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= Love =
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Introduction
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Love is a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment to a
person, animal, or thing. It is expressed in many forms, encompassing
a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the
most sublime virtue or good habit, or the deepest interpersonal
affection, to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of
meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a
spouse, which differs from the love of food.
Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue
representing kindness, compassion, and affection--"the unselfish,
loyal, and benevolent concern for the good of another"--and its vice
representing a moral flaw akin to vanity, selfishness, amour-propre,
and egotism. It may also describe compassionate and affectionate
actions towards other humans, oneself, or animals. In its various
forms, love acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal
relationships, and owing to its central psychological importance, is
one of the most common themes in the creative arts. Love has been
postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against
menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.
Ancient Greek philosophers identified six forms of love: familial love
(), friendly love or platonic love (), romantic love (), self-love (),
guest love (), and divine or unconditional love (). Modern authors
have distinguished further varieties of love: fatuous love, unrequited
love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuated love
(limerence), amour de soi, and courtly love. Numerous cultures have
also distinguished , , , , , , , , , , charity, (and other variants
or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words,
definitions, or expressions of love in regard to specified "moments"
currently lacking in the English language.
The colour wheel theory of love defines three primary, three
secondary, and nine tertiary love styles, describing them in terms of
the traditional color wheel. The triangular theory of love suggests
intimacy, passion, and commitment are core components of love. Love
has additional religious or spiritual meaning. This diversity of uses
and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved,
makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to
other emotional states.
Definitions
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The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in
different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express
some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as "love";
one example is the plurality of Greek concepts for "love" (, , , ).
Cultural differences in conceptualizing love makes it difficult to
establish a universal definition.
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent
debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining
what is 'not' love (antonyms of "love"). Love, as a general expression
of positive sentiment (a stronger form of 'like'), is commonly
contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy). As a less sexual and more
emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly
contrasted with lust. As an interpersonal relationship with romantic
overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the
word 'love' is often applied to close friendships or platonic love.
Further possible ambiguities come with usages like "girlfriend",
"boyfriend", and "just good friends".
|url=
http://www.TrueOpenLove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html
|title=Ancient Love Poetry
|url-status=usurped
|archive-url=
https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072056/http://www.trueopenlove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html
|website=TrueOpenLove
|archive-date=30 September 2007
}}
The complex nature of love often reduces its discourse to a
thought-terminating cliché. Several common proverbs regard love, from
Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles' "All You Need Is Love".
St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as "to will the
good of another." Bertrand Russell describes love as "absolute
value," as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz
said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another." Meher
Baba stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active
appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love." Biologist
Jeremy Griffith defines love as "unconditional selflessness".
According to Ambrose Bierce, love is a temporary insanity curable by
marriage.
Impersonal
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People can express love towards things other than humans; this can
range from expressing a strong liking of something, such as "I love
popcorn" or that something is essential to one's identity, such as "I
love being an actor".
People can have a profound dedication and immense appreciation for an
object, principle, or objective, thereby experiencing a sense of love
towards it. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers'
"love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love
but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political
convictions.
People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if
they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those
things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is
called paraphilia.
Interpersonal
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Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a much
more potent sentiment than 'liking' a person. Unrequited love refers
to feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is
most closely associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love
might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are
several psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have speculated about the
phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of psychology has
studied the subject. The sciences of anthropology, neuroscience, and
biology have also added to the understanding of the concept of love.
Biological basis
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Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much
like hunger or thirst. Helen Fisher, an anthropologist and human
behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly
overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the
feeling of sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what partners
find attractive and pursue, ; and attachment involves sharing a home,
parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of
safety and security.
Three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and
three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic
styles.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and
involves the increased release of hormones such as testosterone and
estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months.
Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a
specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as
commitment to an individual mate form. Recent studies in neuroscience
have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently
releases a certain set of chemicals, including the neurotransmitter
hormones dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds
released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and
leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, reduced appetite
and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research indicates
that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a
third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships.
Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many
years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments
such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things
like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the
chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin, to a greater degree than what is
found in short-term relationships. Enzo Emanuele and coworkers
reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF)
has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to
previous levels after one year.
