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= Bhakti =
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Introduction
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'Bhakti' (; Pali: 'bhatti') is a term common in Indian religions which
means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship,
piety, faith, or love. In Indian religions, it may refer to loving
devotion for a personal God (like Krishna or Devi), a formless
ultimate reality (like Nirguna Brahman or the Sikh God) or an
enlightened being (like a Buddha, a bodhisattva, or a guru). Bhakti is
often a deeply emotional devotion based on a relationship between a
devotee and the object of devotion.
One of the earliest appearances of the term is found in the early
Buddhist 'Theragatha' ('Verses of the Elders'). In ancient texts such
as the 'Shvetashvatara Upanishad', the term simply means
participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the
'Bhagavad Gita', it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality
and towards moksha, as in 'bhakti marga'.
Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in
India. The 'Bhagavata Purana', for example, is a Krishna-related text
associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism. Bhakti is also found
in other religions practiced in India, and it has influenced
interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era.
'Nirguni bhakti' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found
in Sikhism, as well as Hinduism. Outside India, emotional devotion is
found in some Southeast Asian and East Asian Buddhist traditions.
The term also refers to a movement, pioneered by the Tamil Alvars and
Nayanars, that developed around the gods Vishnu (Vaishnavism), Shiva
(Shaivism) and Devi (Shaktism) in the second half of the 1st
millennium CE.
Devotional elements similar to bhakti have been part of various world
religions throughout human history. Devotional practices are found in
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.
Terminology
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The Sanskrit word 'bhakti' is derived from the verb root 'bhaj-',
which means "to worship, have recourse to, betake onself to" or
'bhañj-,' which means "to break." The word also means "attachment,
devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to
something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".
The meaning of the term 'Bhakti' is analogous to but different from
Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual
devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love
and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both
emotion and intellection. Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti
should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed
engagement. She adds that, in the concept of 'bhakti' in Hinduism, the
engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion and
intellection, "emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal
freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful,
conscious approach". One who practices 'bhakti' is called a 'bhakta'.
The term bhakti, in Vedic Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning
of "mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to" such as in
human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend,
king-subject, parent-child. It may refer to devotion towards a
spiritual teacher (Guru) as 'guru-bhakti', or to a personal God, or
for spirituality without form (nirguna).
According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar Sanath Nanayakkara, there
is no single term in English that adequately translates or represents
the concept of 'bhakti' in Indian religions. Terms such as "devotion,
faith, devotional faith" represent certain aspects of 'bhakti', but it
means much more. The concept includes a sense of deep affection,
attachment, but not wish because "wish is selfish, affection is
unselfish". Some scholars, states Nanayakkara, associate it with
'saddha' (Sanskrit: 'Sraddha') which means "faith, trust or
confidence". However, 'bhakti' can connote an end in itself, or a path
to spiritual wisdom.
The term 'Bhakti' refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths
to moksha (spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism, and
it is referred to as 'bhakti marga' or 'bhakti yoga'. The other paths
are 'Jnana marga' (path of knowledge), 'Karma marga' (path of works),
'Rāja marga' (path of contemplation and meditation).
The term 'bhakti' has been usually translated as "devotion" in
Orientalist literature. The colonial era authors variously described
'Bhakti' as a form of mysticism or "primitive" religious devotion of
lay people with monotheistic parallels. However, modern scholars state
"devotion" is a misleading and incomplete translation of 'bhakti'.
Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most
now trace the term 'bhakti' as one of the several spiritual
perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and
Hindu way of life. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic
devotion to a God or to religion, but participation in a path that
includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality. It involves, among
other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing God, participating
in God, and internalizing God. Increasingly, instead of "devotion",
the term "participation" is appearing in scholarly literature as a
gloss for the term 'bhakti'.
'Bhakti' is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism. They both share
numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but 'bhakti' of 'nirguni'
(devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in
Sikhism. In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both 'saguni' and
'nirguni' bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or
alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the
choice of a Hindu.
Bhakti in the Teachings of Jagadgurus
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Several Jagadgurus placed a strong emphasis on Bhakti as the path to
spiritual realisation.
*Jagadguru Nimbarkacharya emphasized devotion to Radha and Krishna,
introducing Dvaitadvait Vad (dualistic non-dualism), which balanced
divine oneness and personal devotion.
