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=                     Emancipation_Proclamation                      =
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                            Introduction
======================================================================
The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95, was a
presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States
President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American
Civil War. The Proclamation had the effect of changing the legal
status of more than 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the
secessionist Confederate states from enslaved to free. As soon as
slaves escaped the control of their enslavers, either by fleeing to
Union lines or through the advance of federal troops, they were
permanently free. In addition, the Proclamation allowed for former
slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States".
The Emancipation Proclamation played a significant part in the end of
slavery in the United States.

On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation
Proclamation. Its third paragraph begins:



On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation
Proclamation. It stated:



Lincoln then listed the ten states still in rebellion, excluding parts
of states under Union control, and continued:



The proclamation provided that the executive branch, including the
Army and Navy, "will recognize and maintain the freedom of said
persons". Even though it excluded states not in rebellion, as well as
parts of Louisiana and Virginia under Union control, it still applied
to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the
country. Around 25,000 to 75,000 were immediately emancipated in those
regions of the Confederacy where the US Army was already in place. It
could not be enforced in the areas still in rebellion, but, as the
Union army took control of Confederate regions, the Proclamation
provided the legal framework for the liberation of more than three and
a half million enslaved people in those regions by the end of the war.
The Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners and their
sympathizers, who saw it as the beginning of a race war. It energized
abolitionists, and undermined those Europeans who wanted to intervene
to help the Confederacy. The Proclamation lifted the spirits of
African Americans, both free and enslaved. It encouraged many to
escape from slavery and flee toward Union lines, where many joined the
Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation became a historic document
because it "would redefine the Civil War, turning it [for the North]
from a struggle [solely] to preserve the Union to one [also] focused
on ending slavery, and set a decisive course for how the nation would
be reshaped after that historic conflict."

The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court. To ensure
the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln also insisted
that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require them to enact
laws abolishing slavery (which occurred during the war in Tennessee,
Arkansas, and Louisiana); Lincoln encouraged border states to adopt
abolition (which occurred during the war in Maryland, Missouri, and
West Virginia) and pushed for passage of the 13th Amendment. The
Senate passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on
April 8, 1864; the House of Representatives did so on January 31,
1865; and the required three-fourths of the states ratified it on
December 6, 1865. The amendment made slavery and involuntary servitude
unconstitutional, "except as a punishment for a crime".


                             Authority
======================================================================
The United States Constitution of 1787 did not use the word "slavery"
but included several provisions about unfree persons. The Three-Fifths
Compromise (in Article I, Section 2) allocated congressional
representation, and therefore the number of each states' votes in the
Electoral College, based "on the whole Number of free Persons" and
"three-fifths of all other Persons". Under the Fugitive Slave Clause
(Article IV, Section 2), "No person held to Service or Labour in one
State" would become legally free by escaping to another. Article I,
Section 9 allowed Congress to pass legislation to outlaw the
"Importation of Persons", but not until 1808. However, for purposes of
the Fifth Amendment--which states, "No person shall ... be deprived of
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law"--slaves were
understood to be property. Although abolitionists used the Fifth
Amendment to argue against slavery, it was made part of the legal
basis for treating slaves as property by 'Dred Scott v. Sandford'
(1857). Slavery was also supported in law and in practice by a
pervasive culture of white supremacy. Nonetheless, between 1777 and
1804, every Northern state provided for the immediate or gradual
abolition of slavery. No Southern state did so, and the slave
population of the South continued to grow, peaking at almost four
million people at the beginning of the Civil War, when most slave
states sought to break away from the United States.

Lincoln accepted the conventional interpretation of the Constitution
before 1865 as limiting the federal government's power to end slavery
in peacetime and committing the issue to individual states. During the
Civil War, however, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation under
his authority as "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy" under
Article II, section 2 of the United States Constitution. As such, in
the Emancipation Proclamation he claimed to have the authority to free
persons held as slaves in those states that were in rebellion "as a
fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion". In the
Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln said "attention is
hereby called" to two 1862 statutes, namely "An Act to Make an
Additional Article of War" and the Confiscation Act of 1862, but he
didn't mention any statute in the Final Emancipation Proclamation and,
in any event, the source of his authority to issue the Preliminary
Emancipation Proclamation and the Final Emancipation Proclamation was
his "joint capacity as President and Commander-in-Chief". Lincoln
therefore did not have such authority over the four border
slave-holding states that were not in rebellion--Missouri, Kentucky,
Maryland and Delaware--so those states were not named in the
Proclamation. The fifth border jurisdiction, West Virginia, where
slavery remained legal but was in the process of being abolished, was,
in January 1863, still part of the legally recognized "reorganized"
state of Virginia, based in Alexandria, which was in the Union (as
opposed to the Confederate state of Virginia, based in Richmond).


                              Coverage
======================================================================
The Emancipation Proclamation applied in the ten states that were
still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, but it did not cover the nearly
500,000 slaves in the slaveholding border states (Missouri, Kentucky,
Maryland, and Delaware) or in parts of Virginia and Louisiana that
were no longer in rebellion. Those slaves were freed by later state
and federal actions. The areas covered were "Arkansas, Texas,
Louisiana (except the Parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson,
St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne,
Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of
New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina,
North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties
designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley,
Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk,
including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth)."

The state of Tennessee had already mostly returned to Union control,
under a recognized Union government, so it was not named and was
exempted. Virginia was named, but exemptions were specified for the 48
counties then in the process of forming the new state of West
Virginia, and seven additional counties and two cities in the
Union-controlled Tidewater region of Virginia. Also specifically
exempted were New Orleans and 13 named parishes of Louisiana, which
were mostly under federal control at the time of the Emancipation
Proclamation. These exemptions left unemancipated an additional
300,000 slaves.

The Emancipation Proclamation has been ridiculed, notably by Richard
Hofstadter, who wrote that it "had all the moral grandeur of a bill of
lading" and "declared free all slaves ... precisely where its effect
could not reach". Disagreeing with Hofstadter, William W. Freehling
wrote that Lincoln's asserting his power as Commander-in-Chief to
issue the proclamation "reads not like an entrepreneur's bill for past
services but like a warrior's brandishing of a new weapon".

The Emancipation Proclamation resulted in the emancipation of a
substantial percentage of the slaves in the Confederate states as the
Union armies advanced through the South and slaves escaped to Union
lines, or slave owners fled, leaving slaves behind. The Emancipation
Proclamation also committed the Union to ending slavery in addition to
preserving the Union.

Although the Emancipation Proclamation resulted in the gradual freeing
of most slaves, it did not make slavery illegal. Of the states that
were exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation, Maryland, Missouri,
Tennessee, and West Virginia prohibited slavery before the war ended.
In 1863, President Lincoln proposed a moderate plan for the
Reconstruction of the captured Confederate State of Louisiana. Only 10
percent of the state's electorate had to take the loyalty oath. The
state was also required to accept the Emancipation Proclamation and
abolish slavery in its new constitution. By December 1864, the Lincoln
plan abolishing slavery had been enacted not only in Louisiana, but
also in Arkansas and Tennessee. In Kentucky, Union Army commanders
relied on the proclamation's offer of freedom to slaves who enrolled
in the Army and provided freedom for an enrollee's entire family; for
this and other reasons, the number of slaves in the state fell by more
than 70 percent during the war.  However, in Delaware and Kentucky,
slavery continued to be legal until December 18, 1865, when the
Thirteenth Amendment went into effect.


Military action prior to emancipation
=======================================
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required individuals to return runaway
slaves to their owners. During the war, in May 1861, Union general
Benjamin Butler declared that three slaves who escaped to Union lines
were contraband of war, and accordingly he refused to return them,
saying to a man who sought their return, "I am under no constitutional
obligations to a foreign country, which Virginia now claims to be". On
May 30, after a cabinet meeting called by President Lincoln, "Simon
Cameron, the secretary of war, telegraphed Butler to inform him that
his contraband policy 'is approved.'" This decision was controversial
because it could have been taken to imply recognition of the
Confederacy as a separate, independent sovereign state under
international law, a notion that Lincoln steadfastly denied. In
addition, as contraband, these people were legally designated as
"property" when they crossed Union lines and their ultimate status was
uncertain.


Governmental action toward emancipation
=========================================
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Stanton
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In December 1861, Lincoln sent his first annual message to Congress
(the State of the Union Address, but then typically given in writing
and not referred to as such). In it he praised the free labor system
for respecting human rights over property rights; he endorsed
legislation to address the status of contraband slaves and slaves in
loyal states, possibly through buying their freedom with federal
money; and he endorsed federal funding of voluntary colonization. In
January 1862, Thaddeus Stevens, the Republican leader in the House,
called for total war against the rebellion to include emancipation of
slaves, arguing that emancipation, by forcing the loss of enslaved
labor, would ruin the rebel economy. On March 13, 1862, Congress
approved an Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves, which prohibited
"All officers or persons in the military or naval service of the
United States" from returning fugitive slaves to their owners.
Pursuant to a law signed by Lincoln, slavery was abolished in the
District of Columbia on April 16, 1862, and owners were compensated.

On June 9, 1862, Congress passed a bill that prohibited slavery in all
current and future United States territories (though not in the
states), and, on June 19, President Lincoln  signed it into law. This
act effectively repudiated the 1857 opinion of the Supreme Court of
the United States in the 'Dred Scott' case that Congress was powerless
to regulate slavery in U.S. territories.Guminski, Arnold.
'[https://books.google.com/books?id=5uFS7SOBHd8C&dq=%22June+19%2C+1862%22+slavery+Lincoln&pg=PA241
The Constitutional Rights, Privileges, and Immunities of the American
People]', page 241 (2009).

Richardson, Theresa and Johanningmeir, Erwin.
'[https://books.google.com/books?id=K_7Tba0v3ogC&dq=%22June+19%2C+1862%22+slavery+Lincoln&pg=PA129
Race, ethnicity, and education]', page 129 (IAP 2003).
It also rejected the notion of popular sovereignty that had been
advanced by Stephen A. Douglas as a solution to the slavery
controversy, while completing the effort first legislatively proposed
by Thomas Jefferson in 1784 to confine slavery within the borders of
existing states.Montgomery, David.
'[https://books.google.com/books?id=A24AAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22June+19%2C+1862%22+slavery+Lincoln&pg=PA428
The Student's American History]', p. 428 (Ginn & Co. 1897).

Keifer, Joseph.
'[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBq0gjrfxRgC&dq=%22June+19%2C+1862%22+slavery+Lincoln&pg=PA109
Slavery and Four Years of War]', p. 109 (Echo Library 2009).

On August 6, 1861, the First Confiscation Act freed the slaves who
were employed "against the Government and lawful authority of the
United States." On July 17, 1862, the Second Confiscation Act freed
the slaves "within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards
occupied by forces of the United States." The Second Confiscation Act,
unlike the First Confiscation Act, explicitly provided that all slaves
covered by it would be permanently freed, stating in section 10 that
"all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion
against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way
give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking
refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such
persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the
government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found
on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards
occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives
of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again
held as slaves." However, Lincoln's position continued to be that,
although Congress lacked the power to free the slaves in rebel-held
states, he, as commander in chief, could do so if he deemed it a
proper military measure. By this time, in the summer of 1862, Lincoln
had drafted the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he issued
on September 22, 1862. It declared that, on January 1, 1863, he would
free the slaves in states still in rebellion.


Public opinion of emancipation
================================
Abolitionists had long been urging Lincoln to free all slaves. In the
summer of 1862, Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly
influential 'New-York Tribune' wrote a famous editorial entitled "The
Prayer of Twenty Millions" demanding a more aggressive attack on the
Confederacy and faster emancipation of the slaves: "On the face of
this wide earth, Mr. President, there is not one ... intelligent
champion of the Union cause who does not feel ... that the rebellion,
if crushed tomorrow, would be renewed if slavery were left in full
vigor and that every hour of deference to slavery is an hour of added
and deepened peril to the Union." Lincoln responded in his open letter
to Horace Greeley of August 22, 1862:



Lincoln scholar Harold Holzer wrote about Lincoln's letter: "Unknown
to Greeley, Lincoln composed this after he had already drafted a
preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he had determined to
issue after the next Union military victory. Therefore, this letter,
was in truth, an attempt to position the impending announcement in
terms of saving the Union, not freeing slaves as a humanitarian
gesture. It was one of Lincoln's most skillful public relations
efforts, even if it has cast longstanding doubt on his sincerity as a
liberator." Historian Richard Striner argues that "for years"
Lincoln's letter has been misread as "Lincoln only wanted to save the
Union." However, within the context of Lincoln's entire career and
pronouncements on slavery this interpretation is wrong, according to
Striner. Rather, Lincoln was softening the strong Northern white
supremacist opposition to his imminent emancipation by tying it to the
cause of the Union. This opposition would fight for the Union but not
to end slavery, so Lincoln gave them the means and motivation to do
both, at the same time. In effect, then, Lincoln may have already
chosen the third option he mentioned to Greeley: "freeing some and
leaving others alone"; that is, freeing slaves in the states still in
rebellion on January 1, 1863, but leaving enslaved those in the border
states and Union-occupied areas.

Nevertheless, in the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation itself,
Lincoln said that he would recommend to Congress that it compensate
states that "adopt, immediate, or gradual abolishment of slavery". In
addition, during the hundred days between September 22, 1862, when he
issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, and January 1, 1863,
when he issued the Final Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln took
actions that suggest that he continued to consider the first option he
mentioned to Greeley -- saving the Union without freeing any slave --
a possibility. Historian William W. Freehling wrote, "From mid-October
to mid-November 1862, he sent personal envoys to Louisiana, Tennessee,
and Arkansas". Each of these envoys carried with him a letter from
Lincoln stating that if the people of their state desired "to avoid
the unsatisfactory" terms of the Final Emancipation Proclamation "and
to have peace again upon the old terms" ('i.e.', with slavery intact),
they should rally "the largest number of the people possible" to vote
in "elections of members to the Congress of the United States ...
friendly to their object". Later, in his Annual Message to Congress of
December 1, 1862, Lincoln proposed an amendment to the U.S.
Constitution providing that any state that abolished slavery before
January 1, 1900, would receive compensation from the United States in
the form of interest-bearing U.S. bonds. Adoption of this amendment,
in theory, could have ended the war without ever permanently ending
slavery, because the amendment provided, "Any State having received
bonds ... and afterwards reintroducing or tolerating slavery therein,
shall refund to the United States the bonds so received, or the value
thereof, and all interest paid thereon".

In his 2014 book, 'Lincoln's Gamble', journalist and historian Todd
Brewster asserted that Lincoln's desire to reassert the saving of the
Union as his sole war goal was, in fact, crucial to his claim of legal
authority for emancipation. Since slavery was protected by the
Constitution, the only way that he could free the slaves was as a
tactic of war--not as the mission itself. But that carried the risk
that when the war ended, so would the justification for freeing the
slaves. Late in 1862, Lincoln asked his Attorney General, Edward
Bates, for an opinion as to whether slaves freed through a war-related
proclamation of emancipation could be re-enslaved once the war was
over. Bates had to work through the language of the 'Dred Scott'
decision to arrive at an answer, but he finally concluded that they
could indeed remain free. Still, a complete end to slavery would
require a constitutional amendment.

Conflicting advice as to whether to free the slaves was presented to
Lincoln in public and private. Thomas Nast, a cartoon artist during
the Civil War and the late 1800s considered "Father of the American
Cartoon", composed many works, including a two-sided spread that
showed the transition from slavery into civilization after President
Lincoln signed the Proclamation. Nast believed in equal opportunity
and equality for all people, including enslaved Africans or free
blacks. A mass rally in Chicago on September 7, 1862, demanded
immediate and universal emancipation of slaves. A delegation headed by
William W. Patton met the president at the White House on September
13. Lincoln had declared in peacetime that he had no constitutional
authority to free the slaves. Even used as a war power, emancipation
was a risky political act. Public opinion as a whole was against it.
There would be strong opposition among Copperhead Democrats and an
uncertain reaction from loyal border states. Delaware and Maryland
already had a high percentage of free blacks: 91.2% and 49.7%,
respectively, in 1860.


             Drafting and issuance of the proclamation
======================================================================
Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July
1862. He drafted his preliminary proclamation and read it to Secretary
of State William Seward and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, on
July 13. Seward and Welles were at first speechless, then Seward
referred to possible anarchy throughout the South and resulting
foreign intervention; Welles apparently said nothing. On July 22,
Lincoln presented it to his entire cabinet as something he had
determined to do and he asked their opinion on wording. Although
Secretary of War Edwin Stanton supported it, Seward advised Lincoln to
issue the proclamation after a major Union victory, or else it would
appear as if the Union was giving "its last shriek of retreat". Walter
Stahr, however, writes, "There are contemporary sources, however, that
suggest others were involved in the decision to delay", and Stahr
quotes them.

In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln the victory he
needed to issue the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. In the
battle, though the Union suffered heavier losses than the Confederates
and General McClellan allowed the escape of Robert E. Lee's retreating
troops, Union forces turned back a Confederate invasion of Maryland,
eliminating more than a quarter of Lee's army in the process. This
marked a turning point in the Civil War.


On September 22, 1862, five days after Antietam, and while residing at
the Soldier's Home, Lincoln called his cabinet into session and issued
the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. According to Civil War
historian James M. McPherson, Lincoln told cabinet members, "I made a
solemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back from
Pennsylvania, I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom
to the slaves."
Gideon Welles, 'Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under
Lincoln and Johnson' (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1911), 1:143, reported that Lincoln made a covenant with God that if
God would change the tide of the war, Lincoln would change his policy
toward slavery. See also Nicolas Parrillo, "Lincoln's Calvinist
Transformation: Emancipation and War", 'Civil War History' (September
1, 2000). Lincoln had first shown an early draft of the proclamation
to Vice President Hannibal Hamlin, an ardent abolitionist, who was
more often kept in the dark on presidential decisions. Lincoln issued
the final proclamation, as he had promised in the preliminary
proclamation, on January 1, 1863. Although implicitly granted
authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief
of the Army and Navy to issue the proclamation "as a necessary war
measure." Therefore, it was not the equivalent of a statute enacted by
Congress or a constitutional amendment, because Lincoln or a
subsequent president could revoke it. One week after issuing the final
Proclamation, Lincoln wrote to Major General John McClernand: "After
the commencement of hostilities I struggled nearly a year and a half
to get along without touching the 'institution'; and when finally I
conditionally determined to touch it, I gave a hundred days fair
notice of my purpose, to all the States and people, within which time
they could have turned it wholly aside, by simply again becoming good
citizens of the United States. They chose to disregard it, and I made
the peremptory proclamation on what appeared to me to be a military
necessity. And being made, it must stand". Lincoln continued, however,
that the states included in the proclamation could "adopt systems of
apprenticeship for the colored people, conforming substantially to the
most approved plans of gradual emancipation; and ... they may be
nearly as well off, in this respect, as if the present trouble had not
occurred". He concluded by asking McClernand not to "make this letter
public".
Initially, the Emancipation Proclamation effectively freed only a
small percentage of the slaves, namely those who were behind Union
lines in areas not exempted. Most slaves were still behind Confederate
lines or in exempted Union-occupied areas. Secretary of State William
H. Seward commented, "We show our sympathy with slavery by
emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in
bondage where we can set them free." Had any slave state ended its
secession attempt before January 1, 1863, it could have kept slavery,
at least temporarily. The Proclamation freed the slaves only in areas
of the South that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863. But as
the Union army advanced into the South, slaves fled to behind its
lines, and "[s]hortly after issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, the
Lincoln administration lifted the ban on enticing slaves into Union
lines." These events contributed to the destruction of slavery.

The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the enrollment of freed
slaves into the United States military. During the war nearly 200,000
black men, most of them ex-slaves, joined the Union Army. Their
contributions were significant in winning the war. The Confederacy did
not allow slaves in their army as soldiers until the last month before
its defeat.

Though the counties of Virginia that were soon to form West Virginia
were specifically exempted from the Proclamation (Jefferson County
being the only exception), a condition of the state's admittance to
the Union was that its constitution provide for the gradual abolition
of slavery (an immediate emancipation of all slaves was also adopted
there in early 1865). Slaves in the border states of Maryland and
Missouri were also emancipated by separate state action before the
Civil War ended. In Maryland, a new state constitution abolishing
slavery in the state went into effect on November 1, 1864. The
Union-occupied counties of eastern Virginia and parishes of Louisiana,
which had been exempted from the Proclamation, both adopted state
constitutions that abolished slavery in April 1864. In early 1865,
Tennessee adopted an amendment to its constitution prohibiting
slavery.


                           Implementation
======================================================================
The Proclamation was issued in a preliminary version and a final
version. The former, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary
announcement outlining the intent of the latter, which took effect 100
days later on January 1, 1863, during the second year of the Civil
War. The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation was Abraham Lincoln's
declaration that all slaves would be permanently freed in all areas of
the Confederacy that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863. The
ten affected states were individually named in the final Emancipation
Proclamation (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia,
Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina). Not included
were the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and
Kentucky. Also not named was the state of Tennessee, in which a
Union-controlled military government had already been set up, based in
the capital, Nashville. Specific exemptions were stated for areas also
under Union control on January 1, 1863, namely 48 counties that would
soon become West Virginia, seven other named counties of Virginia
including Berkeley and Hampshire counties,  which were soon added to
West Virginia, New Orleans and 13 named parishes nearby.

Union-occupied areas of the Confederate states where the proclamation
was put into immediate effect by local commanders included Winchester,
Virginia, Corinth, Mississippi, the Sea Islands along the coasts of
the Carolinas and Georgia, Key West, Florida, and Port Royal, South
Carolina.


Immediate impact
==================
On New Year's Eve in 1862, African Americans - enslaved and free -
gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for
"Freedom's Eve", looking toward the stroke of midnight and the
promised fulfillment of the Proclamation.   It has been inaccurately
claimed that the Emancipation Proclamation did not free a single
slave; historian Lerone Bennett Jr. alleged that the proclamation was
a hoax deliberately designed not to free any slaves. However, as a
result of the Proclamation, most slaves became free during the course
of the war, beginning on the day it took effect; eyewitness accounts
at places such as Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, and Port Royal,
South Carolina record celebrations on January 1 as thousands of blacks
were informed of their new legal status of freedom. "Estimates of the
number of slaves freed immediately by the Emancipation Proclamation
are uncertain. One contemporary estimate put the 'contraband'
population of Union-occupied North Carolina at 10,000, and the Sea
Islands of South Carolina also had a substantial population. Those
20,000 slaves were freed immediately by the Emancipation
Proclamation." This Union-occupied zone where freedom began at once
included parts of eastern North Carolina, the Mississippi Valley,
northern Alabama, the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, a large part of
Arkansas, and the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina. Although
some counties of Union-occupied Virginia were exempted from the
Proclamation, the lower Shenandoah Valley and the area around
Alexandria were covered. Emancipation was immediately enforced as
Union soldiers advanced into the Confederacy. Slaves fled their
masters and were often assisted by Union soldiers.
On the other hand, Robert Gould Shaw wrote to his mother on September
25, 1862, "So the 'Proclamation of Emancipation' has come at last, or
rather, its forerunner. I suppose you all are very much excited about
it. For my part, I can't see what 'practical' good it can do now.
Wherever our army has been, there remain no slaves, and the
Proclamation will not free them where we don't go." Ten days later, he
wrote her again, "Don't imagine, from what I said in my last that I
thought Mr. Lincoln's 'Emancipation Proclamation' not right ... but
still, as a 'war-measure', I don't see the immediate benefit of it,
... as the slaves are 'sure' of being free at any rate, with or
without an Emancipation Act."

Booker T. Washington, as a boy of 9 in Virginia, remembered the day in
early 1865:



Runaway slaves who had escaped to Union lines had previously been held
by the Union Army as "contraband of war" under the Confiscation Acts.
The Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia had been occupied by the
Union Navy earlier in the war. The whites had fled to the mainland
while the blacks stayed. An early program of Reconstruction was set up
for the former slaves, including schools and training. Naval officers
read the proclamation and told them they were free.

Slaves had been part of the "engine of war" for the Confederacy. They
produced and prepared food; sewed uniforms; repaired railways; worked
on farms and in factories, shipping yards, and mines; built
fortifications; and served as hospital workers and common laborers.
News of the Proclamation spread rapidly by word of mouth, arousing
hopes of freedom, creating general confusion, and encouraging
thousands to escape to Union lines. George Washington Albright, a
teenage slave in Mississippi, recalled that like many of his fellow
slaves, his father escaped to join Union forces. According to
Albright, plantation owners tried to keep news of the Proclamation
from slaves, but they learned of it through the grapevine. The young
slave became a "runner" for an informal group they called the '4Ls'
("Lincoln's Legal Loyal League") bringing news of the proclamation to
secret slave meetings at plantations throughout the region.

Confederate general Robert E. Lee saw the Emancipation Proclamation as
a way for the Union to increase the number of soldiers it could place
on the field, making it imperative for the Confederacy to increase its
own numbers. Writing on the matter after the sack of Fredericksburg,
Lee wrote, "In view of the vast increase of the forces of the enemy,
of the savage and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no
alternative but success or degradation worse than death, if we would
save the honor of our families from pollution [and] our social system
from destruction, let every effort be made, every means be employed,
to fill and maintain the ranks of our armies, until God in his mercy
shall bless us with the establishment of our independence."

The Emancipation Proclamation marked a significant turning point in
the war as it made the goal of the North not only preserving the
Union, but also freeing the slaves. The Proclamation also rallied
support from abolitionists and Europeans, while encouraging enslaved
individuals to escape to the North. This weakened the South's labor
force while bolstering the North's ranks.


Political impact
==================
The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperhead Democrats,
who opposed the war and advocated restoring the union by allowing
slavery. Horatio Seymour, while running for governor of New York, cast
the Emancipation Proclamation as a call for slaves to commit extreme
acts of violence on all white southerners, saying it was "a proposal
for the butchery of women and children, for scenes of lust and rapine,
and of arson and murder, which would invoke the interference of
civilized Europe". The Copperheads also saw the Proclamation as an
unconstitutional abuse of presidential power. Editor Henry A. Reeves
wrote in Greenport's 'Republican Watchman' that "In the name of
freedom for Negroes, [the proclamation] imperils the liberty of white
men; to test an utopian theory of equality of races which Nature,
History and Experience alike condemn as monstrous, it overturns the
Constitution and Civil Laws and sets up Military Usurpation in their
stead."

Racism remained pervasive on both sides of the conflict and many in
the North supported the war only as an effort to force the South to
stay in the Union. The promises of many Republican politicians that
the war was to restore the Union and not about black rights or ending
slavery were declared lies by their opponents, who cited the
Proclamation. In Columbiana, Ohio, Copperhead David Allen told a
crowd, "Now fellow Democrats I ask you if you are going to be forced
into a war against your Britheren of the Southern States for the
Negro. I answer No!" The Copperheads saw the Proclamation as
irrefutable proof of their position and the beginning of a political
rise for their members; in Connecticut, H. B. Whiting wrote that the
truth was now plain even to "those stupid thickheaded persons who
persisted in thinking that the President was a conservative man and
that the war was for the restoration of the Union under the
Constitution."

War Democrats, who rejected the Copperhead position within their
party, found themselves in a quandary. While throughout the war they
had continued to espouse the racist positions of their party and their
disdain of the concerns of slaves, they did see the Proclamation as a
viable military tool against the South and worried that opposing it
might demoralize troops in the Union army. The question would continue
to trouble them and eventually lead to a split within their party as
the war progressed.

Lincoln further alienated many in the Union two days after issuing the
Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation by suspending habeas corpus. His
opponents linked these two actions in their claims that he was
becoming a despot. In light of this and a lack of military success for
the Union armies, many War Democrat voters who had previously
supported Lincoln turned against him and joined the Copperheads in the
off-year elections held in October and November.

In the 1862 elections, the Democrats gained 28 seats in the House as
well as the governorship of New York. Lincoln's friend Orville Hickman
Browning told the president that the Proclamation and the suspension
of habeas corpus had been "disastrous" for his party by handing the
Democrats so many weapons. Lincoln made no response. Copperhead
William Jarvis of Connecticut pronounced the election the "beginning
of the end of the utter downfall of Abolitionism".

Historians James M. McPherson and Allan Nevins state that though the
results looked very troubling, they could be seen favorably by
Lincoln; his opponents did well only in their historic strongholds and
"at the national level their gains in the House were the smallest of
any minority party's in an off-year election in nearly a generation.
Michigan, California, and Iowa all went Republican.... Moreover, the
Republicans picked up five seats in the Senate." McPherson states, "If
the election was in any sense a referendum on emancipation and on
Lincoln's conduct of the war, a majority of Northern voters endorsed
these policies."


Confederate response
======================
The initial Confederate response was outrage. The Proclamation was
seen as vindication of the rebellion and proof that Lincoln would have
abolished slavery even if the states had remained in the Union. It
intensified the fear of slaves revolting and undermined morale,
especially spurring fear among slave owners who saw it as a threat to
their business. In an August 1863 letter to President Lincoln, U.S.
Army general Ulysses S. Grant observed that the proclamation's "arming
the negro", together with "the emancipation of the negro, is the
heavyest ['sic'] blow yet given the Confederacy. The South rave a
greatdeel ['sic'] about it and profess to be very angry." In May 1863,
a few months after the Proclamation took effect, the Confederacy
passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation" against the U.S.
for such measures. The Confederacy stated that black U.S. soldiers
captured while fighting against the Confederacy would be tried as
slave insurrectionists in civil courts--a capital offense with an
automatic sentence of death. Less than a year after the law's passage,
the Confederates massacred black U.S. soldiers at Fort Pillow.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis reacted to the Emancipation
Proclamation with outrage and in an address to the Confederate
Congress on January 12 threatened to send any U.S. military officer
captured in Confederate territory covered by the proclamation to state
authorities to be charged with "exciting servile insurrection", which
was a capital offense.

Confederate General Robert E. Lee called the Proclamation a "savage
and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no alternative
but success or degradation worse than death."

However, some Confederates welcomed the Proclamation, because they
believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy
and thus lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate
army. According to one Confederate cavalry sergeant from Kentucky,
"The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our
Government at least.... It shows exactly what this war was brought
about for and the intention of its damnable authors." Even some Union
soldiers concurred with this view and expressed reservations about the
Proclamation, not on principle, but rather because they were afraid it
would increase the Confederacy's determination to fight on and
maintain slavery. One Union soldier from New York stated worryingly
after the Proclamation's issuance, "I know enough of the southern
spirit that I think they will fight for the institution of slavery
even to extermination."

As a result of the Proclamation, the price of slaves in the
Confederacy increased in the months after its issuance, with one
Confederate from South Carolina opining in 1865 that "now is the time
for Uncle to buy some negro women and children...."


International impact
======================
As Lincoln had hoped, the proclamation turned foreign popular opinion
in favor of the Union by gaining the support of anti-slavery countries
and countries that had already abolished slavery (especially the
developed countries in Europe such as the United Kingdom and France).
This shift ended the Confederacy's hopes of gaining official
recognition.

Since the Emancipation Proclamation made the eradication of slavery an
explicit Union war goal, it linked support for the South to support
for slavery. Public opinion in Britain would not tolerate support for
slavery. As Henry Adams noted, "The Emancipation Proclamation has done
more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy." In
Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi hailed Lincoln as "the heir of the
aspirations of John Brown". On August 6, 1863, Garibaldi wrote to
Lincoln: "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more
enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely
mundane treasure".

Mayor Abel Haywood, a representative for workers from Manchester,
England, wrote to Lincoln saying, "We joyfully honor you for many
decisive steps toward practically exemplifying your belief in the
words of your great founders: 'All men are created free and equal.'"
The Emancipation Proclamation served to ease tensions with Europe over
the North's conduct of the war, and combined with the recent failed
Southern offensive at Antietam, to remove any practical chance for the
Confederacy to receive foreign military intervention in the war.

However, in spite of the Emancipation Proclamation, arms sales to the
Confederacy through blockade running, from British firms and dealers,
continued, with knowledge of the British government. The Confederacy
was able to sustain the fight for two more years largely thanks to the
weapons supplied by British blockade runners. As a result, the
blockade runners operating from Britain were responsible for killing
400,000 additional soldiers and civilians on both sides.


                         Gettysburg Address
======================================================================
Lincoln's Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863 made indirect
reference to the Proclamation and the ending of slavery as a war goal
with the phrase "new birth of freedom". The Proclamation solidified
Lincoln's support among the rapidly growing abolitionist elements of
the Republican Party and ensured that they would not block his
renomination in 1864.


         Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)
======================================================================
In December 1863, Lincoln issued his 'Proclamation of Amnesty and
Reconstruction', which dealt with the ways the rebel states could
reconcile with the Union. Key provisions required that the states
accept the Emancipation Proclamation and thus the freedom of their
slaves, and accept the Confiscation Acts, as well as the Act banning
slavery in United States territories.


                             Postbellum
======================================================================
Near the end of the war, abolitionists were concerned that the
Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war measure,
as Lincoln intended, and would no longer apply once fighting ended.
They also were increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all
slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Thus
pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign
on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery throughout the United
States. Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by votes in both Maryland and
Missouri to abolish slavery in those states. Maryland's new
constitution abolishing slavery took effect on November 1, 1864.
Slavery in Missouri ended on January 11, 1865, when a state convention
approved an ordinance abolishing slavery by a vote of 60-4, and later
the same day, Governor Thomas C. Fletcher followed up with his own
"Proclamation of Freedom."

Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame duck 38th Congress to
pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the
incoming 39th Congress to convene. In January 1865, Congress sent to
the state legislatures for ratification what became the Thirteenth
Amendment, banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories, except
as punishment for a crime. The amendment was ratified by the
legislatures of enough states by December 6, 1865, and proclaimed 12
days later. There were approximately 40,000 slaves in Kentucky and
1,000 in Delaware who were liberated then.


                             Critiques
======================================================================
Lincoln's proclamation has been called "one of the most radical
emancipations in the history of the modern world." Nonetheless, as
over the years American society continued to be deeply unfair towards
black people, cynicism towards Lincoln and the Emancipation
Proclamation increased. One attack was Lerone Bennett's 'Forced into
Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream' (2000), which claimed that
Lincoln was a white supremacist who issued the Emancipation
Proclamation in lieu of the real racial reforms for which radical
abolitionists pushed. To this, one scholarly review states that "Few
Civil War scholars take Bennett and DiLorenzo seriously, pointing to
their narrow political agenda and faulty research." In his 'Lincoln's
Emancipation Proclamation', Allen C. Guelzo noted professional
historians' lack of substantial respect for the document, since it has
been the subject of few major scholarly studies. He argued that
Lincoln was the U.S.'s "last Enlightenment politician" and as such had
"allegiance to 'reason, cold, calculating, unimpassioned reason'....
But the most important among the Enlightenment's political virtues for
Lincoln, and for his Proclamation, was prudence".

Other historians have given more credit to Lincoln for what he
accomplished toward ending slavery and for his own growth in political
and moral stature. More might have been accomplished if he had not
been assassinated. As Eric Foner wrote:
Lincoln was not an abolitionist or Radical Republican, a point
Bennett reiterates innumerable times. He did not favor immediate
abolition before the war, and held racist views typical of his time.
But he was also a man of deep convictions when it came to slavery, and
during the Civil War displayed a remarkable capacity for moral and
political growth.

Kal Ashraf wrote:
Perhaps in rejecting the critical dualism--Lincoln as individual
emancipator pitted against collective self-emancipators--there is an
opportunity to recognise the greater persuasiveness of the
combination. In a sense, yes: a racist, flawed Lincoln did something
heroic, and not in lieu of collective participation, but next to, and
enabled, by it. To venerate a singular 'Great Emancipator' may be as
reductive as dismissing the significance of Lincoln's 'actions'. Who
he was as a man, no one of us can ever really know. So it is that the
version of Lincoln we keep is also the version we make.


Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
============================
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. made many references to the Emancipation
Proclamation during the civil rights movement. These include an
"Emancipation Proclamation Centennial Address" he gave in New York
City on September 12, 1962, in which he placed the Proclamation
alongside the Declaration of Independence as an "imperishable"
contribution to civilization and added, "All tyrants, past, present
and future, are powerless to bury the truths in these
declarations...." He lamented that despite a history where the United
States "proudly professed the basic principles inherent in both
documents," it "sadly practiced the antithesis of these principles."
He concluded, "There is but one way to commemorate the Emancipation
Proclamation. That is to make its declarations of freedom real; to
reach back to the origins of our nation when our message of equality
electrified an unfree world, and reaffirm democracy by deeds as bold
and daring as the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation."

King's most famous invocation of the Emancipation Proclamation was in
a speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial at the 1963 March on
Washington for Jobs and Freedom (often referred to as the "I Have a
Dream" speech). King began the speech saying "Five score years ago, a
great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand, signed the
Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great
beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared
in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to
end the long night of their captivity. But one hundred years later, we
must face the tragic fact that the Negro still is not free. One
hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by
the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination."


The "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
========================================
In the early 1960s, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his associates
called on President John F. Kennedy to bypass Southern segregationist
opposition in the Congress by issuing an executive order to put an end
to segregation. This envisioned document was referred to as the
"Second Emancipation Proclamation". Kennedy, however, did not issue a
second Emancipation Proclamation "and noticeably avoided all
centennial celebrations of emancipation." Historian David W. Blight
points out that, although the idea of an executive order to act as a
second Emancipation Proclamation "has been virtually forgotten," the
manifesto that King and his associates produced calling for an
executive order showed his "close reading of American politics" and
recalled how moral leadership could have an effect on the American
public through an executive order. Despite its failure "to spur a
second Emancipation Proclamation from the White House, it was an
important and emphatic attempt to combat the structured forgetting of
emancipation latent within Civil War memory."


President John F. Kennedy
===========================
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy spoke on national television about
civil rights. Kennedy, who had been routinely criticized as timid by
some civil rights activists, reminded Americans that two black
students had been peacefully enrolled in the University of Alabama
with the aid of the National Guard, despite the opposition of Governor
George Wallace.

John Kennedy called it a "moral issue." Invoking the centennial of the
Emancipation Proclamation he said,



In the same speech, Kennedy announced he would introduce a
comprehensive civil rights bill in the United States Congress, which
he did a week later. Kennedy pushed for its passage until he was
assassinated on November 22, 1963. Historian Peniel E. Joseph holds
Lyndon Johnson's ability to get that bill, the Civil Rights Act of
1964, signed into law on July 2, 1964, to have been aided by "the
moral forcefulness of the June 11 speech", which had turned "the
narrative of civil rights from a regional issue into a national story
promoting racial equality and democratic renewal."


President Lyndon B. Johnson
=============================
During the civil rights movement of the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson
invoked the Emancipation Proclamation, holding it up as a promise yet
to be fully implemented.

As vice president, while speaking from Gettysburg on May 30, 1963
(Memorial Day), during the centennial year of the Emancipation
Proclamation, Johnson connected it directly with the ongoing civil
rights struggles of the time, saying "One hundred years ago, the slave
was freed. One hundred years later, the Negro remains in bondage to
the color of his skin.... In this hour, it is not our respective races
which are at stake--it is our nation. Let those who care for their
country come forward, North and South, white and Negro, to lead the
way through this moment of challenge and decision.... Until justice is
blind to color, until education is unaware of race, until opportunity
is unconcerned with color of men's skins, emancipation will be a
proclamation but not a fact. To the extent that the proclamation of
emancipation is not fulfilled in fact, to that extent we shall have
fallen short of assuring freedom to the free."

As president, Johnson again invoked the proclamation in a speech
presenting the Voting Rights Act at a joint session of Congress on
Monday, March 15, 1965. This was one week after violence had been
inflicted on peaceful civil rights marchers during the Selma to
Montgomery marches. Johnson said "it's not just Negroes, but really
it's all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and
injustice. And we shall overcome. As a man whose roots go deeply into
Southern soil, I know how agonizing racial feelings are. I know how
difficult it is to reshape the attitudes and the structure of our
society. But a century has passed--more than 100 years--since the
Negro was freed. And he is not fully free tonight. It was more than
100 years ago that Abraham Lincoln--a great President of another
party--signed the Emancipation Proclamation. But emancipation is a
proclamation and not a fact. A century has passed--more than 100
years--since equality was promised, and yet the Negro is not equal. A
century has passed since the day of promise, and the promise is
unkept. The time of justice has now come, and I tell you that I
believe sincerely that no force can hold it back. It is right in the
eyes of man and God that it should come, and when it does, I think
that day will brighten the lives of every American."


                         In popular culture
======================================================================
In the 1963 episode of 'The Andy Griffith Show', "Andy Discovers
America", Andy asks Barney to explain the Emancipation Proclamation to
Opie who is struggling with history at school. Barney brags about his
history expertise, yet it is apparent he cannot answer Andy's
question. He finally becomes frustrated and explains it is a
proclamation for certain people who wanted emancipation. In addition,
the Emancipation Proclamation was also a main item of discussion in
the movie 'Lincoln' (2012) directed by Steven Spielberg.

The Emancipation Proclamation is celebrated around the world,
including on stamps of nations such as the Republic of Togo. The
United States commemorative was issued on August 16, 1963, the opening
day of the Century of Negro Progress Exhibition in Chicago, Illinois.
Designed by Georg Olden, an initial printing of 120 million stamps was
authorized.


                              See also
======================================================================
* District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act
* 1866 Georgia State Freedmen's Conventions
* Juneteenth emancipation in Texas
* Abolition of slavery timeline
* Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves - 1862 statute
* Confiscation Acts
* Contraband (American Civil War)
* 'Emancipation Memorial' - a sculpture in Washington, D.C., completed
in 1876
* Emancipation reform of 1861 - Russia
* Lieber Code
* Reconstruction Amendments - amendments added to the Constitution
after 1863
* Slavery Abolition Act 1833 - an act passed by the British parliament
abolishing slavery in British colonies with compensation to the owners
* Slave Trade Acts
* Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - 1865,
abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for
a crime.
* Timeline of the civil rights movement
* War Governors' Conference - gave Lincoln the much needed political
support to issue the Proclamation


Primary sources
=================
* C. Peter Ripley, Roy E. Finkenbine, Michael F. Hembree, Donald
Yacovone, editors, 'Witness for Freedom: African American Voices on
Race, Slavery, and Emancipation' (1993)


                          Further reading
======================================================================
* Belz, Herman. 'Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and
Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era' (1978)
[https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103250477 online]
* Biddle, Daniel R., and Murray Dubin. "'God Is Settling the Account':
African American Reaction to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation",
'Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography' (Jan. 2013) 137#1
57-78.
* Blackiston, Harry S. "Lincoln's Emancipation Plan." 'Journal of
Negro History' 7, no. 3 (1922): 257-277.
* Blair, William A. and Younger, Karen Fisher, eds. 'Lincoln's
Proclamation: Emancipation Reconsidered' (The University of North
Carolina Press, 2009)
[https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/bookreviews-MA2010-pdf-1.pdf
Review]
* Carnahan, Burrus M. 'Act of Justice: Lincoln's Emancipation
Proclamation and the Law of War' (The University Press of Kentucky,
2007)
* Crowther, Edward R. "Emancipation Proclamation", in 'Encyclopedia of
the American Civil War.' Heidler, David S. and Heidler, Jeanne T.
(2000)
* Chambers Jr., Henry L. "Lincoln, the Emancipation Proclamation, and
Executive Power." 'Maryland Law Review' 73 (2013): 100+
[http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3599&context=mlr
online]
* Ewan, Christopher. "The Emancipation Proclamation and British Public
Opinion" 'The Historian', Vol. 67, 2005
* Franklin, John Hope. 'The Emancipation Proclamation' (1963)
[https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10793158 online]
* Guelzo, Allen C.
[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0025.103/--how-abe-lincoln-lost-the-black-vote-lincoln-and-emancipation?rgn=main;view=fulltext
"How Abe Lincoln Lost the Black Vote: Lincoln and Emancipation in the
African American Mind"], 'Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'
(2004) 25#1
* Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams. 'The
Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views' (Louisiana State University
Press, 2006)
* Harold Holzer. 'Emancipating Lincoln: The Proclamation in Text,
Context, and Memory' (Harvard University Press, 2012)
* Jones, Howard. 'Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The
Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War' (1999)
[https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6928200 online]
* [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105216005 Mitch Kachun,
'Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American
Emancipation Celebrations, 1808-1915' (2003)]
* Kennon, Donald R. and Paul Finkelman, eds. 'Lincoln, Congress, and
Emancipation' (Ohio University Press, 2016)
* Kolchin, Peter, "Reexamining Southern Emancipation in Comparative
Perspective," 'Journal of Southern History', 81#1 (Feb. 2015), 7-40.
* Litwack, Leon F. 'Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of
Slavery' (1979), social history of the end of slavery in the
Confederacy
* Mack Smith, Denis, 'Garibaldi' (Great Lives Observed). (Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969)
* McPherson, James M. 'Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and
Reconstruction' (2001 [3rd ed.]), esp. pp. 316-321.
* Masur, Louis P. 'Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation
Proclamation and the War for the Union' (Harvard University Press,
2012)
* Nevins, Allan. 'Ordeal of the Union: vol 6. War Becomes Revolution,
1862-1863' (1960)
* Oakes, James. 'Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the
United States, 1861-1865' (W. W. Norton & Co., 2013)
* Siddali, Silvana R. 'From Property to Person: Slavery and the
Confiscation Acts, 1861-1862' (Louisiana State University Press, 2005)
* Stauffer, John. 'Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass
and Abraham Lincoln' (Twelve, 2008)
* Syrett, John. 'Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct
the South' (2005)
* Trefousse, Hans L., et al., edited by Harold M. Hyman. 'Lincoln's
Decision for Emancipation' (J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1975)
* Tsesis, Alexander. 'We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and
the Law' (2008)
* [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105900244  Vorenberg,
Michael. 'Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and
the Thirteenth Amendment' (Cambridge University Press, 2001)]
* Vorenberg, Michael, ed. 'The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief
History with Documents' (2010), primary and secondary sources


                           External links
======================================================================
* [http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=C.160.c.4.(1)_f001r A
zoomable image of the Leland-Boker authorized edition of the
Emancipation Proclamation held by the British Library]
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20101122161527/http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=290
Lesson plan on Emancipation Proclamation from EDSITEment NEH]
*
[https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation
Text and images of the Emancipation Proclamation from the National
Archives]
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20090210000843/http://abrahamlincoln200.org/for-kids/lincoln-coloring-book.aspx
Online Lincoln Coloring Book for Teachers and Students]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/EmanProc.html
Emancipation Proclamation and related resources at the Library of
Congress]
* [http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=39&subjectID=3
Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Emancipation Proclamation]
* First Edition
[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/october/emancipation-proclamation.htm
Emancipation Proclamation] in 1862 'Harper's Weekly'
* [http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/chronol.htm Chronology of
Emancipation during the Civil War]
*
[http://www.americanabolitionists.com/lincoln-chronology-on-slavery-and-emancipation.html
American Abolitionists and Antislavery Activists], chronology of
Abraham Lincoln and emancipation
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20030114103859/http://www.anti-slaverysociety.addr.com/hus-emancproc.htm
"Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation"]
* [http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/ep/ Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation
at the New York State Library] - images and transcript of Lincoln's
original manuscript of the preliminary proclamation
*
[http://humorinamerica.wordpress.com/2013/02/21/in-the-archives-lincoln-diversion-1862/
The role of humor in presenting the Proclamation to Lincoln's Cabinet]
*
[https://www.nytimes.com/1865/06/16/news/emancipation-proclamation-interesting-sketch-its-history-artist-carpenter.html?scp=32&sq=emancipation+proclamation&st=p&pagewanted=all
1865 'NY Times' article] - Sketch of its History by Lincoln's portrait
artist
*
*
[http://www.pritzkermilitarylibrary.org/Home/James-McPherson-2012.aspx
Webcast Discussion]  with Pulitzer Prize-winning author James
McPherson and James Cornelius, Curator of the Lincoln Collection in
the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum about the 150th
anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation
*


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