Psychological basis
=====================
Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love
in which love has three components: intimacy, commitment, and passion.
Intimacy is when two people share confidences and various details of
their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic
love affairs. Commitment is the expectation that the relationship is
permanent. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic
love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these
three components. Non-love does not include any of these components.
Liking only includes intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion.
Empty love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both
intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and
commitment. Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Consummate
love includes all three components.
American psychologist Zick Rubin sought to define 'love' by
psychometrics in the 1970s. His work identifies a different set of
three factors that constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.
Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law,
which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in
human life were envisioned, such as "opposites attract". Research on
human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to
character and personality--people tend to like people similar to
themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as
immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike
themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), perhaps because
this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.
In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed,
described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities into two main components, the altruistic and
the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck,
whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions
of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the
"concern for the spiritual growth of another" and simple narcissism.
In combination, love is an 'activity', not simply a feeling.
Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book 'The Art of Loving'
that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in
fact the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's
commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time. Fromm
held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a
commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another,
oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration. Fromm also
described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might
originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer
depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious
commitment.
Love as a necessity
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The extent to which love can be labelled as a necessity varies in
psychology. For infants, attachment theory states that there is a need
to form a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver to
ensure their survival, and to develop healthy social and emotional
functioning (particularly between the ages of six months and two
years). As children grow, they use these attachment figures as a
secure base from which to explore the world and return to for comfort.
Psychiatrist Stephanie Cacioppo states, "the need for love might be
less immediate than the need to avoid danger, but it is by no means a
luxury", vaguely placing love neither as a complete need or want, but
in between. Professor Ingrid V. Albrecht suggests that "love
participates in a unique form of practical necessity, different from
both moral and psychological necessity, yet bearing resemblances to
each." It is further described as "an engagement with a person as
essentially particular, rather than as an instance of a rational agent
in general." Ingrid's view suggests that morality or rationality are
not the limiting factors of love, but that love is its own distinct
need independent of those factors.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow places love near the middle of the
hierarchy of needs. In his model, love is a driving factor of human
behavior that a person necessitates to fulfill their psychological
needs. For many people, it is usually prioritized after one's
physiological and safety needs are met.
Evolutionary basis
====================
Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for
love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a
large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has
therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of
children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as
early as Charles Darwin identified unique features of human love
compared to other mammals and credited love as a major factor for
creating social support systems that enabled the development and
expansion of the human species. Another factor may be that sexually
transmitted diseases can cause, among other effects, permanently
reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications
during childbirth. This would favor monogamous relationships over
polygamy.
Adaptive benefit
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Interpersonal love between a man and woman provides an evolutionary
adaptive benefit since it facilitates mating and sexual reproduction.
However, some organisms can reproduce asexually without mating.
Understanding the adaptive benefit of interpersonal love depends on
understanding the adaptive benefit of sexual reproduction as opposed
to asexual reproduction. Richard Michod reviewed evidence that love,
and consequently sexual reproduction, provides two major adaptive
advantages. First, sexual reproduction facilitates repair of damages
in the DNA that is passed from parent to progeny (during meiosis, a
key stage of the sexual process). Second, a gene in either parent may
contain a harmful mutation, but in the progeny produced by sexual
reproduction, expression of a harmful mutation introduced by one
parent is likely to be masked by expression of the unaffected
homologous gene from the other parent.
Comparison of scientific models
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Biological models of love tend to see it as a drive, similar to
hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and
cultural phenomenon. Love is influenced by hormones (such as
oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people
think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love.
The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in
love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is
presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become
attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love
as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love.
Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by
physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate);
companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not
accompanied by physiological arousal.
Health
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Love plays a role in human well-being and health. Engaging in
activities associated with love, such as nurturing relationships, has
been shown to activate key brain regions responsible for emotion,
attention, motivation, and memory. These activities also contribute to
the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, leading to stress
reduction over time, although the initial stages of love may induce
stress. Love's social bonds enhance both physical and mental health,
fostering resilience, compassion, and closeness. It boosts immune
function and promotes healing, while also encouraging positive
motivations and behaviors for individual flourishing and survival.
