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= Carmilla =
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Introduction
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'Carmilla' is an 1872 Gothic novella by Irish author Joseph Sheridan
Le Fanu. It is one of the earliest known works of vampire fiction,
predating Bram Stoker's 'Dracula' (1897) by 25 years. First published
as a serial in 'The Dark Blue' (1871-72), the story is narrated by a
young woman who is preyed upon by a female vampire named "Carmilla".
The titular character is the prototypical example of the fictional
lesbian vampire, expressing romantic desires toward the protagonist.
'Carmilla' is regarded as one of the most influential vampire stories
of all time, and the work is popularly anthologised, having been
adapted extensively for films, movies, operas, video games, comics,
songs, cartoons, television, and other media.
Publication
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'Carmilla', serialised in the literary magazine 'The Dark Blue' in
late 1871 and early 1872, was reprinted in Le Fanu's short-story
collection 'In a Glass Darkly' (1872). Comparing the work of two
illustrators of the story, David Henry Friston and Michael
Fitzgerald--whose work appears in the magazine article but not in
modern printings of the book--reveals inconsistencies in the
characters' depictions. Consequently, confusion has arisen relating
the pictures to the plot. Isabella Mazzanti illustrated the book's
2014 edition, published by Editions Soleil and translated by Gaid
Girard.
Plot summary
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Le Fanu presents the story as part of the casebook of Dr. Hesselius,
whose departures from medical orthodoxy rank him as the first occult
detective in literature.
Laura, the teenaged protagonist, narrates, beginning with her
childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle amid an extensive
forest in Styria, where she lives with her father, a wealthy English
widower retired from service to the Austrian Empire. When she was six,
Laura had a vision of a very beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She
later claims to have been punctured in her breast, although no wound
was found. All the household assure Laura that it was just a dream,
but they step up security as well and there is no subsequent vision or
visitation.
Twelve years later, Laura and her father are admiring the sunset in
front of the castle when her father tells her of a letter from his
friend, General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to visit them
with his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, but Bertha suddenly died under
mysterious circumstances. The General ambiguously concludes that he
will discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later.
Laura, saddened by the loss of a potential friend, longs for a
companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly
brings a girl of Laura's age into the family's care. Her name is
Carmilla. Both girls instantly recognise each other from the "dream"
they both had when they were young.
Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her
mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent
and cannot be delayed. She arranges to leave her daughter with Laura
and her father until she can return in three months. Before she
leaves, she sternly notes that her daughter will not disclose any
information whatsoever about her family, her past, or herself, and
that Carmilla is of sound mind. Laura comments that this information
seems needless to say, and her father laughs it off.
Carmilla and Laura grow to be very close friends, but occasionally
Carmilla's mood abruptly changes. She sometimes makes romantic
advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about
herself, despite questioning by Laura. Her secrecy is not the only
mysterious thing about Carmilla; she never joins the household in its
prayers, she sleeps much of the day, and she seems to sleepwalk
outside at night.
Meanwhile, young women and girls in the nearby towns have begun dying
from an unknown malady. When the funeral procession of one such victim
passes by the two girls, Laura joins in the funeral hymn. Carmilla
bursts out in rage and scolds Laura, complaining that the hymn hurts
her ears.
When a shipment of restored heirloom paintings arrives, Laura finds a
portrait of her ancestor, Countess Mircalla Karnstein, dated 1698. The
portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck.
Carmilla suggests that she might be descended from the Karnsteins,
though the family died out centuries before.
During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a large, cat-like
beast entering her room. The beast springs onto the bed and Laura
feels something like two needles, an inch or two apart, darting deep
into her breast. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and
disappears through the door without opening it. In another nightmare,
Laura hears a voice say, "Your mother warns you to beware of the
assassin," and a sudden light reveals Carmilla standing at the foot of
her bed, her nightdress drenched in blood. Laura's health declines,
and her father has a doctor examine her. He finds a small, blue spot,
an inch or two below her collar, where the creature in her dream bit
her, and speaks privately with her father, only asking that Laura
never be unattended.
Her father sets out with Laura, in a carriage, for the ruined village
of Karnstein, three miles distant. They leave a message behind asking
Carmilla and one of the governesses to follow once the perpetually
late-sleeping Carmilla awakes. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her
father encounter General Spielsdorf. He tells them his own ghastly
story.
At a costume ball, Spielsdorf and his niece Bertha had met a very
beautiful young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother. Bertha
was immediately taken with Millarca. The mother convinced the General
that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed
to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret
matter of great importance.
Bertha fell mysteriously ill, suffering the same symptoms as Laura.
After consulting with a specially ordered priestly doctor, the General
realised that Bertha was being visited by a vampire. He hid with a
sword and waited until a large, black creature of undefined shape
crawled onto his niece's bed and spread itself onto her throat. He
leapt from his hiding place and attacked the creature, which had then
taken the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door,
unharmed. Bertha died before the morning dawned.
Upon arriving at Karnstein, the General asks a woodman where he can
find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein. The woodman says the tomb was
relocated long ago by a Moravian nobleman who vanquished the vampires
haunting the region.
While the General and Laura are alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla
appears. The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing
each other, and the General attacks her with an axe. Carmilla disarms
the General and disappears. The General explains that Carmilla is also
Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Mircalla,
Countess Karnstein.
The party is joined by Baron Vordenburg, the descendant of the hero
who rid the area of vampires long ago. Vordenburg, an authority on
vampires, has discovered that his ancestor was romantically involved
with the Countess Karnstein before she died. Using his forefather's
notes, he locates Mircalla's hidden tomb. An imperial commission
exhumes the body of Mircalla. Immersed in blood, it seems to be
breathing faintly, its heart beating, its eyes open. A stake is driven
through its heart, and it gives a corresponding shriek; then, the head
is struck off. The body and head are burned to ashes, which are thrown
into a river.
Afterwards, Laura's father takes his daughter on a year-long tour
through Italy to regain her health and recover from the trauma, but
she never fully does.
Motifs
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"Carmilla" exhibits the primary characteristics of Gothic fiction. It
includes a supernatural figure, a dark setting of an old castle, a
mysterious atmosphere, and ominous or superstitious elements.
In the novella, Le Fanu abolishes the Victorian view of women as
merely useful possessions of men, relying on them and needing their
constant guardianship. The male characters of the story, such as
Laura's father and General Spielsdorf, are exposed as being the
opposite of the putative Victorian males - helpless and unproductive.
The nameless father reaches an agreement with Carmilla's mother,
whereas Spielsdorf cannot control the faith of his niece, Bertha. Both
of these scenes portray women as equal, if not superior to men. This
female empowerment is even more clear if we consider Carmilla's
vampiric predecessors and their relationship with their prey. Carmilla
is the opposite of those male vampires - she is actually involved with
her victims both emotionally and (theoretically) sexually. Moreover,
she is able to exceed even more limitations by dominating death. In
the end, her immortality is suggested to be sustained by the river
where her ashes had been scattered.
Le Fanu also departs from the negative idea of female parasitism and
lesbianism by depicting a mutual and irresistible connection between
Carmilla and Laura. The latter, along with other female characters,
becomes a symbol of all Victorian women - restrained and judged for
their emotional reflexes. The ambiguity of Laura's speech and
behaviour reveals her struggles with being fully expressive of her
concerns and desires.
Another important element of "Carmilla" is the concept of dualism
presented through the juxtaposition of vampire and human, as well as
lesbian and heterosexual. It is also vivid in Laura's irresolution,
since she "feels both attraction and repulsion" towards Carmilla. The
duality of Carmilla's character is suggested by her human attributes,
the lack of predatory demeanour, and her shared experience with Laura.
According to Gabriella Jönsson, Carmilla can be seen as a
representation of the dark side of all mankind.
Sources
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As with 'Dracula', critics have looked for the sources used in the
writing of 'Carmilla'. One source used was from a dissertation on
magic, vampires, and the apparitions of spirits written by Dom
Augustin Calmet entitled 'Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et
sur les vampires ou les revenants de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.'
(1751). This is evidenced by a report analysed by Calmet, from a
priest who learned information of a town being tormented by a vampiric
entity three years earlier. Having travelled to the town to
investigate and collecting information of the various inhabitants
there, the priest learned that a vampire had tormented many of the
inhabitants at night by coming from the nearby cemetery and would
haunt many of the residents on their beds. An unknown Hungarian
traveller came to the town during this period and helped the town by
setting a trap at the cemetery and decapitating the vampire that
resided there, curing the town of their torment. This story was retold
by Le Fanu and adapted into the thirteenth chapter of 'Carmilla'.
According to Matthew Gibson, the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould's 'The
Book of Were-wolves' (1863) and his account of Elizabeth Báthory,
Coleridge's 'Christabel' (Part 1, 1797 and Part 2, 1800), and Captain
Basil Hall's 'Schloss Hainfeld; or a Winter in Lower Styria' (London
and Edinburgh, 1836) are other sources for Le Fanu's 'Carmilla'.
Hall's account provides much of the Styrian background and, in
particular, a model for both Carmilla and Laura in the figure of Jane
Anne Cranstoun, Countess Purgstall.
Influence
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Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion
of female and lesbian vampires. Although Le Fanu portrays his
vampire's sexuality with the circumspection that one would expect for
his time, lesbian attraction evidently is the main dynamic between
Carmilla and the narrator of the story:
When compared to other literary vampires of the 19th century, Carmilla
is a similar product of a culture with strict sexual mores and
tangible religious fear. While Carmilla selected exclusively female
victims, she only becomes emotionally involved with a few. Carmilla
had nocturnal habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had
unearthly beauty, and was able to change her form and to pass through
solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a
large dog as in 'Dracula'. She did, however, sleep in a coffin.
'Carmilla' works as a Gothic horror story because her victims are
portrayed as succumbing to a perverse and unholy temptation that has
severe metaphysical consequences for them.
Some critics, among them William Veeder, suggest that 'Carmilla',
notably in its outlandish use of narrative frames, was an important
influence on Henry James' 'The Turn of the Screw' (1898).
Bram Stoker's ''Dracula''
===========================
Le Fanu's work has been noted as an influence on Bram Stoker's
masterwork of the genre, 'Dracula':
* Both stories are told in the first person. 'Dracula' expands on the
idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries
and logs of different persons and creating a plausible background
story for their having been compiled.
* Both authors indulge the air of mystery, though Stoker takes it
further than Le Fanu by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of
the vampire along with the reader.
* The descriptions of the title character in 'Carmilla' and of Lucy in
'Dracula' are similar. Additionally, both women sleepwalk.
* Stoker's Dr. Abraham Van Helsing is similar to Le Fanu's vampire
expert Baron Vordenburg: both characters investigate and catalyze
actions in opposition to the vampire.
* The symptoms described in 'Carmilla' and 'Dracula' are highly
comparable.
* Both the titular antagonists - Carmilla and Dracula, respectively,
pretend to be the descendants of much older nobles bearing the same
names, but are eventually revealed to have the same identities.
However, with Dracula, this is left ambiguous. Although it is stated
by Van Helsing (a character with a slightly awkward grasp of the
English language) that he "must, indeed, have been that Voivode
Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the
very frontier of Turkey-land", the next statement begins with "If it
be so", thereby leaving a thin margin of ambiguity.
* "Dracula's Guest", a short story by Stoker believed to have been a
deleted prologue to 'Dracula', is also set in Styria, where an unnamed
Englishman takes shelter in a mausoleum from a storm. There, he meets
a female vampire, named Countess Dolingen von Gratz.
Books
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* The novella 'Carmilla and Laura' by S.D. Simper is a reimagining of
the original novella. In 'Carmilla and Laura', the two women develop a
true romantic relationship.
* The novel 'Carmilla: The Wolves of Styria' is a re-imagining of the
original story. It is a derivative re-working, listed as being
authored by J.S. Le Fanu and David Brian.
* Theodora Goss' 2018 novel 'European Travel for the Monstrous
Gentlewoman' (the second in 'The Extraordinary Adventures of the
Athena Club' series) features a heroic Carmilla and her partner Laura
Hollis aiding The Athena Club in their fight against a villainous
Abraham Van Helsing.
* Rachel Klein's 2002 novel 'The Moth Diaries' features several
excerpts from 'Carmilla', as the novel figures into the plot of
Klein's story, and both deal with similar subject matter and themes.
The book was adapted in a feature film in 2011 written and directed by
Mary Harron.
* 'Undead Girl Murder Farce' is a Japanese light novel series by Yugo
Aosaki that began publication in 2015. Many of the characters in the
series are from 19th-century European literature. Carmilla is a
recurring antagonist. This also has manga and anime adaptations.
* 'An Education in Malice' by S.T. Gibson retells Carmilla in
Massachusetts at a 1960s college.
Comics
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* In 1991, Aircel Comics published a six-issue black and white
miniseries of 'Carmilla' by Steven Jones and John Ross. It was based
on Le Fanu's story and billed as "The Erotic Horror Classic of Female
Vampirism". The first issue was printed in February 1991. The first
three issues adapted the original story, while the latter three were a
sequel set in the 1930s.
* In 2023, Dark Horse Comics's Berger Books imprint published
'Carmilla: The First Vampire' written by Amy Chu with art by Soo Lee
and set in 1990s New York City. Snippets from the original story are
used as the main character consults the original story while
investigating a series of murders. The collected edition went on to
win the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in a Graphic Novel
Film
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* Danish director Carl Dreyer loosely adapted 'Carmilla' for his film
'Vampyr' (1932) but deleted any references to lesbian sexuality. The
credits of the original film say that the film is based on 'In a Glass
Darkly'. This collection contains five tales, one of which is
'Carmilla'. Actually the film draws its central character, Allan Gray,
from Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius; and the scene in which Gray is buried
alive is drawn from "The Room in the Dragon Volant".
* 'Dracula's Daughter' (1936), Universal Pictures' sequel to 1931
Dracula film, was loosely based on 'Carmilla'.
* French director Roger Vadim's 'Et mourir de plaisir' (shown in the
UK and US as 'Blood and Roses', 1960) is based on 'Carmilla'. The
Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind
Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography by Claude
Renoir. The film's lesbian eroticism was, however, significantly cut
for its US release. Annette Stroyberg, Elsa Martinelli and Mel Ferrer
star in the film.
* A more-or-less faithful adaptation starring Christopher Lee was
produced in Italy in 1963 under the title 'La cripta e l'incubo'
('Crypt of the Vampire' in English). The character of Laura, played by
Adriana Ambesi, fears herself possessed by the spirit of a dead
ancestor, played by Ursula Davis (also known as Pier Anna Quaglia).
* 'The Vampire Lovers' (1970), the first of film in 'The Karnstein
Trilogy' was based on the novel and featured Ingrid Pitt as Carmilla.
* 'The Blood Spattered Bride' (1972) ('La novia ensangrentada') is a
1972 Spanish horror film written and directed by Vicente Aranda, is
based on the text. The film has reached cult status for its mix of
horror, vampirism and seduction with lesbian overtones. British
actress Alexandra Bastedo plays Mircalla Karnstein, and Maribel Martín
is her victim.
* The 2000 Japanese anime film 'Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust' features
Carmilla "the Bloody Countess" as its primary antagonist. Having been
slain by Dracula for her vain and gluttonous tyranny, Carmilla's ghost
attempts to use the blood of a virgin to bring about her own
resurrection. She was voiced by Julia Fletcher in English and Beverly
Maeda in Japanese.
* In the direct-to-video movie 'The Batman vs. Dracula' (2005),
Carmilla Karnstein is mentioned as Count Dracula's bride, who had been
incinerated by sunlight years ago. Dracula hoped to revive her by
sacrificing Vicki Vale's soul, but the ritual was stopped by the
Batman.
* Carmilla is featured as the main antagonist in the movie 'Lesbian
Vampire Killers' (2009), a comedy starring Paul McGann and James
Corden, with Silvia Colloca as Carmilla.
* The book is directly referenced several times in the 2011 film, 'The
Moth Diaries', the film version of Rachel Klein's novel. There are
conspicuous similarities between the characters in "Carmilla" and
those in the film, and the book figures into the film's plot.
* 'The Unwanted' (2014) from writer/director Brent Wood relocates the
story to the contemporary southern United States, with Hannah Fierman
as Laura, Christen Orr as Carmilla, and Kylie Brown as Millarca.
* 'The Curse of Styria' (2014), alternately titled 'Angels of
Darkness' is an adaptation of the novel set in late 1980s with Julia
Pietrucha as Carmilla and Eleanor Tomlinson as Lara.
* In 2017 'The Carmilla Movie', based on the 2015 web series of the
same name was released. Directed by Spencer Maybee and produced by
Steph Ouaknine, the movie follows up the web series five years after
the finale.
*'Carmilla' (2019), written and directed by Emily Harris, was inspired
by the novella. Fifteen-year-old Lara (Hannah Rae) develops feelings
for Carmilla (Devrim Lingnau), but her strict governess believes their
strange houseguest is a vampire. Harris says she "stripped back" the
supernatural layers to consider the story as a "derailed love story"
and "a story about our tendency as humans to demonize the other".
Opera
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* A chamber opera version of 'Carmilla' appeared in 'Carmilla: A
Vampire Tale' (1970), music by Ben Johnston, script by Wilford Leach.
Seated on a sofa, Laura and Carmilla recount the story retrospectively
in song.
Rock music
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* Jon English released a song named "Carmilla", inspired by the short
story, on his 1980 album 'Calm Before the Storm'.
* The title track of the album 'Symphonies of the Night' (2013), by
the German/Norwegian band Leaves' Eyes, was inspired by 'Carmilla'.
Periodicals
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* A Japanese lesbian magazine is named after Carmilla, as Carmilla
"draws hetero women into the world of love between women".
Radio
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* The 'Columbia Workshop' presented an adaptation (CBS, July 28, 1940,
30 min.). Lucille Fletcher's script, directed by Earle McGill,
relocated the story to contemporary New York state and allows Carmilla
(Jeanette Nolan) to claim her victim Helen (Joan Tetzel).
* In 1975, the 'CBS Radio Mystery Theater' broadcast an adaptation by
Ian Martin (CBS, July 31, 1975, rebroadcast December 10, 1975).
Mercedes McCambridge played Laura Stanton, Marian Seldes played
Carmilla.
* Vincent Price hosted an adaptation (reset to 1922 Vienna) by
Brainard Duffield, produced and directed by Fletcher Markle, on the
'Sears Radio Theater' (CBS, March 7, 1979), with Antoinette Bower and
Anne Gibbon.
* BBC Radio 4 broadcast Don McCamphill's 'Afternoon Play'
dramatisation June 5, 2003, with Anne-Marie Duff as Laura, Brana Bajic
as Carmilla and David Warner as Laura's father.
Stage
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* A German language adaptation of 'Carmilla' by Friedhelm
Schneidewind, from Studio-Theatre Saarbruecken, toured Germany and
other European countries (including Romania) from April 1994 until
2000.
* The Wildclaw Theater in Chicago performed a full-length adaptation
of 'Carmilla' by Aly Renee Amidei in January and February 2011.
* Zombie Joe's Underground Theater Group in North Hollywood performed
an hour-long adaptation of 'Carmilla', by David MacDowell Blue, in
February and March 2014.
Television
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* In 1989, Gabrielle Beaumont directed Jonathan Furst's adaptation of
'Carmilla' as an episode of the Showtime television series 'Nightmare
Classics', featuring Meg Tilly as the vampire and Ione Skye as her
victim Marie. Furst relocated the story to an American antebellum
southern plantation.
* "Carmilla" directed by Janusz Kondratiuk was a television spectacle
aired on Polish Television Channel 1 on 13 November 1980.
* Carmilla is a major antagonist in the 'Castlevania' animated series,
where she was first introduced in Season 2 as a secondary antagonist,
acting as a sly and ambitious general on Dracula's War Council. Unlike
her video-game counterpart, who is immensely faithful to her leader,
Carmilla takes issue with Dracula's plan to kill off their only source
of food and has designs to take Dracula's place and build her own army
to subjugate humanity alongside her Council of Sisters, Lenore
(inspired by Laura), Striga, and Morana. Her plans are bolstered by
Dracula's death at the hands of his son, Alucard, and her kidnapping
of the Devil Forgemaster, Hector. She is later personally confronted
by Isaac, Dracula's other loyal Devil Forgemaster, when he and his
Night Creature horde invade her castle in Styria to rescue Hector and
put an end to her ambitions. After singlehandedly fighting him and his
host of demons, she commits suicide in Season 4.
Web series
============
* 'Carmilla' is a web series on YouTube starring Natasha Negovanlis as
Carmilla and Elise Bauman as Laura. First released on August 19, 2014,
it is a comedic, modern adaptation of the novella which takes place at
a modern-day university, where both girls are students. They become
roommates after Laura's first roommate mysteriously disappears and
Carmilla moves in, taking her place. The final episode of the web
series was released on October 13, 2016. In 2017, a movie was made
based on the series. 'The Carmilla Movie' was initially released on
October 26, 2017, to Canadian audiences through Cineplex theatres for
one night only. A digital streaming version was also pre-released on
October 26, 2017, for fans who had pre-ordered the film on VHX. The
following day the movie enjoyed a wide release on streaming platform
Fullscreen.
Video games
=============
* Carmilla is a recurring character in 'Castlevania', a gothic horror
action-adventure video game series and media franchise about Dracula,
created and developed by Konami. 'Castlevania' has also been expanded
into comic books and an animated television series.
* In the Japanese action game series 'Onechanbara', Carmilla is the
matriarch of the Vampiric clan. She appears in the 2011 title
'Onechanbara Z ~ Kagura ~' as the manipulator & main antagonist of
sister heroines Kagura and Saaya, first using them to attack her
rivals before trying (and failing) to eliminate them as pawns.
* Carmilla is a playable character in Ravenswatch, a fantasy action
game which features a variety of cultural and literary characters.
Censorship
======================================================================
In April 2025, the Lukashenko regime added the book to the List of
printed publications containing information messages and materials,
the distribution of which could harm the national interests of
Belarus.
External links
======================================================================
*
*
*
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20170327101732/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0060845/
Carmilla] on IMDb
*
*
License
=========
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License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmilla
