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= Henry_James =
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Introduction
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Henry James ( - ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a
key transitional figure between literary realism and literary
modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest
novelists in the English language. He was the son of theologian Henry
James Sr. and the brother of philosopher and psychologist William
James and diarist Alice James.
He is best known for his novels dealing with the social and marital
interplay between 'émigré 'Americans, the English, and continental
Europeans, such as 'The Portrait of a Lady'. His later works, such as
'The Ambassadors', 'The Wings of the Dove' and 'The Golden Bowl' were
increasingly experimental. In describing the internal states of mind
and social dynamics of his characters, James often wrote in a style in
which ambiguous or contradictory motives and impressions were overlaid
or juxtaposed in the discussion of a character's psyche. For their
unique ambiguity, as well as for other aspects of their composition,
his late works have been compared to Impressionist painting.
His novella 'The Turn of the Screw' has garnered a reputation as the
most analysed and ambiguous ghost story in the English language and
remains his most widely adapted work in other media. He wrote other
highly regarded ghost stories, such as "The Jolly Corner".
James published articles and books of criticism, travel, biography,
autobiography, and plays. Born in the United States, he spent much of
his life abroad. James largely relocated to Europe in his thirties,
and eventually settled in England, becoming a British citizen in 1915,
a year before his death. James was nominated for the Nobel Prize in
Literature in 1911, 1912, and 1916. Jorge Luis Borges said "I have
visited some literatures of East and West; I have compiled an
encyclopedic compendium of fantastic literature; I have translated
Kafka, Melville, and Bloy; I know of no stranger work than that of
Henry James."
Early years, 1843–1883
========================
James was born at 21 Washington Place (facing Washington Square) in
the borough of Manhattan in New York City, on 15 April 1843. His
parents were Mary Walsh and Henry James Sr. His father was intelligent
and steadfastly congenial. He was a lecturer and philosopher who had
inherited independent means from his father, William James, a farmer
from Corkish, County Cavan, Ireland, who had emigrated to Albany, New
York, and became the second richest man in the state after John Jacob
Astor through banking and real estate. Mary came from a wealthy family
long settled in New York City. Her sister Katherine lived with her
adult family for an extended period of time. Henry Jr. was one of four
boys, the others being William, who was one year his senior, and
younger brothers Garth Wilkinson (Wilkie) and Robertson. His younger
sister was Alice. Both of his parents were of Irish and Scottish
descent.
Before he was a year old, his father sold the house at Washington
Place and took the family to Europe, where they lived for a time in a
cottage in Windsor Great Park in England. The family returned to New
York in 1845, and Henry spent much of his childhood living between his
paternal grandmother's home in Albany and a house on 58 West
Fourteenth Street in Manhattan. A painting of a view of Florence by
Thomas Cole hung in the front parlor of this house on West Fourteenth.
His education was calculated by his father to expose him to many
influences, primarily scientific and philosophical; it was described
by Percy Lubbock, the editor of his selected letters, as
"extraordinarily haphazard and promiscuous." Once, a cousin of the
James family came down to the house in Fourteenth Street and, one
evening during his stay, read the first installment of 'David
Copperfield' aloud to the elders of the family: Henry Junior had
sneaked down from his bedroom to listen surreptitiously to the
reading, until a scene involving the Murdstones led him to "loud[ly]
sob," whereupon he was discovered and sent back to bed.
Between 1855 and 1860, the James household travelled to London, Paris,
Geneva, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Bonn, and Newport, Rhode Island, according
to the father's current interests and publishing ventures, retreating
to the United States when funds were low. The James family arrived in
Paris in July 1855 and took rooms at a hotel in the Rue de la Paix.
Some time between 1856 and 1857, when William was fourteen and Henry
thirteen, the two brothers visited the Louvre and the Luxembourg
Palace. Henry studied primarily with tutors, and briefly attended
schools while the family travelled in Europe. A tutor of the James
children in Paris, M. Lerambert, had written a volume of verse that
was well reviewed by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve. Their longest
stays were in France, where Henry began to feel at home and became
fluent in French. He had a stutter, which seems to have manifested
itself only when he spoke English; in French, he did not stutter.
In the summer of 1857, the James family went to Boulogne-sur-Mer,
where they set up house at No. 20 Rue Neuve Chaussée, and where Henry
was a regular customer at an English lending library. In the autumn of
that year, Henry Senior wrote from Boulogne to a friend that "Henry is
not so fond of study, properly so-called, as of reading...He is a
devourer of libraries, and an immense writer of novels and dramas. He
has considerable talent as a writer, but I am at a loss to know
whether he will ever accomplish much." William recorded in a letter to
their parents in Paris, while the boys were staying in Bonn, that
Henry and Garth Wilkinson would wrestle "when study has made them dull
and sleepy."
In 1860, the family returned to Newport in the United States. There,
Henry befriended Thomas Sergeant Perry, who was to become a celebrated
literary academic in adulthood, and painter John La Farge, for whom
Henry sat as a subject, and who introduced him to French literature,
and in particular, to Balzac. James later called Balzac his "greatest
master", and said that he had learned more about the craft of fiction
from him than from anyone else.
In July 1861, Henry and Thomas Sergeant Perry paid a visit to an
encampment of wounded and invalid Union soldiers on the Rhode Island
shore, at Portsmouth Grove; he took walks and had conversations with
numerous soldiers and in later years compared this experience to those
of Walt Whitman as a volunteer nurse. In the autumn of 1861, James
received an injury, probably to his back, while fighting a fire. This
injury, which resurfaced at times throughout his life, made him unfit
for military service in the American Civil War. His younger brothers
Garth Wilkinson James and Robertson James, however, both served, with
Garth Wilkinson James serving as an officer in the 54th Massachusetts.
In 1864, the James family moved to Boston, Massachusetts, to be near
William, who had enrolled first in the Lawrence Scientific School at
Harvard and then in the medical school. In 1862, Henry attended
Harvard Law School, but realised that he was not interested in
studying law. He pursued his interest in literature and associated
with authors and critics William Dean Howells and Charles Eliot Norton
in Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts, and formed lifelong
friendships with Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., the future Supreme Court
justice, and with James T. Fields and Annie Adams Fields, his first
professional mentors. In 1865, Louisa May Alcott visited Boston and
dined with the James family; she later wrote in her journals that
"Henry Jr....was very friendly. Being a literary youth he gave me
advice, as if he had been eighty, and I a girl."