Breakups can evoke a range of emotional states, including distrust,
rejection, and anger, leading to trauma and various psychological
challenges such as anxiety, social withdrawal, and even love
addiction. Individuals may become fixated on past relationships,
perpetuating emotional distress akin to addiction. Health benefits
grow bigger when married couples are older, this is because the
partners play a crucial role in promoting each other's well-being.
Cultural views
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Ancient authors imagined love as a striving for perfection in beauty
and goodness. From the high Middle Ages, love was generally the
central category of ruler relationships and the relationship between
"the sovereign power and the subject". It functioned as a form of
behavior that "structured and hierarchized the political space, not as
a feeling related to subjectivity and authenticity as in the modern
sense". Evidence shows that love was a subject taught in ruling houses
until the 13th century. In the context of mirrors for princes, the
ruler should come to love his subjects, and his subjects to love him
in return. Some medieval texts (Machiavelli, 'Il principe', 1513/32;
"The Prince") instruct the ruler to use fear as a means of maintaining
the relationship, while others (Erasmus of Rotterdam, 'Institutio
principis christiani', 1515; "Instruction of the Christian prince")
advocate for "insight and experience".
Unhealthy forms of love have always been apparent throughout the
course of history. In the context of sexual violence, love in the
context of desire was interpreted differently, as a "force" that
caused men to rape women. Men were often described to be powerless
against it, and the act of sexual violence was instead seen to be an
act of love in the form of "seduction". Especially in courts of law,
this concept was often used as an excuse to mask the alleged facts of
sexual violence.
Ancient Greek
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Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love"
is used. Ancient Greeks identified three main forms of love:
friendship or platonic desire (), sexual or romantic desire (), and
self-emptying or divine love (). Modern authors have distinguished
further varieties of romantic love.
;'Agape' ( )
: 'Agape', often a Christian term, denotes a form of love that stands
apart from the conventional understanding of affection. Rooted in
theological discourse, 'agape' represents a love that is characterized
by its spontaneous nature and its independence from the inherent value
of its object. Originating from the Greek term for "love", 'agape' has
been examined within theological scholarship, particularly in contrast
to 'eros.' In the Christian tradition, agape is often attributed to
the love of God for humanity, as well as humanity's reciprocal love
for God and for one another, often termed as brotherly love. 'Agape'
is considered to be unmerited and unmotivated by any inherent
worthiness in its recipient. Instead, it is portrayed as an expression
of the nature of God, exemplifying divine love that transcends human
comprehension.
;'Eros' ( )
: 'Eros' originally referred to a passionate desire, often synonymous
with sexual passion, reflecting an egocentric nature. However, its
modern interpretation portrays it as both selfish and responsive to
the merits of the beloved, thus contingent on reasons. Plato, in his
'Symposium', argued that sexual desire, fixated on physical beauty, is
inadequate and should evolve into an appreciation of the beauty of the
soul, culminating in an appreciation of the form of beauty itself. In
Greek mythology, Eros symbolizes the state of being in love, extending
beyond mere physical sexuality (referred to as "Venus"). Unrestrained
Venus can reduce individuals to mere appetite, but when Eros is
present, the focus shifts to the beloved, elevating intimacy beyond
physical gratification. Eros is depicted as divine yet potentially
dangerous, capable of inspiring both altruism and selfishness.
;'Philia' ( )
: 'Philia' originally describing an affectionate regard or friendly
feeling, extended to relationships like friendship, family members,
business partners, and one's nation. Similar to 'eros', 'philia' is
often seen as responsive to positive attributes in the beloved. This
similarity has led scholars to think whether the primary difference
between romantic 'eros' and 'philia' lies solely in the sexual
dimension of the former. The distinction between the two becomes more
complex with attempts from scholars to diminish the importance of the
sexual aspect in eros, contributing to a nuanced understanding of
these forms of love. 'Philia' was articulated by Aristotle in his
'Nicomachean Ethics.' Aristotle suggests that 'philia' can be
motivated by considerations for either one's own benefit or the
benefit of the other. 'Philia' often arises from the utility found in
the relationship or from admiration for the character or virtues of
the other individual. Aristotle further elucidates that the foundation
of philia rests on objective grounds; individuals must share similar
dispositions, refrain from holding grudges, and embody qualities such
as justice, among others.
Ancient Roman
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In Latin, friendship was distinctly termed 'amicitia,' while 'amor'
encompassed erotic passion, familial attachment, and, albeit less
commonly, the affection between friends. Cicero, in his essay 'On
Friendship' reflects on the innate human tendency to both love oneself
and seek out another with whom to intertwine minds, nearly blending
them into a singular entity. This suggests that while friends remain
distinct individuals, they also, in some sense, become intertwined,
embodying a shared essence.
Lucretius perceives love as a disruptive and irrational force, leading
to madness and despair. To him, it is an affliction distorting
reality, a primal urge rooted in the biological need for species to
propagate. He emphasizes love's futility and self-destructive nature.
In contrast, Ovid acknowledges the pleasure of love alongside its
risks and complexities. He views love as a game of manipulation and
deception, marked by a blend of hedonism and cynicism. Ovid recognizes
the transient nature of passion and the inevitable disappointment in
romantic relationships.
===Chinese===
'Ren' (), a concept in Confucianism philosophy, embodies the essence
of humanity and virtue. It is regarded as the sum of all virtues
within a person, encompassing traits such as selflessness and
self-cultivation. Ren emphasizes the cultivation of harmonious
relationships within society, starting from the family unit and
extending outward. Within Confucianism, these relationships are
delineated by five main categories: father-son, older brother-younger
brother, husband-wife, older friend-younger friend, and lord-servant.
In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions
such as filial piety from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to
the king and so forth.
Central to the concept of 'ren' is the notion of reciprocity and
empathetic understanding. It is often interpreted as akin to love (),
but sometimes it also considered a stage between 'ai' and 'ling',
characterized by the sincere and open-hearted expression of human
feelings. Through genuine love for others, individuals cultivate 'ren'
and foster deeper connections that bridge the gap between the human
and the divine. 'Ren's' significance lies in its ability to foster
genuine human connection and empathy, laying the foundation for
harmonious relationships within society.
Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, articulated a philosophy centered on the
principle of universal love. At the core of his teachings lay the
belief that genuine harmony and societal well-being could only be
achieved through love for others, transcending narrow self-interest.
Mozi contended that universal love was not merely an abstract concept
but a practical imperative, requiring individuals to actively promote
the welfare of all members of society through their actions.
In Mozi's philosophical framework, universal love was not only a moral
obligation but also a divine principle originating from Heaven itself.
He argued that this principle was exemplified through the actions of
sage-kings from ancient times, who demonstrated how love could
manifest in tangible ways within human interactions. Mozi's advocacy
for universal love extended beyond interpersonal relationships; he
believed it should guide the selection of rulers and the structuring
of society, emphasizing reciprocity and egalitarianism as foundational
principles for a harmonious social order.
In Taoism, the concept of 'ci' () embodies compassion or love, with
connotations of tender nurturing akin to a mother's care. It
emphasizes the idea that creatures can only thrive through raising and
nurturing. 'Ci' serves as the wellspring of compassion or love that
transcends preconceived notions of individuals, instead fostering
compassion for people as they are. As depicted in the 'Tao Te Ching',
love is as open and responsive to each person's unique circumstances.
Taoism juxtaposes human beings with the vastness of nature, likening
the creation of people to the formation of waves in the ocean. Unlike
Confucianism, Taoist responses to the loss of a loved one as portrayed
in the 'Zhuangzi' may involve either mourning their death or embracing
the loss and finding joy in new creations. Taoist love seeks
connections that surpass distinctions and superficial reflections.
Japanese
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The Japanese language uses three words to convey the English
equivalent of love -- , and . The term 'ai' carries a multiple
meanings, encompassing feelings of feelings from superior to
inferiors, compassion and empathy towards others and selfless love,
originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious
context. Initially synonymous with 'koi', representing romantic love
between a man and a woman, emphasizing its physical expression, 'ai'
underwent a transformation during the early Meiji era. It evolved into
a euphemistic term for or love attachment, signifying a shift towards
a more egalitarian treatment and consideration of others as equals.
Prior to Western influence, the term 'koi' generally represented
romantic love. describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex
and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting. The term's
origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of
separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of focuses on sexual
love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range
of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire.
The fusion of 'ai' and 'koi' gave rise to the modern term 'ren'ai';
its usage more closely resembles that of in the form of romantic
love.
The concept , the dependency and emotional bonds between an infant and
its mother--a bond that lays the foundation for the archetypal concept
of love. Japanese culture traditionally distinguishes between marriage
and love, valuing practical considerations and complementarity within
family units.
Indian
========
In ancient India, there was an understanding of erotics and the art of
love. References in the Rigveda suggest the presence of romantic
narratives in ancient Indo-Aryan society, evident in dialogues between
deities like Yama and Yami, and Pururavas and Urvashi. The Sanskrit
language, offered various terms to convey the concept of love, such as
'kama,' 'sneha, priya, vatsalya,' 'bhakti', 'priti' and 'prema'.
In Indian literature, there are seven stages of love. The first is
'preska', characterized by the desire to see something pleasant. Next
is 'abhilasa,' involving constant thoughts about the beloved. Then
comes 'raga,' signifying the mental inclination to be united with the
beloved. Following that is 'shena', which involves favorable
activities directed towards the beloved. 'Prema' is the stage where
one cannot live without the beloved. Then there is 'rati', which
involves living together with the beloved. Finally, 'srngara'
represents the playful interaction with the beloved.
'Kama' initially representing desire and longing. Later, Vātsyāyana,
the author of the Kama Sutra, explored the concept of 'kama', defining
it as the enjoyment of sensory pleasures with conscious awareness.
However, there were also teachings cautioning against becoming overly
attached to desire, advocating for the pursuit of genuine happiness
through transcending desires. The Atharvaveda, presents 'kama' as the
tender affection between partners.
Nevertheless, 'kama' is also often associated with insatiable sexual
desire intertwined with intense emotions like anger and greed,
portraying it as potentially harmful. Over time, 'kama' took on
anthropomorphic qualities, evolving into the figure of the Indian
Cupid.
'Sneha', considered the emotional facet of love, stands in contrast to
the intense passion of 'kama' with its calm demeanor. Characterized by
moisture and viscosity, the term originally denoted oiliness. It is
often compounded with words for family members, reflecting attachment
to individuals like mothers, fathers, and sons. Those experiencing
'sneha' tend to exhibit great concern for one another. While
traditionally attributed to sensing, the Harshacharita presents a
spontaneous perspective, suggesting it lacks a definitive cause. Due
to its emotional nature, 'sneha' is transient, emerging without reason
and disappearing likewise.
'Preman' represents a heightened stage in the development of love,
characterized by the unbearable feeling of separation from the
beloved. Etymologically, it denotes the sense of endearment akin to
one's own. 'Priti', similar to 'preman', denotes fondness for anything
delightful and familiar. It encompasses a general liking for arts,
sports, and objects, while also encompassing a human instinct. 'Priti'
is built on foundations of trust and fidelity. Friendly relations
('priti') may persist between individuals but are not necessarily
bound by affection ('sneha').
'Vatsalya' originally signifies the tender affection exhibited by a
cow towards her calf, extending to denote the love nurtured by elders
or superiors towards the younger or inferior. This love is exemplified
in the affection of parents towards their children, a husband's care
for his wife, or a ruler's concern for their subjects. Conversely,
'bhakti' denotes the love expressed by the younger towards the
seniors, exemplified in a child's devotion to their parents.
Persian
=========
Interpretations of Rumi's poetry and Sufi cosmology by scholars
emphasize a divine-centric perspective, focusing on the transcendent
nature of love. These interpretations emphasize Rumi's rejection of
mortal attachments in favor of a love for the ultimate beloved, seen
as embodying absolute beauty and grandeur. Scholars like William
Chittick assert that all love stems from the divine, with God being
both lover and beloved. Leonard Lewisohn characterizes Rumi's poetry
as part of a mystical tradition that celebrates love as pathways to
union with the divine, highlighting a transcendent experience.
In Persian mysticism, the concept of creation stems from love, viewed
as the fundamental essence from which all beings originate and to
which they ultimately return. This notion, influenced by neoplatonism,
portrays love as both earthly and transcendent, embodying a universal
striving for reunion with the divine. Scholars such as Abdolhossein
Zarrinkoob trace this philosophical stance, highlighting its fusion
with ancient Persian religious beliefs in figures like Ibn Arabi.
According to Islamicists like William Chittick and Leonard Lewisohn,
all forms of love find their origin in divine love, with creation
serving as a reflection of God's beauty and love. This perspective is
evident in the poetry of Hafez and others, where the concept of
tajalli, or divine self-manifestation, underscores the profound
spiritual significance of love as it pertains to both human
relationships and devotion to God.
Religious views
======================================================================
Until the 18th century, the concept of love in relationships had been
largely based on the former principles of God. Authors of the high
Middle Ages emphasized using God to help guide those of authority in
relationships. As a result, consequences were seen as in accordance to
divine order, "for the ruler's right to punish was directly derived
from the obligation of love towards the subject."
Judaism
=========
In Hebrew, ('ahavah') signifies the love of Israelites for God and
each other. However, the concept 'hesed' offers a deeper understanding
of love within Jewish thought and life. It goes beyond mere passion,
embodying a character trait that is actively expressed through
generosity and grace. 'Hesed' has a dual nature: when attributed to
God, it denotes grace or favor, while when practiced by humans, it
reflects piety and devotion.
'Hasidim', demonstrate their commitment and love for God through acts
of 'hesed'. The Torah serves as a guide, outlining how Israelites
should express their love for God, show reverence for nature, and
demonstrate compassion toward fellow human beings. The commandment
"Love thy neighbor as thyself" from the Torah's, gives emphasis on
ethical obligations and impartiality in judgment. It highlights the
importance of treating all individuals equally before the law,
rejecting favoritism and bribery; deuteronomy further emphasizes
impartiality in judgment.
As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential
ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes ).
Rabbi David Wolpe writes that "love is not only about the feelings of
the lover... It is when one person believes in another person and
shows it." He further states that "love... is a feeling that expresses
itself in action. What we really feel is reflected in what we do." The
biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased
metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading
it reads like a love song. The 20th-century rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer
Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of
view as "giving without expecting to take".
Christianity
==============
The Christian understanding is that love comes from God, who is
himself love (). The love of man and woman-- in Greek--and the
unselfish love of others (), are often contrasted as "descending" and
"ascending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing. In
ancient Christianity, the concept of 'caritas' became a prominent
topic, advocating love for one’s neighbor as the likeness of God
(Augustine, 'De civitate Dei').
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred
to in Christian circles.
; : In the New Testament, is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and
unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the
world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as
the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
; : Also used in the New Testament, is a human response to something
that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
Two other words for love in the Greek language, (sexual love) and
(child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.
Christians believe that to 'love God with all your heart, mind, and
strength' and 'love your neighbor as yourself' are the two most
important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish
Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark ). Saint Augustine
summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
The Old Testament is said to place greater emphasis on "the active
character of love" than the New, which shifts its focus to the love of
God "as a principle pervading the world". Out of the three divine
virtues (faith, hope, and love) in Christianity, it is said that love
has the highest status (1 Cor 13,13). The Apostle Paul similarly
glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in
the famous poetic interpretation in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is
patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not
proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily
angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil
but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always
hopes, and always perseveres." ()
The Apostle John wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his
one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but
have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to
condemn the world, but to save the world through him." (John ) John
also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from
God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever
does not love does not know God, because God is love." ()
Saint Augustine wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference
between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an
overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his
entire life. He even says, "I was in love with love." Finally, he does
fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only
one who can love you truly and fully is God because love with a human
only allows for flaws such as "jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and
contention." According to Saint Augustine, to love God is "to attain
the peace which is yours."
Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in as the heart of
Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review
of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms
of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of 'De Doctrina
Christiana' (1.22.21-1.40.44).
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored
in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian
theologian C. S. Lewis wrote a book called 'The Four Loves'. Benedict
XVI named his first encyclical 'God is love'. He said that a human
being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice
love; to give himself to God and others () and by receiving and
experiencing God's love in contemplation (). This life of love,
according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta
and Mary, the mother of Jesus and is the direction Christians take
when they believe that God loves them.
Pope Francis asserts that the "Cross (Jesus crucified) is the greatest
meaning of the greatest love," and in the crucifixion is found
everything, all knowledge and the entirety of God's love. Pope Francis
taught that "True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved...
what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to
be loved by God." And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian,
for Pope Francis, "the key to love... is not our activity. It is the
activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the
universe: God's."
In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarized by
Thomas Aquinas, who defined love as "to will the good of another," or
to desire for another to succeed. This is an explanation of the
Christian need to love others, including their enemies. Thomas Aquinas
explains that Christian love is motivated by the need to see others
succeed in life, to be good people.
Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew:
Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: "Our individual,
extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To
love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only
among Christians."
Islam
=======
Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood
that applies to all who hold faith. Among the 99 names of God (Allah)
is the name 'Al-Wadud', or "the Loving One," which is found in Surah
and . God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the
Qur'an as 'Ar-Rahman' and 'Ar-Rahim', or the "Most Compassionate" and
the "Most Merciful", indicating that nobody is more loving,
compassionate, and benevolent than God. The Qur'an refers to God as
being "full of loving kindness."
The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat , with or "deep
kindness" as stated in Surah . is also used by the Qur'an to describe
the love and kindness that children must show to their parents.
, or divine love, is emphasized by Sufism in the Islamic tradition.
Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the
essence of God into the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and
as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at himself
within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of
God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the
apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.
God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms--Lover, Loved, and
Beloved--with the last of these terms often seen in Sufi poetry. A
common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can return
to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous
for being "drunk" due to their love of God; hence, the constant
reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
Bahá'í Faith
==============
The Bahá'í concept of the human soul emphasizes its expression through
capacities such as knowledge, love, and will. According to Bahá'í
teachings, conscious recognition of one's Creator and a reciprocal
love relationship with that Creator form the basis of obedience to
religious law. This perspective grounds adherence to law within the
spiritual dynamics of each individual's journey, portraying obedience
as a conscious choice driven by love rather than as mere compliance
with external dictates.
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, emphasizes the
importance of observing God's commandments out of love, describing
them as "the lamps of My loving providence" and urging followers to
adhere to them for "the love of My beauty." This framing positions
love as the motive force for individuals striving to follow divine
laws. In Bahá'í understanding, love is considered the fundamental
universal law. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor,
describes love as the "most great law" and the force that binds
together the diverse elements of the material world. He further
asserts that love is the establisher of true civilization and the
source of glory for every race and nation.
From the Bahá'í perspective, God's revelation of laws to humanity is
an act of love, and the legitimate reason for their application and
adherence lies in their expression of love. This understanding
underscores the intimate connection between spiritual principles,
individual growth, and the practice of religious law within the Bahá'í
Faith.
Buddhism
==========
In Buddhism, love is understood as a selfless, universal quality that
serves as the foundation for compassion, joy in others' happiness, and
equanimity. Together, these four qualities--loving-kindness
('maitrī'), compassion ('karuṇā'), sympathetic joy ('mudita'), and
equanimity ('upekṣā')--are known as the brahmavihara. Loving-kindness,
the first of the four, fosters goodwill toward all beings and leads
naturally to compassion for those who suffer, joy in others'
achievements, and, ultimately, to equanimity, a balanced state free
from attachment and aversion. This progression helps practitioners to
reduce negative tendencies like ill-will, jealousy, and
possessiveness, with the ultimate aim of cultivating inner peace and a
compassionate view toward all beings, supporting both personal growth
and societal harmony.
In Theravada, love and sympathy play key roles in shaping ethical
behavior and social actions. Sympathy motivates altruistic acts like
teaching and helping others, while loving-kindness is cultivated
primarily through meditation, acting as a form of mental liberation.
Together, these qualities encourage impartial love and empathy,
fostering personal peace and societal harmony, and supporting both
individual growth and a more compassionate world.
In Mahayana, love is understood as profound compassion and a
commitment to mutual support. This concept is central to the
Bodhisattva ideal, where practitioners vow to help all beings reach
enlightenment, often delaying their own liberation to support others.
Mahayana teachings emphasize selfless love, blurring the boundary
between self and others, and seeing all beings as interconnected. This
love, framed within the Mahayana understanding of reality as
ultimately illusory, transcends ego and guides both the practitioner
and others toward collective liberation.
In Vajrayana, love is a transformative force that, when disciplined,
leads to spiritual enlightenment. Rather than rejecting desire,
Vajrayana encourages the refinement of love and other potent energies
as pathways to higher consciousness. By controlling and sublimating
these energies, often represented through sexual energy as a life
force (k'Kundalini'), practitioners unite the principles of wisdom and
skill. Here, love becomes a symbol and method for ultimate unity,
guiding practitioners to enlightenment by transforming personal desire
into a universal connection.
Hinduism
==========
In Hinduism, is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god
Kamadeva. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end () in life.
Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of
flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by
his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season.
Stone images of Kamadeva and Rati can be seen on the door of the
Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, in Karnataka, India. 'Maara' is another
name for .
In contrast to , --or refers to "elevated" love. is compassion and
mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. is a
Sanskrit term meaning "loving devotion to the divine." A person who
practices is called a . Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers
have distinguished nine forms of , which can be found in the
'Bhagavata Purana' and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work
'Narada Bhakti Sutra', written by an unknown author (presumed to be
Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.
In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining unadulterated,
unconditional, and incessant love for the Godhead is considered the
foremost goal of life. Gaudiya Vaishnavas, who worship Krishna as the
Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes, consider
Love for Godhead, (), to act in two ways: and (union and
separation)--two opposites.
In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being
with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme
happiness. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (love for
Godhead) burns away one's material desires, pierces the heart, and
washes away everything--one's pride, one's religious rules, and one's
shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of
transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd
girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for
Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Radha is considered to be the internal
potency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example
of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of the material
realm, as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is
visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between Radha (the
supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject
of many poetic compositions in India, such as the 'Gita Govinda' of
Jayadeva and 'Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.'
In the tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of
devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (),
and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free
from material contamination (). Being perfectly in love with God or
Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination, and this
is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition,
salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an
incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to
be the perfection of life.
Free love
===========
The term "free love" has been used to describe a social movement that
rejects marriage, which is seen as a form of social bondage. The free
love movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual
matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It claimed that
such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.
Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an
important aspect of life to "fulfill earthly human happiness."
Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in
an uncertain world. This mentality created a vision of strongly
defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love
movement as a contrast.
Advocates of free love had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea
of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman
to use her body in any way that she pleases. These are also beliefs of
feminism.
Philosophical views
======================================================================
Philosophically, love is often categorized into four types: love as a
union, robust concern, valuing, and emotion. Love as a union suggests
love forms a "we" by merging individual identities, as proposed by
thinkers like Roger Scruton and Robert Nozick, who argue this fusion
enhances shared care. Critics, however, contend that union threatens
individual autonomy, though Nozick and others believe this merging
enriches love. Michael Friedman offers a compromise with his
federation model, where love unifies yet preserves individual
identities.
Love as robust concern defines love as a deep care for the beloved's
well-being without creating a union. This view prioritizes concern for
the beloved's welfare, but critics argue it misses the interactive and
emotional aspects of love. Supporters maintain that love's essence
lies in respecting the beloved's autonomy. Monique Wonderly adds that
attachment complements this view, making the beloved important for
both themselves and the lover.
Love as valuing includes two approaches: appraisal and bestowal of
value. J. David Velleman argues that appraisal responds to the
inherent dignity in others, making love a unique emotional
vulnerability. However, this view struggles to explain love's
selectivity and constancy. Peter Singer's bestowal view posits that
love creates intrinsic value in the beloved, yet critics question how
this explains love's discernment.
Love as an emotion is seen either as an emotion proper or as an
emotion complex. Emotion properly treats love as a specific
motivational response, but some find this too simplistic. The emotion
complex perspective suggests that love is a dynamic, interconnected
emotional history shaped by the relationship. Figures like Annette
Baier and Neera K. Badhwar highlight emotional interdependence, though
critics wonder how this distinguishes love from other relationships
and defines its unique narrative.
External links
======================================================================
*[
http://www.iep.utm.edu/love-his/ History of Love], 'Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy'
License
=========
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love
