======================================================================
= Chakra =
======================================================================
Introduction
======================================================================
A chakra (; ; ) is one of the various focal points used in a variety
of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra,
part of the inner traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism.
The concept of the chakra arose in Hinduism. Beliefs differ between
the Indian religions: Buddhist texts mention four or five chakras,
while Hindu sources often have six or seven.
The modern "Western chakra system" arose from multiple sources,
starting in the 1880s with H. P. Blavatsky and other Theosophists,
followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book 'The Serpent Power', and
Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book 'The Chakras'. Psychological and
other attributes, rainbow colours, and a wide range of correspondences
with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy,
Kabbalah and Tarot were added later.
Etymology
======================================================================
Lexically, 'chakra' is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European
form '*kʷékʷlos', whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (). It has both
literal and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of
dharma", such as in 'Rigveda' hymn verse 1.164.11, pervasive in the
earliest Vedic texts.
In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun 'cakka' connotes
"wheel". Within the Buddhist scriptures referred to as the Tripitaka,
Shakyamuni Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of
dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should
bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. Shakyamuni
Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether
karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.
In Jainism, the term 'chakra' also means "wheel" and appears in
various contexts in its ancient literature. As in other Indian
religions, 'chakra' in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by
Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center.
Ancient history
======================================================================
The word 'chakra' appears to first emerge within the Vedas, though not
in the sense of psychic energy centers, rather as 'chakravartin' or
the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a
center, representing his influence and power. The iconography popular
in representing the 'Chakras', states the scholar David Gordon White,
traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar:
"square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling".
The hymn 10.136 of the 'Rigveda' mentions a renunciate yogi with a
female named 'kunannamā'. Literally, it means "she who is bent,
coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded
enigmas and esoteric riddles within the 'Rigveda'. Some scholars, such
as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a
reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology
associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions.
Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of
Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE, but not psychic-energy chakra
theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which
the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per
Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad. The latter, states David Gordon White, were
introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of
inner energy centers, such as in the 'Hevajra Tantra' and 'Caryāgiti'.
These are called by various terms such as 'cakka', 'padma' (lotus) or
'pitha' (mound). These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four
chakras, while later Hindu texts such as the 'Kubjikāmata' and
'Kaulajñānanirnaya' expanded the list to many more.
In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of
Hinduism do mention 'chakras' in the sense of "psychospiritual
vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: 'prana' or 'vayu'
(life energy) along with 'nadi' (energy carrying arteries). According
to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present 'chakra' and
kundalini-style yoga theories although these words appear in the
earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The 'chakra' in the sense
of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu
and Buddhist texts.
The 10th century Kubjikāmatatantra describes a system of five chakras
which serve as the seats of five sets of divine female beings, namely
the Devīs, the Dūtīs, the Mātṛs, the Yoginīs and the Khecarīs.
Overview
======================================================================
The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology
and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions. The belief
held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions,
one "physical body" ('sthula sarira') and other "psychological,
emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body"
('sukshma sarira'). This subtle body is energy, while the physical
body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts
with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind
mutually affect each other. The subtle body consists of nadi (energy
channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy called 'chakra'. The
belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting 88,000
chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied
between various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and
seven.
The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be
arranged in a column along the spinal cord, from its base to the top
of the head, connected by vertical channels. The tantric traditions
sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various
breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras
were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological
capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra),
in some cases deities, colors and other motifs.
Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the
historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture. Unlike the
latter, the 'chakra' relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position
but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection. The
tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant
and a means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of
yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy
('prana' flows) and mind-body connections. The meditation is aided by
extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala).
The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to
increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are
abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened.
These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar
and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the
West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle
body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.
According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, professors of Religious
studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions:
Contrast with classical yoga
==============================
Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric
traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga.
According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals
of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom,
self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical
yoga, and the 'cakra / nadi / kundalini' physiology is completely
peripheral to it."
Classical traditions
======================================================================
The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in
India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe 'nadi' and
'chakra' in a "subtle body" context. To them, they are in same
dimension as of the psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In
the 'nadi' and 'cakra' flow the 'prana' (breath, life energy). The
concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple
inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with
breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy. This prana or essence is what
vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross body. Some of this
concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within, when one
sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able and
important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to
other people in one's life. This subtle body network of 'nadi' and
'chakra' is, according to some later Indian theories and many New Age
speculations, closely associated with emotions.