His first published work was a review of a stage performance, "Miss
Maggie Mitchell in 'Fanchon the Cricket'", published in 1863. About a
year later, "A Tragedy of Error", his first short story, was published
anonymously. James's first literary payment was for an appreciation of
Sir Walter Scott's novels, written for the 'North American Review'. He
wrote fiction and nonfiction pieces for 'The Nation' and 'Atlantic
Monthly', where Fields was editor. In 1865, Ernest Lawrence Godkin,
the founder of 'The Nation', visited the James family at their Boston
residence in Ashburton Place; the purpose of his visit was to solicit
contributions from Henry Senior and Henry Junior for the inaugural
issue of the journal. Henry Junior was later to describe his
friendship with Godkin as "one of the longest and happiest of my
life." In 1871, he published his first novel, 'Watch and Ward', in
serial form in the 'Atlantic Monthly'. The novel was later published
in book form in 1878.
During a 14-month trip through Europe in 1869-70, he met John Ruskin,
Charles Dickens, Matthew Arnold, William Morris, and George Eliot.
Rome impressed him profoundly. "Here I am then in the Eternal City",
he wrote to his brother William. "At last--for the first time--I
live!" He attempted to support himself as a freelance writer in Rome
and then secured a position as Paris correspondent for the 'New York
Tribune' through the influence of its editor, John Hay. When these
efforts failed, he returned to New York City. During 1874 and 1875, he
published 'Transatlantic Sketches', 'A Passionate Pilgrim' and
'Roderick Hudson'. In 1875, James wrote for 'The Nation' every week;
he received anywhere from $3 to $10 for brief paragraphs, $12 to $25
for book reviews and $25 to $40 for travel articles and lengthier
items. During this early period in his career, he was influenced by
Nathaniel Hawthorne.
In the fall of 1875, he moved to the Latin Quarter of Paris. Aside
from two extended returns to America, he spent the next three
decades--the rest of his life--in Europe. In Paris, he met Zola,
Daudet, Maupassant, Turgenev and others. He stayed in Paris only a
year before settling in London, where he established relationships
with Macmillan and other publishers, who paid for serial installments
that they published in book form. The audience for these serialised
novels was largely made up of middle-class women, and James struggled
to fashion serious literary work within the strictures imposed by
editors' and publishers' notions of what was suitable for young women
to read. He lived in rented rooms, but was able to join gentlemen's
clubs that had libraries and where he could entertain male friends. He
was introduced to English society by Henry Adams and Charles Milnes
Gaskell, the latter introducing him to the Travellers' and the Reform
Clubs. He was also an honorary member of the Savile Club, St James's
Club and, in 1882, the Athenaeum Club.
In England, he met the leading figures of politics and culture. He
continued to be a prolific writer, producing 'The American' (1877),
'The Europeans' (1878), a revision of 'Watch and Ward' (1878), 'French
Poets and Novelists' (1878), 'Hawthorne' (1879), and several shorter
works of fiction. In 1878, 'Daisy Miller' established his fame on both
sides of the Atlantic. It drew notice perhaps mostly because it
depicted a woman whose behaviour is outside the social norms of
Europe. He also began his first masterpiece, 'The Portrait of a Lady',
which appeared in 1881.
In 1877, he first visited Wenlock Abbey in Shropshire, home of his
friend Charles Milnes Gaskell, whom he had met through Henry Adams. He
was much inspired by the darkly romantic abbey and the surrounding
countryside, which feature in his essay "Abbeys and Castles". In
particular, the gloomy monastic fishponds behind the abbey are said to
have inspired the lake in 'The Turn of the Screw'.
While living in London, James continued to follow the careers of the
French realists, Émile Zola in particular. Their stylistic methods
influenced his own work in the years to come. Hawthorne's influence on
him faded during this period, replaced by George Eliot and Ivan
Turgenev. The period from 1878 to 1881 had the publication of 'The
Europeans', 'Washington Square', 'Confidence' and 'The Portrait of a
Lady'.
The period from 1882 to 1883 was marked by several losses. His mother
died in January 1882, while James was in Washington, D.C., on an
extended visit to America. He returned to his parents' home in
Cambridge, where he was together with all four of his siblings for the
first time in 15 years. He returned to Europe in mid-1882, but was
back in America by the end of the year following the death of his
father. His brother Garth Wilkinson James and friend Turgenev both
died in 1883.
Middle years, 1884–1897
=========================
In 1884, James made another visit to Paris, where he met again with
Zola, Daudet, and Goncourt. He had been following the careers of the
French "realist" or "naturalist" writers, and was increasingly
influenced by them. In 1886, he published 'The Bostonians' and 'The
Princess Casamassima', both influenced by the French writers that he
had studied assiduously. Critical reaction and sales were poor. He
wrote to Howells that the books had hurt his career rather than helped
because they had "reduced the desire, and demand, for my productions
to zero". During this time, he became friends with Robert Louis
Stevenson, John Singer Sargent, Edmund Gosse, George du Maurier, Paul
Bourget, and Constance Fenimore Woolson. His third novel from the
1880s was 'The Tragic Muse'. Although he was following the precepts of
Zola in his novels of the '80s, their tone and attitude are closer to
the fiction of Alphonse Daudet. The lack of critical and financial
success for his novels during this period led him to try writing for
the theatre.
In the last quarter of 1889, "for pure and copious lucre," he started
translating 'Port Tarascon', the third volume of Daudet's adventures
of Tartarin of Tarascon. Serialized in 'Harper's Monthly' from June
1890, this translation - praised as "clever" by 'The Spectator' - was
published in January 1891 by Sampson Low, Marston, Searle &
Rivington.
After the stage failure of 'Guy Domville' in 1895, James was near
despair and thoughts of death plagued him. His depression was
compounded by the deaths of those closest to him, including his sister
Alice in 1892; his friend Wolcott Balestier in 1891; and Stevenson and
Fenimore Woolson in 1894. The sudden death of Fenimore Woolson in
January 1894, and the speculations of suicide surrounding her death,
were particularly painful for him. Leon Edel wrote that the
reverberations from Fenimore Woolson's death were such that "we can
read a strong element of guilt and bewilderment in his letters, and,
even more, in those extraordinary tales of the next half-dozen years,
"The Altar of the Dead" and "The Beast in the Jungle".
The years spent on dramatic works were not entirely a loss. As he
moved into the last phase of his career, he found ways to adapt
dramatic techniques into the novel form. In the late 1880s and
throughout the 1890s, James made several trips through Europe. He
spent a long stay in Italy in 1887. In 1888, he published the short
novel 'The Aspern Papers' and 'The Reverberator'.
Late years, 1898–1916
=======================
In 1897-1898, he moved to Rye, Sussex and wrote 'The Turn of the
Screw'; 1899-1900 had the publication of 'The Awkward Age' and 'The
Sacred Fount'. During 1902-1904, he wrote 'The Wings of the Dove',
'The Ambassadors', and 'The Golden Bowl'.
In 1904, he revisited America and lectured on Balzac. In 1906-1910, he
published 'The American Scene' and edited the "New York Edition", a
24-volume collection of his works. In 1910, his brother William died;
Henry had just joined William from an unsuccessful search for relief
in Europe, on what turned out to be Henry's last visit to the United
States (summer 1910 to July 1911) and was near him when he died.
In 1913, he wrote his autobiographies, 'A Small Boy and Others' and
'Notes of a Son and Brother'. After the outbreak of the First World
War in 1914, he did war work. In 1915, he became a British citizen and
was awarded the Order of Merit the following year. He died on 28
February 1916, in Chelsea, London, and was cremated at Golders Green
Crematorium. A memorial was built to him in Chelsea Old Church. He had
requested that his ashes be buried in Cambridge Cemetery in
Massachusetts. This was not legally possible, but William's wife
smuggled his ashes onboard a ship and sneaked them through customs,
allowing her to bury him in their family plot.
Sexuality
===========
James regularly rejected suggestions that he should marry, and after
settling in London, proclaimed himself "a bachelor". F. W. Dupee, in
several volumes on the James family, originated the theory that he had
been in love with his cousin, Mary ("Minnie") Temple, but that a
neurotic fear of sex kept him from admitting such affections: "James's
invalidism ... was itself the symptom of some fear of or scruple
against sexual love on his part." Dupee used an episode from James's
memoir, 'A Small Boy and Others', recounting a dream of a Napoleonic
image in the Louvre, to exemplify James's romanticism about Europe, a
Napoleonic fantasy into which he fled.
Between 1953 and 1972, Leon Edel wrote a major five-volume biography
of James, which used unpublished letters and documents after Edel
gained the permission of James's family. Edel's portrayal of James
included the suggestion he was celibate, a view first propounded by
critic Saul Rosenzweig in 1943. In 1996, Sheldon M. Novick published
'Henry James: The Young Master', followed by 'Henry James: The Mature
Master' (2007). The first book "caused something of an uproar in
Jamesian circles" as it challenged the previous received notion of
celibacy, a once-familiar paradigm in biographies of homosexuals when
direct evidence was nonexistent. Novick also criticised Edel for
following the discounted interpretation of homosexuality "as a kind of
failure." The difference of opinion erupted in a series of exchanges
between Edel (and later Fred Kaplan filling in for Edel) and Novick,
which were published by the online magazine 'Slate', with Novick
arguing that even the suggestion of celibacy went against James's own
injunction "live!"--not "fantasize!"
A letter James wrote in old age to Hugh Walpole has been cited as an
explicit statement of this. Walpole confessed to him of indulging in
"high jinks", and James wrote a reply endorsing it: "We must know, as
much as possible, in our beautiful art, yours & mine, what we are
talking about--& the only way to know it is to have lived &
loved & cursed & floundered & enjoyed & suffered--I
don't think I regret a single 'excess' of my responsive youth".
The interpretation of James as living a less austere emotional life
has been subsequently explored by other scholars. The often intense
politics of Jamesian scholarship has also been the subject of studies.
Author Colm Tóibín has said that Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick's 'Epistemology
of the Closet' made a landmark difference to Jamesian scholarship by
arguing that he be read as a homosexual writer whose desire to keep
his sexuality a secret shaped his layered style and dramatic artistry.
According to Tóibín, such a reading "removed James from the realm of
dead white males who wrote about posh people. He became our
contemporary."
James's letters to expatriate American sculptor Hendrik Christian
Andersen have attracted particular attention. James met the
27-year-old Andersen in Rome in 1899, when James was 56, and wrote
letters to Andersen that are intensely emotional: "I hold you, dearest
boy, in my innermost love, & count on your feeling me--in every
throb of your soul". In a letter of 6 May 1904, to his brother
William, James referred to himself as "always your hopelessly celibate
even though sexagenarian Henry". How accurate that description might
have been is the subject of contention among James's biographers, but
the letters to Andersen were occasionally quasierotic: "I put, my dear
boy, my arm around you, & feel the pulsation, thereby, as it were,
of our excellent future & your admirable endowment."
His numerous letters to the many young homosexual men among his close
male friends are more forthcoming. To his homosexual friend Howard
Sturgis, James could write: "I repeat, almost to indiscretion, that I
could live with you. Meanwhile, I can only try to live without you."
In another letter Sturgis, following a long visit, James refers
jocularly to their "happy little congress of two". In letters to Hugh
Walpole, he pursues convoluted jokes and puns about their
relationship, referring to himself as an elephant who "paws you oh so
benevolently" and winds about Walpole his "well-meaning old trunk".
His letters to Walter Berry printed by the Black Sun Press have been
known for their lightly veiled eroticism.
However, James corresponded in equally extravagant language with his
many female friends, writing, for example, to fellow novelist Lucy
Clifford: "Dearest Lucy! What shall I say? when I love you so very,
very much, and see you nine times for once that I see Others!
Therefore I think that--if you want it made clear to the meanest
intelligence--I love you more than I love Others." To his New York
friend Mary Cadwalader Rawle Jones: "Dearest Mary Cadwalader. I yearn
over you, but I yearn in vain; & your long silence really breaks
my heart, mystifies, depresses, almost alarms me, to the point even of
making me wonder if poor unconscious & doting old Célimare
[Jones's pet name for James] has 'done' anything, in some dark
somnambulism of the spirit, which has ... given you a bad moment, or a
wrong impression, or a 'colourable pretext' ... However these things
may be, he loves you as tenderly as ever; nothing, to the end of time,
will ever detach him from you, & he remembers those Eleventh St.
matutinal 'intimes' hours, those telephonic matinées, as the most
romantic of his life..." His long friendship with American novelist
Constance Fenimore Woolson, in whose house he lived for a number of
weeks in Italy in 1887, and his shock and grief over her suicide in
1894, are discussed in detail in Edel's biography and play a central
role in a study by Lyndall Gordon. Edel conjectured that Woolson was
in love with James and killed herself in part because of his coldness,
but Woolson's biographers have objected to Edel's account.
Style and themes
==================
James is one of the major figures of trans-Atlantic literature. His
works frequently juxtapose characters from the Old World (Europe),
embodying a feudal civilisation that is beautiful, often corrupt, and
alluring, and from the New World (United States), where people are
often brash, open, and assertive, and embody the virtues of the new
American society--particularly personal freedom and a more exacting
moral character. James explores this clash of personalities and
cultures, in stories of personal relationships in which power is
exercised well or badly.
His protagonists were often young American women facing oppression or
abuse, and as his secretary Theodora Bosanquet remarked in her
monograph 'Henry James at Work':
Philip Guedalla jokingly described three phases in the development of
James's prose: "James I, James II, and The Old Pretender," and
observers do often group his works of fiction into three periods. In
his apprentice years, culminating with the masterwork 'The Portrait of
a Lady', his style was simple and direct (by the standards of
Victorian magazine writing) and he experimented widely with forms and
methods, generally narrating from a conventionally omniscient point of
view. Plots generally concern romance, except for the three big novels
of social commentary that conclude this period. In the second period,
as noted above, he abandoned the serialised novel and from 1890 to
about 1897, he wrote short stories and plays. Finally, in his third
and last period he returned to the long, serialised novel. Beginning
in the second period, but most noticeably in the third; he
increasingly abandoned direct statement in favour of frequent double
negatives, and complex descriptive imagery. Single paragraphs began to
run for page after page, in which an initial noun would be succeeded
by pronouns surrounded by clouds of adjectives and prepositional
clauses, far from their original referents, and verbs would be
deferred and then preceded by a series of adverbs. The overall effect
could be a vivid evocation of a scene as perceived by a sensitive
observer. It has been debated whether this change of style was
engendered by James's shifting from writing to dictating to a typist,
a change made during the composition of 'What Maisie Knew'.
In its intense focus on the consciousness of his major characters,
James's later work foreshadows extensive developments in 20th-century
fiction. Indeed, he might have influenced stream-of-consciousness
writers such as Virginia Woolf, who not only read some of his novels
but also wrote essays about them. Both contemporary and modern readers
have found the late style difficult and unnecessary; his friend Edith
Wharton, who admired him greatly, said that some passages in his work
were all but incomprehensible. James was harshly portrayed by H. G.
Wells as a hippopotamus laboriously attempting to pick up a pea that
had got into a corner of its cage. The "late James" style was ably
parodied by Max Beerbohm in "The Mote in the Middle Distance".
More important for his work overall may have been his position as an
expatriate, and in other ways an outsider, living in Europe. While he
came from middle-class and provincial beginnings (seen from the
perspective of European polite society), he worked very hard to gain
access to all levels of society, and the settings of his fiction range
from working-class to aristocratic, and often describe the efforts of
middle-class Americans to make their way in European capitals. He
confessed he got some of his best story ideas from gossip at the
dinner table or at country house weekends. He worked for a living,
however, and lacked the experiences of select schools, university, and
army service, the common bonds of masculine society. He was
furthermore a man whose tastes and interests were, according to the
prevailing standards of Victorian era Anglo-American culture, rather
feminine, and who was shadowed by the cloud of prejudice that then and
later accompanied suspicions of his homosexuality. Edmund Wilson
compared James's objectivity to Shakespeare's:
Many of James's stories may also be seen as psychological thought
experiments about selection. In his preface to the New York edition of
'The American', James describes the development of the story in his
mind as exactly such: the "situation" of an American, "some robust but
insidiously beguiled and betrayed, some cruelly wronged,
compatriot..." with the focus of the story being on the response of
this wronged man. 'The Portrait of a Lady' may be an experiment to see
what happens when an idealistic young woman suddenly becomes very
rich. In many of his tales, characters seem to exemplify alternative
futures and possibilities, as most markedly in "The Jolly Corner", in
which the protagonist and a ghost-doppelganger live alternative
American and European lives; and in others, like 'The Ambassadors', an
older James seems fondly to regard his own younger self facing a
crucial moment.
Major novels
==============
The first period of James's fiction, usually considered to have
culminated in 'The Portrait of a Lady', concentrated on the contrast
between Europe and America. The style of these novels is generally
straightforward and, though personally characteristic, well within the
norms of 19th-century fiction. 'Roderick Hudson' (1875) is a
Künstlerroman that traces the development of the title character, an
extremely talented sculptor. Although the book shows some signs of
immaturity--this was James's first serious attempt at a full-length
novel--it has attracted favourable comment due to the vivid
realisation of the three major characters: Roderick Hudson, superbly
gifted but unstable and unreliable; Rowland Mallet, Roderick's limited
but much more mature friend and patron; and Christina Light, one of
James's most enchanting and maddening femmes fatales. The pair of
Hudson and Mallet has been seen as representing the two sides of
James's own nature: the wildly imaginative artist and the brooding
conscientious mentor.
In 'The Portrait of a Lady' (1881), James concluded the first phase of
his career with a novel that remains his most popular piece of long
fiction. The story is of a spirited young American woman, Isabel
Archer, who "affronts her destiny" and finds it overwhelming. She
inherits a large amount of money and subsequently becomes the victim
of Machiavellian scheming by two American expatriates. The narrative
is set mainly in Europe, especially in England and Italy. Generally
regarded as the masterpiece of his early phase, 'The Portrait of a
Lady' is described as a psychological novel, exploring the minds of
his characters, and almost a work of social science, exploring the
differences between Europeans and Americans, the old and the new
worlds.
The second period of James's career, which extends from the
publication of 'The Portrait of a Lady' through the end of the 19th
century, features less popular novels, including 'The Princess
Casamassima', published serially in 'The Atlantic Monthly' in
1885-1886, and 'The Bostonians', published serially in 'The Century'
during the same period. This period also featured James's celebrated
Gothic novella, 'The Turn of the Screw' (1898).
The third period of James's career reached its most significant
achievement in three novels published just around the start of the
20th century: 'The Wings of the Dove' (1902), 'The Ambassadors'
(1903), and 'The Golden Bowl' (1904). Critic F. O. Matthiessen called
this "trilogy" James's major phase, and these novels have certainly
received intense critical study. The second-written of the books, 'The
Wings of the Dove', was the first published because it was not
serialised. This novel tells the story of Milly Theale, an American
heiress stricken with a serious disease, and her impact on the people
around her. Some of these people befriend Milly with honourable
motives, while others are more self-interested. James stated in his
autobiographical books that Milly was based on Minny Temple, his
beloved cousin, who died at an early age of tuberculosis. He said that
he attempted in the novel to wrap her memory in the "beauty and
dignity of art".
Shorter narratives
====================
James was particularly interested in what he called the "beautiful and
blest 'nouvelle'", or the longer form of short narrative. Still, he
produced a number of very short stories in which he achieved notable
compression of sometimes complex subjects. The following narratives
are representative of James's achievement in the shorter forms of
fiction.
* "A Tragedy of Error" (1864), short story
* "The Story of a Year" (1865), short story
* 'A Passionate Pilgrim' (1871), novella
* 'Madame de Mauves' (1874), novella
* 'Daisy Miller' (1878), novella
* 'The Aspern Papers' (1888), novella
* 'The Lesson of the Master' (1888), novella
* 'The Pupil' (1891), short story
* "The Figure in the Carpet" (1896), short story
* 'The Beast in the Jungle' (1903), novella
* 'An International Episode' (1878)
* 'Picture and Text'
* 'Four Meetings' (1885)
* 'A London Life, and Other Tales' (1889)
* 'The Spoils of Poynton' (1896)
* 'Embarrassments' (1896)
* 'The Two Magics: The Turn of the Screw, Covering End' (1898)
* 'In the Cage' (1898), novella
* 'A Little Tour of France' (1900)
* 'The Sacred Fount' (1901)
* 'The Birthplace' (1903)
* 'Views and Reviews' (1908)
* 'The Finer Grain' (1910)
* 'The Outcry' (1911)
* 'Lady Barbarina: The Siege of London, An International Episode and
Other Tales' (1922)
* 'Georgina's Reasons' (1884), novella
Plays
=======
At several points in his career, James wrote plays, beginning with
one-act plays written for periodicals in 1869 and 1871 and a
dramatisation of his popular novella 'Daisy Miller' in 1882. From 1890
to 1892, having received a bequest that freed him from magazine
publication, he made a strenuous effort to succeed on the London
stage, writing a half-dozen plays, of which only one, a dramatisation
of his novel 'The American', was produced. This play was performed for
several years by a touring repertory company, and had a respectable
run in London, but did not earn very much money for James. His other
plays written at this time were not produced.
In 1893, however, he responded to a request from actor-manager George
Alexander for a serious play for the opening of his renovated St.
James's Theatre, and wrote a long drama, 'Guy Domville', which
Alexander produced. A noisy uproar arose on the opening night, 5
January 1895, with hissing from the gallery when James took his bow
after the final curtain, and the author was upset. The play received
moderately good reviews and had a modest run of four weeks before
being taken off to make way for Oscar Wilde's 'The Importance of Being
Earnest', which Alexander thought would have better prospects for the
coming season.
After the stresses and disappointment of these efforts, James insisted
that he would write no more for the theatre, but within weeks had
agreed to write a curtain-raiser for Ellen Terry. This became the
one-act "Summersoft", which he later rewrote into a short story,
"Covering End", and then expanded into a full-length play, 'The High
Bid', which had a brief run in London in 1907, when James made another
concerted effort to write for the stage. He wrote three new plays, two
of which were in production when the death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910
plunged London into mourning and theatres closed. Discouraged by
failing health and the stresses of theatrical work, James did not
renew his efforts in the theatre, but recycled his plays as successful
novels. 'The Outcry' was a best-seller in the United States when it
was published in 1911. During 1890-1893, when he was most engaged with
the theatre, James wrote a good deal of theatrical criticism, and
assisted Elizabeth Robins and others in translating and producing
Henrik Ibsen for the first time in London.
Leon Edel argued in his psychoanalytic biography that James was
traumatised by the opening-night uproar that greeted 'Guy Domville',
and that it plunged him into a prolonged depression. The successful
later novels, in Edel's view, were the result of a kind of
self-analysis, expressed in fiction, which partly freed him from his
fears. Other biographers and scholars have not accepted this account,
with the more common view being that of F. O. Matthiessen, who wrote:
"Instead of being crushed by the collapse of his hopes [for the
theatre]... he felt a resurgence of new energy."
Nonfiction
============
Beyond his fiction, James was one of the more important literary
critics in the history of the novel. In his classic essay 'The Art of
Fiction' (1884), he argued against rigid prescriptions on the
novelist's choice of subject and method of treatment. He maintained
that the widest possible freedom in content and approach would help
ensure narrative fiction's continued vitality. James wrote many
critical articles on other novelists; typical is his book-length study
of Nathaniel Hawthorne, which has been the subject of critical debate.
Richard Brodhead has suggested that the study was emblematic of
James's struggle with Hawthorne's influence, and constituted an effort
to place the elder writer "at a disadvantage." Gordon Fraser,
meanwhile, has suggested that the study was part of a more commercial
effort by James to introduce himself to British readers as Hawthorne's
natural successor.
When James assembled the 'New York Edition' of his fiction in his
final years, he wrote a series of prefaces that subjected his own work
to searching, occasionally harsh criticism.
At 22, James wrote 'The Noble School of Fiction' for 'The Nation's'
first issue in 1865. He wrote, in all, over 200 essays and book, art,
and theatre reviews for the magazine.
For most of his life, James harboured ambitions for success as a
playwright. He converted his novel 'The American' into a play that
enjoyed modest returns in the early 1890s. In all, he wrote about a
dozen plays, most of which went unproduced. His costume drama 'Guy
Domville' failed disastrously on its opening night in 1895. James then
largely abandoned his efforts to conquer the stage and returned to his
fiction. In his 'Notebooks', he maintained that his theatrical
experiment benefited his novels and tales by helping him dramatise his
characters' thoughts and emotions. James produced a small amount of
theatrical criticism, including appreciations of Henrik Ibsen.
With his wide-ranging artistic interests, James occasionally wrote on
the visual arts. He wrote a favourable assessment of fellow expatriate
John Singer Sargent, a painter whose critical status has improved
markedly since the mid twentieth century. James also wrote sometimes
charming, sometimes brooding articles about various places where he
visited and lived. His books of travel writing include 'Italian Hours'
(an example of the charming approach) and 'The American Scene' (on the
brooding side).
James was one of the great letter-writers of any era. More than 10,000
of his personal letters are extant, and over 3,000 have been published
in a large number of collections. A complete edition of James's
letters began publication in 2006, edited by Pierre Walker and Greg
Zacharias. , eight volumes have been published, covering from 1855 to
1880. James's correspondents included contemporaries such as Robert
Louis Stevenson, Edith Wharton, and Joseph Conrad, along with many
others in his wide circle of friends and acquaintances. The content of
the letters range from trivialities to serious discussions of
artistic, social, and personal issues.
Very late in life, James began a series of autobiographical works: 'A
Small Boy and Others', 'Notes of a Son and Brother', and the
unfinished 'The Middle Years'. These books portray the development of
a classic observer who was passionately interested in artistic
creation but was somewhat reticent about participating fully in the
life around him.
Criticism, biographies and fictional treatments
=================================================
James's work has remained steadily popular with the limited audience
of educated readers to whom he spoke during his lifetime, and has
remained firmly in the canon, but after his death, some American
critics, such as Van Wyck Brooks, expressed hostility towards James
for his long expatriation and eventual naturalisation as a British
subject. Other critics such as E. M. Forster complained about what
they saw as James's squeamishness in the treatment of sex and other
possibly controversial material, or dismissed his late style as
difficult and obscure, relying heavily on extremely long sentences and
excessively latinate language. 'Even in his lifetime,' explains
scholar Hazel Hutchinson, 'James had a reputation as a difficult
writer for clever readers.' Oscar Wilde criticised him for writing
"fiction as if it were a painful duty". Vernon Parrington, composing a
canon of American literature, condemned James for having cut himself
off from America. Jorge Luis Borges wrote about him, "Despite the
scruples and delicate complexities of James, his work suffers from a
major defect: the absence of life." And Virginia Woolf, writing to
Lytton Strachey, asked, "Please tell me what you find in Henry James.
... we have his works here, and I read, and I can't find anything but
faintly tinged rose water, urbane and sleek, but vulgar and pale as
Walter Lamb. Is there really any sense in it?" Novelist W. Somerset
Maugham wrote, "He did not know the English as an Englishman
instinctively knows them and so his English characters never to my
mind quite ring true," and argued, "The great novelists, even in
seclusion, have lived life passionately. Henry James was content to
observe it from a window." Maugham nevertheless wrote, "The fact
remains that those last novels of his, notwithstanding their
unreality, make all other novels, except the very best, unreadable."
Colm Tóibín observed that James "never really wrote about the English
very well. His English characters don't work for me."
Despite these criticisms, James is now valued for his psychological
and moral realism, his masterful creation of character, his low-key
but playful humour, and his assured command of the language. In his
1983 book, 'The Novels of Henry James', Edward Wagenknecht offers an
assessment that echoes Theodora Bosanquet's:
William Dean Howells saw James as a representative of a new realist
school of literary art, which broke with the English romantic
tradition epitomised by the works of Charles Dickens and William
Thackeray. Howells wrote that realism found "its chief exemplar in Mr.
James ... A novelist he is not, after the old fashion, or after any
fashion but his own." F. R. Leavis championed Henry James as a
novelist of "established pre-eminence" in 'The Great Tradition'
(1948), asserting that 'The Portrait of a Lady' and 'The Bostonians'
were "the two most brilliant novels in the language." James is now
prized as a master of point of view who moved literary fiction forward
by insisting in showing, not telling, his stories to the reader.
Portrayals in fiction
======================================================================
Henry James has been the subject of a number of novels and stories,
including:
* 'Boon' by H. G. Wells
* 'Author, Author' by David Lodge
* 'Youth' by J. M. Coetzee
* 'The Master' by Colm Tóibín
* 'Hotel de Dream' by Edmund White
* 'Lions at Lamb House' by Edwin M. Yoder
* 'Felony' by Emma Tennant
* 'Dictation' by Cynthia Ozick
* 'The James Boys' by Richard Liebmann-Smith
* 'The Open Door' by Elizabeth Maguire
* 'The Great Divide' by Rex Hunter
* 'The Master at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, 1914-1916' by Joyce Carol
Oates
* 'The Typewriter's Tale' by Michael Heyns
* 'Henry James' Midnight Song' by Carol de Chellis Hill
* 'The Fifth Heart' by Dan Simmons
* 'Earthly Powers' by Anthony Burgess
* 'Empire' by Gore Vidal
* 'The Maze at Windermere' by Gregory Blake Smith
* 'Ringrose the Pirate' by Don Nigro
David Lodge also wrote a long essay about Henry James in his
collection 'The Year of Henry James: The Story of a Novel'.
Adaptations
======================================================================
Henry James's stories and novels have been adapted to film,
television, and music video over 150 times (some TV shows did upwards
of a dozen stories) from 1933 to 2018. The majority of these are in
English, but with adaptations in French (13), Spanish (7), Italian
(6), German (5), Portuguese (1), Yugoslavian (1), and Swedish (1).
Those most frequently adapted include:
* 'The Turn of the Screw' (28 times)
* 'The Aspern Papers' (17 times)
* 'Washington Square' (8 times), as 'The Heiress' (6 times), as
'Victoria' (once)
* 'The Wings of the Dove' (9 times)
* 'The Beast in the Jungle' (5 times)
* 'The Bostonians' (4 times)
* 'Daisy Miller' (4 times)
* 'The Sense of the Past' (4 times)
* 'The Ambassadors' (3 times)
* 'The Portrait of a Lady' (3 times)
* 'The American' (3 times)
* 'What Maisie Knew' (3 times)
* 'The Golden Bowl' (2 times)
* 'The Marriages' (twice)
* 'The Ghostly Rental' (once)
Sources
======================================================================
* Harold Bloom (2009) [2001].
'[
https://books.google.com/books?id=iKiWPr8YU9EC&pg=PA12 Henry
James]'. Infobase Publishing, originally published by Chelsea House. .
* Jorge Luis Borges and Esther Zemborain de Torres (1971). 'An
Introduction to American Literature'. Lexington: University Press of
Kentucky.
* Theodora Bosanquet (1982). 'Henry James at Work'. Haskell House
Publishers Inc. pp. 275-276.
* John R. Bradley, ed. (1999). 'Henry James and Homo-Erotic Desire'.
Palgrave Macmillan.
* John R. Bradley (2000). I 'Henry James on Stage and Screen'
Palgrave Macmillan.
* John R. Bradley (2000). 'Henry James's Permanent Adolescence'.
Palgrave Macmillan.
* Van Wyck Brooks (1925). 'The Pilgrimage of Henry James'
* Gabriel Brownstein (2004). "Introduction," in James, Henry.
'Portrait of a Lady', Barnes & Noble Classics series, Spark
Educational Publishing.
* Lewis Dabney, ed. (1983). 'The Portable Edmund Wilson'.
* Marysa Demoor and Monty Chisholm, editors (1999). 'Bravest of Women
and Finest of Friends: Henry James's Letters to Lucy Clifford',
University of Victoria (1999), p. 79
* F.W. Dupee (1951). 'Henry James' William Sloane Associates, The
American Men of Letters Series.
* Leon Edel, ed. (1955). 'The Selected Letters of Henry James'. New
York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Vol. 1
* Leon Edel, ed. (1983). 'Henry James Letters'.
* Leon Edel, ed. (1990). 'The Complete Plays of Henry James'. New
York: Oxford University Press.
* E.M. Forster (1956). 'Aspects of the Novel'
*
*
* Katrina vanden Heuvel (1990). 'The Nation 1865-1990', Thunder's
Mouth Press.
* James Kraft (1969). 'The early tales of Henry James'. Southern
Illinois University Press.
* Paul Lauter (2010).
[
https://books.google.com/books?id=HGSf-VpoGIsC&pg=PA364 'A
companion to American literature and culture']. Chichester; Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 364.
* Percy Lubbock, ed. (1920). 'The Letters of Henry James', vol. 1. New
York: Scribner.
* F. O. Matthiessen and Kenneth Murdock, editors (1981) 'The Notebooks
of Henry James'. University of Chicago Press.
*
* Sheldon M. Novick (2007).
'[
https://archive.org/details/henryjamesmature00novi Henry James: The
Mature Master]'. Random House. .
* Ross Posnock (1987). "James, Browning, and the Theatrical Self," in
Neuman, Mark and Payne, Michael. 'Self, sign, and symbol'. Bucknell
University Press.
*
* and Elizabeth Berkeley, editors (1994). 'The Correspondence of
William James: Volume 3, William and Henry. 1897-1910'.
Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
* Allan Wade, ed. (1948). 'Henry James: The Scenic Art, Notes on
Acting and the Drama 1872-1901'.
* Edward Wagenknecht (1983). 'The Novels of Henry James'.
* Edith Wharton (1925) 'The Writing of Fiction'.
* Virginia Woolf (2003).
'[
https://books.google.com/books?id=pn9OzR4AYdsC&pg=PA40 A
Writer's Diary: Being Extracts from the Diary of Virginia Woolf]'.
Harcourt. pp. 33, 39-40, 58, 86, 215, 301, 351. .
* H. G. Wells, Boon. (1915) 'The Mind of the Race, The Wild Asses of
the Devil, and The Last Trump'. London: T. Fisher Unwin p. 101.
* Rosella Mamoli Zorzi, ed. (2004). 'Beloved Boy: Letters to Hendrik
C. Andersen, 1899-1915'. University of Virginia Press.
General
=========
* 'A Bibliography of Henry James: Third Edition' by Leon Edel, Dan
Laurence and James Rambeau (1982).
* 'A Henry James Encyclopedia' by Robert L. Gale (1989).
* 'A Henry James Chronology' by Edgar F. Harden (2005).
* 'The Daily Henry James: A Year of Quotes from the Work of the
Master'. Edited by Michael Gorra (2016).
* 'Henry James A Bibliographical Catalogue of Editions to 1921', 2nd
Edition Revised, By David J. Supino, Liverpool U. Press 2014
Autobiography
===============
* 'A Small Boy and Others: A Critical Edition' edited by Peter
Collister (2011).
* 'Notes of a Son and Brother, and the Middle Years: A Critical
Edition' edited by Peter Collister (2011)
* 'Autobiographies' edited by Philip Horne (2016). Contains 'A Small
Boy and Others', 'Notes of a Son and Brother', 'The Middle Years',
other autobiographical writings, and 'Henry James at Work, by Theodora
Bosanquet'.
Bibliography
==============
* 'An Annotated Critical Bibliography of Henry James' by Nicola
Bradbury (Harvester Press, 1987).
Biography
===========
* 'Henry James: The Untried Years 1843-1870' by Leon Edel (1953)
* 'Henry James: The Conquest of London 1870-1881' by Leon Edel (1962)
* 'Henry James: The Middle Years 1882-1895' by Leon Edel (1962)
* 'Henry James: The Treacherous Years 1895-1901' by Leon Edel (1969)
* 'Henry James: The Master 1901-1916' by Leon Edel (1972)
* 'Henry James: A Life' by Leon Edel (1985) . One-volume abridgment of
Edel's five-volume biography, listed above.
* 'Henry James: The Young Master' by Sheldon M. Novick (1996)
* 'Henry James: The Mature Master' by Sheldon M. Novick (2007)
* 'Henry James: The Imagination of Genius' by Fred Kaplan (1992)
* 'A Private Life of Henry James: Two Women and His Art' by Lyndall
Gordon (1998) . Revised edition titled 'Henry James: His Women and His
Art' (2012) .
* 'The Three Jameses: A Family of Minds: Henry James. Sr., William
James, Henry James' by Clinton Hartley Grattan (1932)
* 'The James Family: A Group Biography' by F. O. Matthiessen (1947)
(0394742435)
* 'The Jameses: A Family Narrative' by R. W. B. Lewis (1991)
* 'House of Wits: An Intimate Portrait of the James Family' by Paul
Fisher (2008)
Letters
=========
* 'Theatre and Friendship' by Elizabeth Robins. London: Jonathan Cape,
1932.
* 'Henry James: Letters' edited by Leon Edel (four vols. 1974-1984)
* 'Henry James: A Life in Letters' edited by Philip Horne (1999)
* 'The Complete Letters of Henry James,1855-1872' edited by Pierre A.
Walker and Greg Zacharias (two vols., University of Nebraska Press,
2006)
* 'The Complete Letters of Henry James, 1872-1876' edited by Pierre A.
Walker and Greg W. Zacharias (three vols., University of Nebraska
Press, 2008)
Editions
==========
* 'Complete Stories 1864-1874' (Jean Strouse, ed, Library of America,
1999)
* 'Complete Stories 1874-1884' (William Vance, ed, Library of America,
1999)
* 'Complete Stories 1884-1891' (Edward Said, ed, Library of America,
1999)
* 'Complete Stories 1892-1898' (John Hollander, David Bromwich, Denis
Donoghue, eds, Library of America, 1996)
* 'Complete Stories 1898-1910' (John Hollander, David Bromwich, Denis
Donoghue, eds, Library of America, 1996)
* ' Novels 1871-1880: Watch and Ward, Roderick Hudson, The American,
The Europeans, Confidence' (William T. Stafford, ed., Library of
America, 1983)
* 'Novels 1881-1886: Washington Square, The Portrait of a Lady, The
Bostonians' (William T. Stafford, ed, Library of America, 1985)
* 'Novels 1886-1890: The Princess Casamassima, The Reverberator, The
Tragic Muse' (Daniel Mark Fogel, ed, Library of America, 1989)
* 'Novels 1896-1899: The Other House, The Spoils of Poynton, What
Maisie Knew, The Awkward Age' (Myra Jehlen, ed, Library of America,
2003)
* 'Novels 1901-1902: The Sacred Fount, The Wings of the Dove' (Leo
Bersani, ed, Library of America, 2006)
* 'Collected Travel Writings, Great Britain and America: English
Hours; The American Scene; Other Travels' edited by Richard Howard
(Library of America, 1993)
* 'Collected Travel Writings, The Continent: A Little Tour in France,
Italian Hours, Other Travels' edited by Richard Howard (Library of
America, 1993)
* 'Literary Criticism Volume One: Essays on Literature, American
Writers, English Writers' edited by Leon Edel and Mark Wilson (Library
of America, 1984)
* 'Literary Criticism Volume Two: French Writers, Other European
Writers, The Prefaces to the New York Edition' edited by Leon Edel and
Mark Wilson (Library of America, 1984)
* 'The Complete Notebooks of Henry James' edited by Leon Edel and
Lyall Powers (1987)
* 'The Complete Plays of Henry James' edited by Leon Edel (1991)
* 'Henry James: Autobiography' edited by F.W. Dupee (1956)
* 'The American: an Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources,
Criticism' edited by James Tuttleton (1978)
* 'The Ambassadors: An Authoritative Text, The Author on the Novel,
Criticism' edited by S.P. Rosenbaum (1994)
* 'The Turn of the Screw: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism'
edited by Deborah Esch and Jonathan Warren (1999)
* 'The Portrait of a Lady: An Authoritative Text, Henry James and the
Novel, Reviews and Criticism' edited by Robert Bamberg (2003)
* 'The Wings of the Dove: Authoritative Text, The Author and the
Novel, Criticism' edited by J. Donald Crowley and Richard Hocks (2003)
* 'Tales of Henry James: The Texts of the Tales, the Author on His
Craft, Criticism' edited by Christof Wegelin and Henry Wonham (2003)
* 'The Portable Henry James', New Edition edited by John Auchard
(2004)
* 'Henry James on Culture: Collected Essays on Politics and the
American Social Scene' edited by Pierre Walker (1999)
Criticism
===========
* 'The Novels of Henry James' by Oscar Cargill (1961)
* 'Henry James: the later novels' by Nicola Bradbury (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1979)
* 'The Tales of Henry James' by Edward Wagenknecht (1984)
* 'Modern Critical Views: Henry James' edited by Harold Bloom (1987)
* 'Henry James. The Contingencies of Style' by Mary Cross (1993)
* 'A Companion to Henry James Studies' edited by Daniel Mark Fogel
(1993)
* 'Henry James's Europe: Heritage and Transfer' edited by Dennis
Tredy, Annick Duperray and Adrian Harding (2011)
* 'Echec et écriture. Essai sur les nouvelles de Henry James' by
Annick Duperray (1992)
* 'Henry James: A Collection of Critical Essays' edited by Ruth
Yeazell (1994)
* 'The Cambridge Companion to Henry James' edited by Jonathan Freedman
(1998)
* 'The Novel Art: Elevations of American Fiction after Henry James' by
Mark McGurl (2001)
* 'Henry James and the Visual' by Kendall Johnson (2007)
* 'False Positions: The Representational Logics of Henry James's
Fiction'. by Julie Rivkin. (1996)
* 'Henry James's Critique of the Beautiful Life,' by R.R. Reno in
Azure, Spring 2010, [
http://azure.org.il/article.php?id=537]
* 'Approaches to Teaching Henry James's Daisy Miller and The Turn of
the Screw' edited by Kimberly C. Reed and Peter G. Beidler (2005)
* 'Henry James and Modern Moral Life' by Robert B. Pippin (1999)
* '"Friction with the Market": Henry James and the Profession of
Authorship' by Michael Anesko (1986)
External links
======================================================================
* [
https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/11/resources/1825 Henry
James Collection] at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
* [
https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00687
Henry James Collection] at the Harry Ransom Center
* [
https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078943
Henry James Letters] at Columbia University
* [
https://www2.newpaltz.edu/~hathawar/ The Henry James Scholar's
Guide to Web Sites]
*
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20040829095638/http://www.henryjames.org.uk/
The Ladder - a Henry James Web Site] (archived)
* [
https://mantex.co.uk/category/tutorials/19c-authors/henry-james/
Henry James Archive - Mantex]
*
Electronic editions
=====================
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [
https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/128.html The Henry James
Collection] From the [
https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and
Special Collections Division] at the Library of Congress
License
=========
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Original Article:
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