*Jagadguru Ramanujacharya taught Prapatti (complete surrender) and
presented Vishishtadvait Vad (qualified non-dualism), combining reason
and devotion.
*Jagadguru Madhvacharya, through his Dvait Vad (dualism), reinforced
the idea that grace of a personal God was essential for liberation.
*Jagadguru Madhvacharya’s teachings directly influenced Saint
Purandara Dasa, a key figure in the Bhakti movement, linking his
philosophy to the broader devotional wave that swept through India.
*Jagadguru Kripalu Ji Maharaj gave a new dimension to Bhakti practice
in modern times with the method of Roopdhyan meditation, which
involves meditating upon the divine forms and qualities of
Radha-Krishna, stating that true worship stems from mental surrender
and heartfelt love rather than external rituals.
*Bhakti has been a unifying spiritual approach through different
Jagadguru philosophies, ultimately rejuvenating Sanātana Dharma in
various ages.
The Upanishads
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The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad
(6.23), dated to be from 1st millennium BCE, uses the word 'Bhakti' as
follows:
This verse is one of the earliest use of the word 'Bhakti' in ancient
Indian literature, and has been translated as "the love of God".
Scholars have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later
insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and
"Deva" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern
era. Max Muller states that the word 'Bhakti' appears only once in
this Upanishad, that too in one last verse of the epilogue, could have
been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later
used in much later 'Sandilya Sutras'. Grierson as well as Carus note
that the first epilogue verse 6.21 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is
also notable for its use of the word 'Deva Prasada' (देवप्रसाद, grace
or gift of God), but add that 'Deva' in the epilogue of the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the
closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or
grace of his Soul".
Post-Vedic movement
=====================
Scholarly consensus sees 'bhakti' as a post-Vedic movement that
developed primarily during the Hindu Epics and Puranas era of Indian
history (late first mill. BCE-early first mill. CE).
The 'Bhagavad Gita' is the first text to explicitly use the word
"bhakti" to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of
three possible religious approaches or yogas (i.e. bhakti yoga).
The 'Bhagavata Purana' (which focuses on Krishna bhakti) develops the
idea more elaborately, while the 'Shvetashvatara Upanishad' presents
evidence of 'guru-bhakti' (devotion to one's spiritual teacher).
Bhakti movement
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The 'Bhakti Movement' was a rapid growth of bhakti, first starting in
the later part of 1st millennium CE, from Tamil Nadu in southern India
with the Shaiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alvars. Their ideas and
practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over
the 12th-18th century CE. The Alvars ("those immersed in God") were
Vaishnava poet-saints who wandered from temple to temple, singing the
praises of Vishnu. They hailed the divine abodes of Vishnu and
converted many people to Vaishnavism.
Like the Alvars, the Shaiva Nayanar poets were influential. The
'Tirumurai', a compilation of hymns by sixty-three Nayanar poets, is
still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most
prominent poets, Appar (7th century CE), Campantar (7th century) and
Sundarar (9th century), were compiled into the 'Tevaram', the first
volumes of the 'Tirumurai'. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped
create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva. Early
Tamil-Shiva bhakti poets quoted the Krishna Yajurveda. The Alvars and
Nayanars were instrumental in propagating the Bhakti tradition. The
Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along
with its emphasis on 'bhakti', have led many scholars to give it South
Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence
excludes the possibility that 'bhakti' movement had parallel
developments in other parts of India.
Scholars state that the 'bhakti' movement focused on Vishnu, Shiva,
Shakti and other deities, that developed and spread in India, was in
response to the arrival of Islam in India about 8th century CE, and
subsequent religious violence. This view is contested by other
scholars.