Hindu tantra
==============
Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and
arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one,
the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent. This seven-part
system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many
systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six
Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six
chakras of the six-plus-one system.
Association of six yoginis with chakra locations in the 'Rudrayamala
Tantra'
Place in subtle body !! Yogini !! Place in the Body
1. Muladhara Dakini Around the Perineum
2. Svadhisthana Rakini Around the Genitals
3. Manipura Lakini Around the Navel
4. Anahata Kakini Around the Heart
5. Vishuddhi Shakini Around the Throat
6. Ajna | Hakini Around the Forehead
The Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess
tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an important concept
along with yantras, mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice.
Chakra in Shakta tantrism means circle, an "energy center" within, as
well as being a term for group rituals such as in 'chakra-puja'
(worship within a circle) which may or may not involve tantra
practice. The chakra-based system is a part of the meditative
exercises that came to be known as yoga.
Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises,
visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on
manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.
Buddhist tantra
=================
The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras. In
some early Buddhist sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura
(navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala
(crown). In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the
'Mantrayana' of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of
chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows:
Nirmanakaya (gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya
(causal self), and Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and
indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva
'Mantramarga' universe, i.e., Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha,
Sahasrara, etc. However, depending on the meditational tradition,
these vary between three and six. The chakras are considered
psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing meaningful correspondences
to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart.
A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras
and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:
* Basal chakra (Element: Earth, Buddha: Amoghasiddhi, Bija mantra:
LAM)
* Abdominal chakra (Element: Water, Buddha: Ratnasambhava, Bija
mantra: VAM)
* Heart chakra (Element: Fire, Buddha: Akshobhya, Bija mantra: RAM)
* Throat chakra (Element: Wind, Buddha: Amitabha, Bija mantra: YAM)
* Crown chakra (Element: Space, Buddha: Vairochana, Bija mantra: KHAM)
Chakras play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be
the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of
the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to
doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious
agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there
would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is
no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point
to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment
with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the
ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual
consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love,
thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood.
According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and
nadi as "central to their soteriological process". The theories were
sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical
exercises, called 'yantra yoga' or phrul 'khor'. Chakras, according to
the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the
five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five
experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms
of woe.
The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the
primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana.
Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes,
inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the
screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file
is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive
qualities. Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all
experience into clear light. The practice aims to liberate from all
negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom
from control and unity of perception and cognition.
File:Chakras and energy channels 2 (3749594497).jpg|A Tibetan
illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel, two side
channels, and five chakras
File:Cosmic Man with Diagrams of Newar Yogic Six Chakra Transformation
LACMA M.91.118.jpg|A Tibetan thangka showing six chakras
Seven chakra system
======================================================================
The most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras along
with a seventh centre generally not regarded as a chakra. These points
are arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in
Hindu texts, Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts). According to Gavin
Flood, this system of six chakras plus the 'sahasrara' "center" at the
crown first appears in the 'Kubjikāmata-tantra', an 11th-century Kaula
work.
It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th
century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in his book
'The Serpent Power'. Avalon translated the Hindu text
'Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa' meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the six
(ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).
The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi
progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the
crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent. In
both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras
are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra.
In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she
is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: 'gtum mo', "fierce one").
Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the
seventh point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates
the Newtonian colours of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian
system.
New age descriptions of the chakras
Image Name Sanskrit Location No. of petals Modern colour
Mantra & element Description
| 80px || **Sahasrara** || सहस्रार (सहस्र-आर) "Thousand-petaled" ||
Crown || 1000 || White or Violet || '-' (Time & Space , Divine
Consciousness) || Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness,
containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini
Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving
self-realization and samadhi. In esoteric Buddhism, it is called
Mahasukha, the petal lotus of "Great Bliss" corresponding to the
fourth state of Four Noble Truths.
| 80px || **Ajna** || आज्ञा "Command" || Between eyebrows || 2 ||
Indigo || 'Om' (Light Or Darkness) || Guru chakra, or in New Age usage
third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru
touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands
the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre.
Corresponds to the upper dantien in the Qigong system.
| 80px || **Vishuddha** || विशुद्ध "Purest" || Throat || 16 || Blue
|| 'Ham' (Space) || 16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit
vowels. Associated with the element of space (akasha). The residing
deity is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti
is Shakini.
In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Sambhoga and is generally
considered to be the petal lotus of "Enjoyment" corresponding to the
third state of Four Noble Truths.
| 80px || **Anahata** || अनाहत (अन्-आहत) "Unstruck" || Heart || 12
|| Green || 'Yam' (Air) || Within it is a yantra of two intersecting
triangles, forming a hexagram, symbolising a union of the male and
female, and the element of air (vayu). The presiding deity is Ishana
Rudra Shiva, and the Shakti is Kakini.
In esoteric Buddhism, this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally
considered to be the petal lotus of "Essential nature" and
corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths. Corresponds to
the middle dantien in the Qigong system.
| 80px || **Manipura** || मणिपुर (मणि-पुर) "Jewel city" || Navel ||
10 || Yellow || 'Ram' (Fire) || For the Nath yogi meditation system,
this is described as the 'Madhyama-Shakti' or the intermediate stage
of self-discovery. This chakra is represented as a downward pointing
triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals.
The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra, with Lakini as the Shakti.
| 80px || **Svadhishthana** || स्वाधिष्ठान (स्व-आधिष्ठान) "Where
the self is established" || Root of sexual organs || 6 || Orange ||
'Vam' (Water) || Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which
is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element. The presiding deity
is Brahma, with the Shakti being Rakini (or Chakini).
In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Nirmana, the petal lotus of
"Creation" and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths.
Corresponds to the lower dantien in the Qigong system.
| 80px || **Muladhara** || मूलाधार (मूल-आधार) "Root" || Base of
spine || 4 || Red || 'Lam' (Earth) || Dormant Kundalini is often said
to be resting here, wrapped three and a half, or seven or twelve
times. Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga, the
lowest of three obstructions to her full rising (also known as knots
or granthis). It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow
square at its center representing the element of earth.
The seed syllable is 'Lam' for the earth element. All sounds, words
and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra, where
Ganesha resides, while the Shakti is Dakini. The associated animal is
the elephant.
History
=========
Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that
the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional
collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and
clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth,
Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the
psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W.
Leadbeater's 1927 book 'The Chakras', treated as traditional lore by
some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan.
Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements
of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities,
first appeared together only in 1977.
The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s;
at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus. In 1918,
Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts,
the 'Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa' and the 'Pādukā-Pañcaka', publishing and
commenting on them both in his book 'The Serpent Power' drew Western
attention to the seven chakra theory.
In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an
endocrine gland, a tradition that has persisted. More recently, the
lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.
The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant
system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white. Leadbeater's
theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's 1696 book 'Theosophia
Practica', which mentioned inner "force centres".
Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura,
developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements,
emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later. A wide
range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals,
astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones, homeopathic
remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot
cards have also been proposed.
New Age
=========
In 'Anatomy of the Spirit' (1996), Caroline Myss described the
function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and experience you've
ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases.
Each event is recorded into your cells...". The chakras are described
as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to
the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra
with a certain colour. In various traditions, each chakra is
associated with a physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness,
and a classical element; these do not correspond to those used in
ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or
flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.
The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be
associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental
nature. They are considered loci of life spiritual energy or prana,
which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The
function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the
spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in
balance.
Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and
evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for
modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn,
be radically different in future.
Skeptical response
======================================================================
There is no scientific evidence to prove chakras exist, nor is there
any meaningful way to try and measure them scientifically. The
Edinburgh Skeptics Society claimed that there has never been any
evidence for chakras.
See also
======================================================================
* Aura
* Dantian - energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems
* Surya Namaskar - the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is
sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra
Further reading
======================================================================
* Judith, Anodea (1996). 'Eastern Body Western Mind: Psychology and
the Chakra System As A Path to the Self'. Berkeley, California, USA:
Celestial Arts Publishing.
*
* Banerji, S. C. 'Tantra in Bengal'. Second Revised and Enlarged
Edition. (Manohar: Delhi, 1992)
*
* (Two volumes)
*
*
*
* Goswami, Shyam Sundar. 'Layayoga: The Definitive Guide to the
Chakras and Kundalini', Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
* Khalsa, Guru Dharam Singh; O'Keeffe, Darryl. 'The Kundalini Yoga
Experience' Simon & Schuster, 2002.
* Lowndes, Florin. 'Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart: The
Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of Rudolf Steiner' , first English
edition 1998 from the original German edition of 1996. comparing
'traditional' chakra teaching, and that of C.W. Leadbeater, with that
of Rudolf Steiner.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
License
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakra
