made on rulers, for example, is
considerably higher than that made on the masses. At its most basic,
however, the doctrine merely encourages a general attitude of care
towards others. However, this does not require that we renounce all
forms of special relationships we have with our families and friends.
In fact, the Mohists introduce the problem that universal love is
meant to solve by lamenting the fact that fathers and sons don't care
for each other, and so must instead adopt an attitude of universal
love. Conversely, the Mohists hope, when people adopt an attitude of
universal love, society as a whole will benefit.

Dovetailing with this idea is that of condemning aggression. The main
targets of this doctrine are undoubtedly the rulers of the various
warring states in China, who regularly embarked on expansionist
military campaigns in order to increase their territory, power, and
influence. However, such campaigns were enormously taxing on the
population, disrupting regular farming cycles by conscripting
able-bodied people for these military ends. Additionally, the
practices is ethically wrong for the same reason that robbery and
murder are wrong. In fact, according to Mozi, the two are actually one
and the same; for what is an expansionist war of aggression other than
robbery and murder on a grand scale? And yet, Mozi laments, those
rulers who execute robbers and murderers engage in the very same
practices. With respect to universal love, indeed part of the reason
why rulers believe it is acceptable to invade and conquer other states
while it is not acceptable for their own subjects to rob and steal
from one another is that the people in neighboring states are not part
of the rulers' scope of moral concern. If rulers were to instead
include these people and refrain from wars of aggression, all states,
those attacking and those defending, will benefit.



Moderation in use and moderation in burials are the main Mohist ideas
about frugality. In one's own projects, utility ought to be the only
consideration.  The Mohists took particular offense to the practice of
extremely lavished funerals and demanding mourning rituals. Such
funerals and rituals would potentially bankrupt an entire clan, at
least temporarily, and disrupt its farming practices. For the dead in
higher positions of authority, this disruption would affect an even
greater number of people. Again, the point here is to promote benefit
across society, and the Mohists believe that adopting frugal practices
will do so.

Mozi's ideas about ghosts and spirits follow from their religious
beliefs in a morally consistent universe. Heaven, it is argued, is the
ultimate moral standard, while ghosts and spirits serve as Heaven's
enforcers. Both doctrines, when adopted, promote societal benefit both
by enabling people to rely upon an objective standard to guide their
actions (namely, Heaven), and by acting as a sort of cosmic authority
capable of enacting rewards and punishments.

Mozi's condemnation of music rests on the same economic considerations
as their general ideas of frugality. In ancient China, grand musical
ceremonies established by rulers would place enormous financial and
human strains on populations, and so Mozi condemned such ceremonies
for this reason. Mozi did not object to music in principle--"It's not
that I don't like the sound of the drum" ("Against Music")--but only
because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners
and also due to the fact that officials tended to indulge in them at
the expense of their duties.

Finally, the Mohists rejected the idea of fatalism, or the idea that
there is fate. The Mohists reject this idea on the grounds that it
encourages lazy and irresponsible behavior. When people believe that
there is fate, and that the consequences of their actions lie beyond
their control, people will not be encouraged to improve themselves,
nor will they be willing to take responsibility for disasters. As a
result, society will suffer, and so the doctrine that there is fate
ought to be rejected.


                        Works and influence
======================================================================
'"Mozi"' is also the name of the philosophical anthology written and
compiled by followers of Mozi. The text was formed by an accretional
process that took place over a period of hundreds of years, beginning
perhaps during or shortly after Mozi's lifetime, and lasting until
perhaps the early Han dynasty. During the Han dynasty, as Confucianism
came to be the official school of political thought, Mohism gradually
lost both its adherents and influence while simultaneously being
partly incorporated into more mainstream political thought. The text
was eventually neglected, and only 58 of the text's original 71 books
('pian') survive, some of which, notably the later Mohist 'Canons',
contain significant textual corruptions and are fragmentary in nature.
The anthology can be divided into 5 main groups, which are determined
on the basis of both chronological and thematic features:

* Books 1-7 consist of short, miscellaneous essays containing
summaries of Mohist doctrines, anecdotes about Mozi, and ideals about
meritocratic government. Some appear to be relatively late texts,
expressing mature Mohist political and ethical thought on some topics.
* Books 8-37 contain the Mohists' key essays on the ten "core" Mohist
doctrines. Though they exhibit explicit thematic unity, textual
evidence suggests that the Mohists revisited their core doctrines
throughout their activity, responding to objections and addressing
issues unresolved in earlier, often shorter and simpler expositions.
* Books 38-39 are a series of polemics against the Ru (Confucians).
They are often grouped with books 8-37, though they do not expound a
positive doctrine, and their purpose is entirely critical.
* Books 40-45 are often referred to as the "dialectical books." These
are often considered "later Mohist" writings, though actual
chronological details about them are difficult to glean. They are
written in an idiosyncratic style, and focus on a broad range of
issues that go well beyond those of the Mohist core doctrines,
including logic, epistemology, optics, geometry, and ethics.
* Books 46-51 are dialogues. They are probably later, and likely
fictional, exhibiting Mozi in conversation with various interlocutors.
* Books 52-71 are chapters on military affairs, specifically focusing
on preparing for defensive warfare.

The 'Mozi' is a rich source of insight into early Chinese dynastic
history, culture, and philosophy. The text frequently cites ancient
classics, such as the 'Shang Shu', and at times departs from the
received version, giving scholars insight into the textual development
of such classics as well.

The texts portray Mozi as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy and not
much else. This picture contrasts that of Confucius and Mencius found
in the 'Lunyu' ('Analects') and 'Mengzi' respectively, wherein the
thinkers in question are portrayed as expressing emotions, chiding
students, and even making mistakes. (Consider Mengzi's disastrous
advice to the King of Qi to invade the state of Yan.) To contrast,
Mozi has little if any personality in the text, instead serving only
as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy.

Mohism, like other schools of thought at the time, was suppressed
under the Qin and died out completely under the Han, as its more
radical adherents gradually dissolved and its most compelling ideas
became absorbed by mainstream political thought. The influence of Mozi
is still visible in many Han dynasty works written hundreds of years
later. For example, the Confucian scholar Gongsun Hong describes the
Confucian virtue of 'ren' ("benevolence") in Mohist terms.
Additionally, Mohist epistemology and philosophy of language had a
profound influence on the development of classical Chinese philosophy
in general. In fact, Mohism was so prominent during the Warring States
period that philosophical opponents, including Mencius and some
authors of the Daoist anthology, the 'Zhuangzi', lament the very
prevalence and widespread influence of their ideas.

In modern times, Mohism has been given a fresh analysis. Sun Yat-Sen
used "universal love" as one of the foundations for his idea of
Chinese democracy. More recently, Chinese scholars under Communism
have tried to rehabilitate Mozi as a "philosopher of the people",
highlighting his rational-empirical approach to the world as well as
his "proletarian" background. The body in the Mozi is constructed by
'xing' (, 'body'), 'xin' (, 'heart'), 'qi' (, 'energy') 'which is in
accord with the Pre-Qin thinkers' understanding to the body. While
xing refers to the flesh-bloody part of human being, the concept of
xin focuses on the aspect of cognition and is closely related to the
concept of shan (, 'goodness'), ai (, 'love'), zhi (, 'will') and
xing.

Some views claim that Mozi's philosophy was at once more advanced and
less so than that of Confucius. Indeed the Mohists were radical
political reformers who sought primarily to benefit the masses and
challenge the practices of the ruling orthodoxy, often targeting a
perceived wasteful aristocracy whom they referred to as "the gentlemen
of the world." The Mohist idea of "universal love" embraced a broader
idea of human community than that of the Confucians, arguing that the
scope of individuals' moral concern should include all people.
Opponents of this idea often claimed that "universal love" was akin to
renouncing one's family, and indeed more strict Mohists living in
Mohist communities as the school flourished may have exhibited such
behavior. However, there is some scholarly debate over just how
radical the provisions of universal love actually are, and, as can be
seen from the example of Gongsun Hong above, the less radical
components of the doctrine were eventually absorbed by mainstream
thought.

Mozi is also famous for his ideas about frugality, such as those
concerning moderating expenses and eliminating wasteful ceremonies
including music and funerals. A common misconception is that the
Mohists eschewed all forms of art, but of course the Mohists' targets
are more specifically elaborate, state-sponsored rituals that would
place incredible financial burdens upon a mostly peasant population.
This can be seen from Xunzi's own arguments against Mozi in book 10 of
the 'Xunzi' "Enriching the State," where Xunzi argues against Mozi
that prominent displays of wealth on the part of the state is
necessary to maintaining social order.

Some modern-day supporters for Mozi (as well as Communism) make the
claim that Mohism and modern Communism share a lot in terms of ideals
for community life. Others would claim that Mohism shares more with
the central ideas of Christianity, especially in terms of the idea of
"universal love" (in Greek, "agape"), the "Golden Rule", and the
relation of humanity to the supernatural realm. However, Mohism is
undoubtedly a product of Warring States China, a period of tremendous
political violence and turmoil. The Mohists were political reformers,
but they did not seek to challenge the monarchical model of government
that prevailed during that time, and sought instead to reform from
within by encouraging governments to hire competent people to carry
out political tasks, care for their people inclusively, eliminate
frivolous government spending, and halt all wars of aggression.

In many ways the influence of Mohism was a victim of its own
successes, and it is fairly easy to understand its decline. The
Mohists' ideas about the importance of meritocracy and universal love
were gradually absorbed by mainstream Confucian thinking. Their
opposition to offensive warfare became irrelevant once the various
Warring States were unified under the Qin and later Han dynasty, and
their religious superstitions were eventually replaced with less
supernatural accounts. So their most promising ideas were metabolized
by the tradition, while their more radical and anachronistic ones were
gradually discarded, leading to their demise during the Han dynasty.


                         Mohism and science
======================================================================
According to Joseph Needham, 'Mozi' (collected writings of those in
the tradition of Mozi, some of which might have been by Mozi himself)
contains the following sentence: 'The cessation of motion is due to
the opposing force... If there is no opposing force... the motion will
never stop. This is as true as that an ox is not a horse.' which, he
claims, is a precursor to Newton's first law of motion. 'Mozi' also
contains speculations in optics and mechanics that are similarly
strikingly original, although their ideas were not taken up by later
Chinese philosophers. The Mohist tradition is also highly unusual in
Chinese thought in that it devoted time to developing principles of
logic.

He is the first to describe the physical principle behind the camera,
also known as the camera obscura.


                              See also
======================================================================
* 'A Battle of Wits' - a historical film based around Mohism
* History of geometry
* List of people on stamps of the People's Republic of China
* Fa, an influential concept elaborated by Mozi


Sources
=========
* Fraser, Chris.  [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/
"Mohism,"] article in the 'Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'
*
*
* . (Printings were 1956, 1962, 1969) See also the 1986 edition
published in Taipei by Caves Books Ltd.
*


                          Further reading
======================================================================
* Bertolt Brecht. 'Me-ti. Buch der Wendungen'. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt
1971.
* Wing-tsit Chan, ed. 'A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy'. Princeton
University Press, Princeton 1969, .
* Wejen Chang, 'Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of
Pre-Qin Thinkers'. Cambridge 1990.
* Chris Fraser, 'The Philosophy of the Mòzi: The First
Consequentialists', New York, Columbia University Press, 2016.
* Jane Geaney, "A Critique of A. C. Graham's Reconstruction of the
'Neo-Mohist Canons,'" Journal of the American Oriental Society, 119,
no. 1 (1999), pp. 1-11.
* Anna Ghiglione, 'Mozi', complete translation from classical Chinese,
annotated and commented, Québec, Les Presses de l'Université Laval,
2018. Series « Histoire et cultures chinoises », edited by Shenwen Li.
* Angus C. Graham, 'Disputers of the TAO: Philosophical Argument in
Ancient China' (Open Court 1993).
*--. 'Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science' by A. C. Graham, (1978,
reprinted 2004) The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong. 700 pages.
*
*--. 'A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought'. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1992)
* Kung-chuan Hsiao. 'A History of Chinese Political Thought'. In:
Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D.. Princeton
University Press, Princeton 1979 (übersetzt von F. W. Mote).
*  'Mo-tse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius'. London: Arthur
Probsthain, 1934.
* Ralf Moritz, 'Die Philosophie im alten China'. Deutscher Verlag der
Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, .
* Peter J. Opitz, 'Der Weg des Himmels: Zum Geist und zur Gestalt des
politischen Denkens im klassischen China'. Fink, München 1999, .
* Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer, (ed.), 'Mo Ti: Von der Liebe des Himmels zu
den Menschen'. Diederichs, München 1992, .
*--. 'Mo Ti: Solidarität und allgemeine Menschenliebe'. Diederichs,
Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, .
*--. 'Mo Ti: Gegen den Krieg'. Diederichs, Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, .
* Aronovich Rubin Vitaly, 'Individual and State in Ancient China:
Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers'. Columbia University Press, New
York 1976, .
* Robin D. S. Yates, "The Mohists on Warfare: Technology, Technique,
and Justification", 'Journal of the American Academy of Religion', 47,
mo. 3 (1980, Thematic Issue S), pp. 549-603.
* Ian Johnston, 'The Mozi: A Complete Translation', New York: Columbia
University Press, 2010.


                           External links
======================================================================
*[https://www.utilitarianism.net/utilitarian-thinker/mozi Mozi],
biographical profile, including quotes and further resources, at
[https://www.utilitarianism.net/ Utilitarianism.net]
* [http://ctext.org/mozi Full text of the 'Mozi'] (Chinese with
English translation based on Mei's translation)
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/mozi/ Mozi] in the 'Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy'


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