The Bhakti movement swept over east and north India from the
fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and
17th century CE. According to Patton Burchett, the four key features
of this early modern bhakti movement in north India were: First and
foremost, these communities were united by a distinctive focus on
personal devotion to the Divine, as opposed to other traditional
pillars of Indic religiosity such as knowledge, ritual, or the
practice of yoga or asceticism. This devotion took place in the
context of an intimate, loving relationship with the Divine in which
caste, class, or gender typically were said to have no place. This was
a bhakti that found its most characteristic expression in (a) the
context of spiritual fellowship (satsaṅg) with other devotees
(bhaktas), (b) the medium of song, (c) the idiom of passionate love
(śṛṅgāra/mādhurya) or painful separation (viraha), and (d) the
remembrance--in meditation, recitation, chant, and song--of the
name(s) of God. Second, these new devotional communities of Mughal
India were alike in their production and performance of devotional
works, composed in vernacular languages, remembering the deeds of God
(especially Kṛṣṇa and Rām) and exemplary bhaktas. Third, important in
all these communities was the performance and collection of songs
attributed to renowned bhakti poet-saints like Kabīr, Raidās, and
Sūrdās. Finally, despite their many differences, the vast majority of
bhakti authors and sectarian communities in early modern North India
came together in articulating a devotional sensibility distinct
from--and often explicitly positioned in opposition to--certain
tantric paradigms of religiosity.Burchett, Patton (2019)
'Genealogy of Devotion - Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga, and Sufism in North
India', pp. 2-3. Columbia University Press. Bhakti poetry and ideas
influenced many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and
became an integral part of Indian society. It extended its influence
to Sufism, Christianity, and Jainism. Sikhism was founded by Guru
Nanak in the 15th century, during the bhakti movement period, and
scholars have identified it as drawing from many Bhakti traditions and
ideas.
Saints such as Mirabai, Soordas, Narsinh Mehta composed several
bhajans that were a path towards Bhakti for many, that are universally
sung even today. A modern age saint, Shri Devendra Ghia (Kaka) has
composed about 10,000 hymns. These hymns are related to bhakti,
knowledge, devotion, faith, introspection and honesty.
The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential
social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused
alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth caste or
gender. Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether
the Bhakti movement were ever a social reform or rebellion of any
kind. They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and
recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.
Bhakti Yoga
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The 'Bhagavad Gita' introduces bhakti yoga in combination with 'karma
yoga' and 'jnana yoga', while the 'Bhagavata Purana' expands on bhakti
yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi. Bhakti in
the 'Bhagavad Gita' offered an alternative to two dominant practices
of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the
practice of religious ritual. 'Bhakti Yoga' is described by Swami
Vivekananda as "the path of systematized devotion for the attainment
of union with the Absolute". In various chapters, including the
twelfth chapter of the 'Bhagavad Gita', Krishna describes 'bhakti
yoga' as one of the paths to the highest spiritual attainments. In the
sixth chapter, for example, the Gita states the following about bhakti
yogi:
The 'Shandilya Bhakti Sutra' and 'Narada Bhakti Sutra' define
devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its
forms.
According to Ramana Maharishi, bhakti is a "surrender to the divine
with one's heart". It can be practiced as an adjunct to self-inquiry,
and in one of four ways:
# Atma-Bhakti: devotion to one's 'atma' (Supreme Self)
# Ishvara-Bhakti: devotion to a formless being (God, Cosmic Lord)
# Ishta Devata-Bhakti: devotion to a personal God or goddess
# Guru-Bhakti: devotion to Guru
Nine forms of Bhakti
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The 'Bhagavata Purana' (verse 7.5.23) teaches nine forms of bhakti:
The 'Bhagavata Purana' describes many examples of bhakti, such as
those exhibited by Prahlada and the gopis. The behavior of the gopis
in the 'Bhagavata Purana' exemplifies the essence of bhakti. When
separated from Krishna, the gopis practiced devotion by listening to
his stories ('śravaṇa'), praising his glorious deeds ('kīrtana'), and
other acts to keep him in their thoughts.
Bhavas
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Traditional Hinduism speaks of five different 'bhāvas' or "affective
essences". In this sense, 'bhāvas' are different attitudes that a
devotee takes according to his individual temperament to express his
devotion towards God in some form. The different 'bhāvas' are:
# 'śānta', placid love for God;
# 'dāsya', the attitude of a servant;
# 'sakhya', the attitude of a friend;
# 'vātsalya', the attitude of a mother towards her child;
# 'madhurya', the attitude of a woman towards her lover.
Several saints are known to have practiced these 'bhavas'. The
nineteenth century mystic, Ramakrishna is said to have practiced these
five 'bhavas'. The devotion of Hanuman towards Rama is considered to
be of 'dasya bhava'. The relationship of Arjuna and the cowherd boys
of Vrindavan with Krishna is regarded as 'sakhya bhava'. Radha's love
towards Krishna is 'madhurya bhava'. The affection of Krishna's
foster-mother Yashoda towards him exemplifies 'vatsalya bhava'. The
'Chaitanya Charitamrita' mentions that Chaitanya came to distribute
the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya,
and sringara. Sringara is the relationship of the intimate love.
Murti
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In 'bhakti' worship, rituals are primarily directed towards physical
images. The terms "murti" and "'vigraham'" are commonly used in
Hinduism to describe these images. A 'murti' denotes an object with a
distinct form that symbolizes the shape or manifestation of a
particular deity, either a god or goddess. A ritual called
'pranapratishta' is performed before worshipping a murti, establishing
'prana' (life force) into the image and inviting the god or goddess to
reside in the murti.
Buddhism
==========
Bhakti ('bhatti' in Pali) has always been a common aspect of Buddhism,
where offerings, prostrations, chants, and individual or group prayers
are made to the Buddha and 'bodhisattvas', or to other Buddhist
deities. According to Karel Werner Buddhist bhakti "had its beginnings
in the earliest days". Perhaps the earliest mention of the term bhatti
in all Indic literature appears in the early Buddhist 'Theragatha'
('Verses of the Elders'). As such, Har Dayal writes that, bhakti "was
an integral part of the Buddhist ideal from the earliest times". John
S. Strong writes that the central meaning of Indian Buddhist bhakti
was "recollection of the Buddha" (Sanskrit: buddhanusmrti).
One of the earliest form of Buddhist devotional practice was the early
Buddhist tradition of worshiping the Buddha through the means of
stupas and bodily relics (sarira). Later (after about the third
century CE), devotion using Buddha images also became a very popular
form of Buddha bhakti.
Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna notes that the meaning of
'bhatti' changed throughout Buddhist history. In early Buddhist
sources like the 'Theragāthā', 'bhatti' had the meaning of 'faithful
adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', and was accompanied with
knowledge. Later on, however, the term developed the meaning of an
advanced form of emotional devotion. This sense of devotion was thus
different than the early Buddhist view of faith.
According to Sanath Nanayakkara, early Buddhist refuge and devotion,
meant taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later
sense of self-surrender. But already in the Commentary to the
Abhidhamma text 'Puggalapaññatti', it is mentioned that the Buddhist
devotee should develop his 'saddhā' until it becomes 'bhaddi', a sense
not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu
idea of 'bhakti'. There are instances where commentator Buddhaghosa
mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration,
indicating a historical shift in meaning. Similar developments in
Buddhist devotion took place with regards to worshipping the Buddha's
relics and Buddha images.
The Mahāsāṃghika school of early Buddhism seems to have promoted
devotional practice and bhakti to a high status and to have anchored
this practice in the purity and radiance of the Buddha. The
'Mahāvastu', one of the few surviving Mahāsāṃghika texts, states: The
purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One
is sufficient for the attainment of Nirvāna, and that one already
acquires endless merit by merely walking round a stupa and worshipping
it by means of floral offerings...from the Buddha’s smile, there
radiate beams which illuminate the entire buddhafields.
In later faith-oriented literature, such as the 'Avadānas,' faith is
given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith
('śraddhā') is discussed in different contexts than devotion
('bhakti'). 'Bhakti' is often used disparagingly to describe acts of
worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a
Buddhist. Also, 'bhakti' is clearly connected with a person as an
object, whereas 'śraddhā' is less connected with a person, and is more
connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such
as the working of karma and merit transfer. One source for Indian
Buddhist devotion is the 'Divyāvadāna', which focuses on the vast
amount of merit (') that is generated by making offerings to Buddhas,
stupas and other Buddhist holy sites.
This text contrasts faith in the Buddha with bhakti for mundane
deities (such as Hindu gods), and in this case, it sees bhakti as
something for those who are less developed spiritually. However, in
other passages, the term is used positively, and in one story, the
sage Upagupta says to the demon Mara: Even a very small bit of bhakti
[toward the Buddha] offers nirvana to the wise as a result. In short,
the wicked things that you [Māra] did here to the Sage, when your mind
was blind with delusion, all of these have been washed away by the
copious waters of śraddhā that have entered your heart.
- 'Divyāvadāna' 360.1-4 ['Aśokāvadana' 22.7-9] In the 11th century,
the Bengali Buddhist scholar Rāmancandra Kavibhārati composed a work
on Buddhist bhakti called the 'Bhakti Śataka.'
Today, affective devotion remains an important part of Buddhist
practice, even in Theravada Buddhism. According to Winston King, a
scholar on Theravāda in Myanmar, "warm, personalized, emotional"
'bhakti' has been a part of the Burmese Buddhist tradition apart from
the monastic and lay intellectuals. The Buddha is treasured by the
everyday devout Buddhists, just like Catholics treasure Jesus. The
orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to
the devout Buddhist populace, "a very deeply devotional quality" was
and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states
King, in "multitudes of Pagoda worshippers of the Buddha images" and
the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else.
In Mahayana Buddhism
======================
A rich devotionalism developed in Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism and it can
be found in the veneration of the transcendent Buddha Amitabha of Pure
Land Buddhism and of bodhisattvas like Mañjusri, Avalokiteshvara
(known as Guanyin in East Asia and Chenrezig in Tibetan) and the
goddess Tara. Mahayana sources like the 'Lotus Sutra' describe the
Buddha as the loving father of all beings, and exhorts all Buddhists
to worship him.
Mahayana bhakti also led to the rise of temples which were focused on
housing a central Buddha image, something which became the norm during
the Gupta period. Gupta era Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism stressed bhakti
towards the Buddha as a central virtue and liberally made use of
Buddha images, which are often accompanied by attendant bodhisattvas.
These new developments in Buddhist bhakti may have been influenced by
the pan-Indian bhakti movement, and indeed, many Gupta monarchs, who
were devoted to the Vaishnava Bhagavata religion also supported
Buddhist temples and founded monasteries (including great ones like
Nalanda). Buddhists were in competition with the Hindu religions of
the time, like the Bhagavatas and Shaivas, and they developed Buddhist
bhakti focused on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas in this religious
environment.
Mahāyāna interprets Buddhahood as a transcendent and eternal state (as
found in the 'Lotus Suta') and is also equated with the ultimate
reality (Dharmakaya). Bodhisattvas were also considered to be
extremely powerful divinities that could grant boons and rescue people
from danger. This shift towards devotion to a transcendent being in
later Buddhism has been seen as being similar to theistic forms of
Hindu bhakti. Mahayana Buddhist bhakti was also sometimes aimed at a
Mahayana sutra, such as the 'Prajñaparamita sutra' and the 'Lotus
Sutra'.
Some sources, like the 'Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra', even state that through
devotion to the Buddha Amitabha one can attain rebirth in his Pure
Land and here one can be purified of all negative karma and eventually
attain Buddhahood. As such, they make Buddha bhakti a central element
of their soteriology. Bhakti in these sutras supersedes the making of
good karma and cultivation of the path in favor of devotion to the
Buddha Amitabha who can lead one to liberation in the Pure Land. This
eventually came to be seen as its own path to liberation, its own
'mārga', often called the "easy path". A text attributed to Nagarjuna,
the *'Dasabhumikavibhāsā' (Chinese: 'Shí zhù pípóshā lùn' 十住毘婆沙論,
T.1521) teaches the "easy practice" which is simply being constantly
mindful of the Buddhas.
All of these ideas became the foundation for the later development of
East Asian Pure Land Buddhism.
Mahayana Buddhist bhakti is grounded in the Mahayana ideals of the
bodhisattva, bodhicitta (the mind aimed at awakening for the benefit
of all beings) and skillful means (upaya). Mahayana bhakti practices
include various forms of ritual pujas and prayers. The Mahayana form
of the practice of Buddhānusmṛti (remembering the Buddha) could
include visualization practices and recitation of the names of a
Buddha or bodhisattva (as in 'nianfo') was also a common method of
devotional practice taught in numerous Indian sources.
One common puja and prayer format in Indian Mahayana was the "seven
part worship" ('saptāṇgapūjā' or 'saptavidhā anuttarapūjā'). This
often included various offerings of flowers, food, scents, and music.
This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century)
and includes:
* 'Vandana' (obeisance, bowing)
* 'Puja' (ritual worship with offerings etc.)
* 'Sarana-gamana' (going for refuge)
* 'Papadesana' (confession of bad deeds)
* 'Punyanumodana' (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and
others)
* 'Adhyesana' (prayer, entreaty) and 'yacana' (supplication) - request
to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
* 'Atmabhavadi-parityagah' (surrender) and 'pariṇāmanā' (the transfer
of one's Merit to the welfare of others)
Devotion to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas continued to be a major part
of the later Vajrayana Buddhist traditions of tantra. Vajrayana
Buddhism also added another form of bhakti to their teachings: guru
bhakti (i.e. guru yoga), devotion towards the tantric guru. In India,
various forms of devotion were practiced, including tantric songs of
realization called 'Charyagitis.' These first arose in the so called
called 'Charyapadas' of medieval Bengali Sahajiya Buddhism'.'
As such, both in Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism, there
remains a strong tradition of devotional veneration of various Buddhas
and bodhisattvas (which includes making offerings and chanting their
names or mantras), and this is one of the most popular forms of lay
Buddhist practice.
Jainism
=========
Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects,
wherein learned Tirthankara ('Jina') and human 'gurus' have been
venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers.
Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a
rich tradition of bhakti literature ('stavan') though these have been
less studied than those of the Hindu tradition. The 'Avasyaka sutra'
of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the
recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second
Obligatory Action. It explains this 'bhakti' as one of the means to
destroy negative karma. According to Paul Dundas, such textual
references to devotional activity suggests that 'bhakti' was a
necessary part of Jainism from an early period.
According to Jeffery D. Long, along with its strong focus on ethics
and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong
tradition of 'bhakti' or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts.
The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion
for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. 'Abhisekha', festival
prayers, community recitals and 'Murti puja' (rituals before an image)
are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks,
however, reject Bhakti.
See also
======================================================================
*Bhajan
*Kirtan
*Buddhist chant
*Buddhist devotion
*Awgatha - Burmese Buddhist Devotion
*Novena - a form of devotion to Blessed Mary, Christ or a saint in
Christianity over nine successive days or weeks
*Kavanah - intention, devotion during prayer in Judaism
*Mettā
*Ravidassia religion
*Shaiva Siddhanta
*Bhakti movement
Further reading
======================================================================
*Swami Chinmayananda, Love Divine - Narada Bhakti Sutra, Chinmaya
Publications Trust, Madras, 1970
*Swami Tapasyananda, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta, Sri Ramakrishna Math,
Madras, 1990
*A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Srimad Bhagavatam (12 Cantos),
The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2004
*Steven J. Rosen, 'The Yoga of Kirtan: conversations on the Sacred Art
of Chanting' (New York: FOLK Books, 2008)
({{NoMoreLinks}})
===================
*[
http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson1/lesson1.php?s=0 Bhakti
Poets: A History of Bhakti by Doris Jakobsh]
*[
https://web.archive.org/web/20060206062735/http://srimadbhagavatam.com/en1
The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)]
*[
http://www.sankaracharya.org/narada_bhakti_sutras.php English
Translation of Narada Bhakti Sutra]
*[
http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ijt/29-1_012.pdf Hindu and
Christian Bhakti: A Common Human Response to the Sacred], DC Scott
(1980), Indian Journal of Theology, 29(1), pages12-32
*[
https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2056168 Author and authority in the
Bhakti poetry of north India], JS Hawley (1988), The Journal of Asian
Studies, 47(02), pages 269-290.
*[
http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/74/3/646.short The politics
of nonduality: Reassessing the work of transcendence in modern Sikh
theology] (Nirguni Bhakti), A Mandair (2006), Journal of the American
Academy of Religion, 74(3), pages 646-673.
*[
http://soar.wichita.edu/bitstream/handle/10057/1733/LAJ+8.2_p102-115.pdf?sequence=1
Bhakti, Buddhism and the Bhagavad-Gita] Rob Reed (1977), Wichita,
United States
*
*[
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062410 The Transforming Gift: An
Analysis of Devotional Acts of Offering in Buddhist "Avadāna"
Literature], John Strong (1979), History of Religions, 18(3) (Feb.,
1979), pages 221-237.
License
=========
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti
