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= Arthur_Eddington =
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Introduction
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Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, (28 December 1882 - 22 November 1944)
was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician. He was also a
philosopher of science and a populariser of science. The Eddington
limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation
generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.
Around 1920, he foreshadowed the discovery and mechanism of nuclear
fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of
the Stars". At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete
mystery; Eddington was the first to correctly speculate that the
source was fusion of hydrogen into helium.
Eddington wrote a number of articles that announced and explained
Einstein's theory of general relativity to the English-speaking world.
World War I had severed many lines of scientific communication, and
new developments in German science were not well known in England. He
also conducted an expedition to observe the solar eclipse of 29 May
1919 on the Island of Príncipe that provided one of the earliest
confirmations of general relativity, and he became known for his
popular expositions and interpretations of the theory.
Early years
======================================================================
Eddington was born 28 December 1882 in Kendal, Westmorland (now
Cumbria), England, the son of Quaker parents, Arthur Henry Eddington,
headmaster of the Quaker School, and Sarah Ann Shout.
His father taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before
moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died
in the typhoid epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother was
left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The
family moved to Weston-super-Mare where at first Stanley (as his
mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before
spending three years at a preparatory school. The family lived in a
house called Varzin, at 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare. A
commemorative plaque on the building explains Eddington's
contributions to science.
In 1893 Eddington entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most
capable scholar, particularly in mathematics and English literature.
His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester
(what was later to become the University of Manchester), in 1898,
which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the
first year in a general course, but he turned to physics for the next
three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and
mathematics teachers, Arthur Schuster and Horace Lamb. At Manchester,
Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting
influence of the Quaker mathematician J. W. Graham. His progress was
rapid, winning him several scholarships, and he graduated with a BSc
in physics with First Class Honours in 1902.
Based on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a
scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1902. His tutor at
Cambridge was Robert Alfred Herman and in 1904 Eddington became the
first ever second-year student to be placed as Senior Wrangler. After
receiving his M.A. in 1905, he began research on thermionic emission
in the Cavendish Laboratory. This did not go well, and meanwhile he
spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students.
This hiatus was brief. Through a recommendation by E. T. Whittaker,
his senior colleague at Trinity College, he secured a position at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where he was to embark on his career in
astronomy, a career whose seeds had been sown even as a young child
when he would often "try to count the stars".
Astronomy
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In January 1906, Eddington was nominated to the post of chief
assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.
He left Cambridge for Greenwich the following month. He was put to
work on a detailed analysis of the parallax of 433 Eros on
photographic plates that had started in 1900. He developed a new
statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background
stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907. The prize won him a
fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. In December 1912, George
Darwin, son of Charles Darwin, died suddenly, and Eddington was
promoted to his chair as the Plumian Professor of Astronomy and
Experimental Philosophy in early 1913. Later that year, Robert Ball,
holder of the theoretical Lowndean chair, also died, and Eddington was
named the director of the entire Cambridge Observatory the next year.
In May 1914, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society: he was
awarded the Royal Medal in 1928 and delivered the Bakerian Lecture in
1926.
Eddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and
developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began
this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for
Cepheid variable stars. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's
earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These
models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by
internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was
to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of
the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm
foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the
stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of
temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star
(thermodynamic anisotropy), and Eddington argued that his theory was
so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be
retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James
Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would
certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration
between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates.
Eddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his
results, particularly his important mass-luminosity relation. This had
the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including
giants and dwarfs, behaved as ideal gases. In the process of
developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking
about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the
Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, which was based on classical mechanics,
while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and
quantitative consequences of possible proton-electron annihilation and
nuclear fusion processes.
Around 1920, he anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear
fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of
the Stars". At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete
mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of
hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to
Einstein's equation . This was a particularly remarkable development
since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even the fact
that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not
yet been discovered. Eddington's paper, based on knowledge at the
time, reasoned that:
# The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis
(cf. the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism), should cause stars' rotation to
visibly speed up due to conservation of angular momentum. But
observations of Cepheid variable stars showed this was not happening.
# The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of
matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small
amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy.
# Francis Aston had also recently shown that the mass of a helium atom
was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which
would, combined, form a helium atom, suggesting that if such a
combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a
byproduct.
# If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to
explain how stars got their energy. (We now know that most "ordinary"
stars contain far more than 5% hydrogen.)
# Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had
speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements
combined to create heavy elements, but without more-accurate
measurements of their atomic masses nothing more could be said at the
time.
All of these speculations were proven correct in the following
decades.
With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature
of stars must be millions of degrees. In 1924, he discovered the
mass-luminosity relation for stars (see Lecchini in '). Despite some
disagreement, Eddington's models were eventually accepted as a
powerful tool for further investigation, particularly in issues of
stellar evolution. The confirmation of his estimated stellar diameters
by Michelson in 1920 proved crucial in convincing astronomers unused
to Eddington's intuitive, exploratory style. Eddington's theory
appeared in mature form in 1926 as 'The Internal Constitution of the
Stars', which became an important text for training an entire
generation of astrophysicists.
Eddington's work in astrophysics in the late 1920s and the 1930s
continued his work in stellar structure, and precipitated further
clashes with Jeans and Edward Arthur Milne. An important topic was the
extension of his models to take advantage of developments in quantum
physics, including the use of degeneracy physics in describing dwarf
stars.
* Chandrasekhar limit
* Eddington luminosity (also called the Eddington limit)
* Gravitational lens
* Outline of astronomy
* Stellar nucleosynthesis
* Timeline of stellar astronomy
* List of astronomers
Dispute with Chandrasekhar on the mass limit of stars
=======================================================
The topic of extension of his models precipitated his dispute with
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was then a student at Cambridge.
Chandrasekhar's work presaged the discovery of black holes, which at
the time seemed so absurdly non-physical that Eddington refused to
believe that Chandrasekhar's purely mathematical derivation had
consequences for the real world. Eddington was wrong and his
motivation is controversial. Chandrasekhar's narrative of this
incident, in which his work is harshly rejected, portrays Eddington as
rather cruel and dogmatic.
However, Chandra did benefit from his association with Eddington. It
was Eddington and Milne who put up Chandra's name for the fellowship
for the Royal Society which Chandra obtained. An FRS meant he was at
the Cambridge high-table with all the luminaries and a very
comfortable endowment for research. Eddington's criticism seems to
have been based partly on a suspicion that a purely mathematical
derivation from relativity theory was not enough to explain the
seemingly daunting physical paradoxes that were inherent to degenerate
stars, but to have "raised irrelevant objections" in addition, as
Thanu Padmanabhan puts it.
Relativity
======================================================================
During World War I, Eddington was secretary of the Royal Astronomical
Society, which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters
and papers from Willem de Sitter regarding Einstein's theory of
general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of
the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general
relativity, but owing to his internationalist and pacifist views
inspired by his Quaker religious beliefs, one of the few at the time
who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German
physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of
relativity in Britain. He and Astronomer Royal Frank Watson Dyson
organized two expeditions to observe a solar eclipse in 1919 to make
the first empirical test of Einstein's theory: the measurement of the
deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field. In fact, Dyson's
argument for the indispensability of Eddington's expertise in this
test was what prevented Eddington from eventually having to enter
military service.
When conscription was introduced in Britain on 2 March 1916, Eddington
intended to apply for an exemption as a conscientious objector.
Cambridge University authorities instead requested and were granted an
exemption on the ground of Eddington's work being of national
interest. In 1918, this was appealed against by the Ministry of
National Service. Before the appeal tribunal in June, Eddington
claimed conscientious objector status, which was not recognized and
would have ended his exemption in August 1918. A further two hearings
took place in June and July, respectively. Eddington's personal
statement at the June hearing about his objection to war based on
religious grounds is on record. The Astronomer Royal, Sir Frank Dyson,
supported Eddington at the July hearing with a written statement,
emphasising Eddington's essential role in the solar eclipse expedition
to Príncipe in May 1919. Eddington made clear his willingness to serve
in the Friends' Ambulance Unit, under the jurisdiction of the British
Red Cross, or as a harvest labourer. However, the tribunal's decision
to grant a further twelve months' exemption from military service was
on condition of Eddington continuing his astronomy work, in particular
in preparation for the Príncipe expedition. The war ended before the
end of his exemption.
After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off the
west coast of Africa to watch the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. During
the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars (several stars in the
Hyades cluster, including Kappa Tauri of the constellation Taurus)
whose line of sight from the Earth happened to be near the Sun's
location in the sky at that time of year. This effect is noticeable
only during a total solar eclipse when the sky is dark enough to see
stars which are normally obscured by the Sun's brightness. According
to the theory of general relativity, stars with light rays that passed
near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their
light had been curved by its gravitational field. Eddington showed
that Newtonian gravitation could be interpreted to predict half the
shift predicted by Einstein.
Eddington's observations published the next year allegedly confirmed
Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as evidence of general
relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in
newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington
embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as
landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific
relations.
It has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor
quality, and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at
Sobral, Brazil, which appeared closer to the Newtonian model, but a
1979 re-analysis with modern measuring equipment and contemporary
software validated Eddington's results and conclusions. The quality of
the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but
was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of
the results from the expedition to Brazil was due to a defect in the
telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well
understood by contemporary astronomers.
Throughout this period, Eddington lectured on relativity, and was
particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay
terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the
'Mathematical Theory of Relativity' in 1923, which Albert Einstein
suggested was "the finest presentation of the subject in any
language." He was an early advocate of Einstein's general relativity,
and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humour and personal
intellectual investment: Ludwik Silberstein, a physicist who thought
of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the
Royal Society's (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended
Einstein's relativity with his Brazil-Príncipe solar eclipse
calculations with some degree of scepticism, and ruefully charged
Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually
understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself
and Einstein as the other). When Eddington refrained from replying, he
insisted Arthur not be "so shy", whereupon Eddington replied, "Oh, no!
I was wondering who the third one might be!"
Cosmology
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Eddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first
generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been
investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned
of both Lemaître's 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting
universe and Hubble's work on the recession of the spiral nebulae. He
felt the cosmological constant must have played the crucial role in
the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its
current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations
focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. In 'The
Mathematical Theory of Relativity,' Eddington interpreted the
cosmological constant to mean that the universe is "self-gauging".
Fundamental theory and the Eddington number
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During the 1920s until his death, Eddington increasingly concentrated
on what he called "fundamental theory" which was intended to be a
unification of quantum theory, relativity, cosmology, and gravitation.
At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned
increasingly to an almost numerological analysis of the dimensionless
ratios of fundamental constants.
His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in
order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would
result in numbers close to 1040, its square, or its square root. He
was convinced that the mass of the proton and the charge of the
electron were a "natural and complete specification for constructing a
Universe" and that their values were not accidental. One of the
discoverers of quantum mechanics, Paul Dirac, also pursued this line
of investigation, which has become known as the Dirac large numbers
hypothesis.
A somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts
involved the fine-structure constant, 'α'. At the time it was measured
to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact
be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements
placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his
line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the
degrees of freedom, so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137,
the Eddington number. Some critics at the time started calling him
"Arthur Adding-one". This change of stance detracted from Eddington's
credibility in the physics community. As of 2022 the CODATA value was
stated to be 1/
Eddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for
fundamental physics, which he termed "E-numbers" (representing a
certain group - a Clifford algebra). These in effect incorporated
spacetime into a higher-dimensional structure. While his theory has
long been neglected by the general physics community, similar
algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a Grand Unified
Theory. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the
fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers
derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. In
particular, he predicted a number of hydrogen atoms in the Universe ≈
, or equivalently the half of the total number of particles protons +
electrons. He did not complete this line of research before his death
in 1944; his book 'Fundamental Theory' was published posthumously in
1948.
Eddington number for cycling
==============================
Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist's
long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context
of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist
has cycled at least E miles on at least E days.
For example, an Eddington number of 70 would imply that the cyclist
has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on at least 70 occasions.
Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult, since moving from,
say, 70 to 75 will (probably) require more than five new long-distance
rides, since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be
included in the reckoning. Eddington's own life-time E-number was 84.
The Eddington number for cycling is analogous to the 'h'-index that
quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent
scientific impact of a scientist.
Idealism
==========
Eddington wrote in his book 'The Nature of the Physical World' that
"The stuff of the world is mind-stuff."
The idealist conclusion was not integral to his epistemology but was
based on two main arguments.
The first derives directly from current physical theory. Briefly,
mechanical theories of the ether and of the behaviour of fundamental
particles have been discarded in both relativity and quantum physics.
From this, Eddington inferred that a materialistic metaphysics was
outmoded and that, in consequence, since the disjunction of
materialism or idealism are assumed to be exhaustive, an idealistic
metaphysics is required. The second, and more interesting argument,
was based on Eddington's epistemology, and may be regarded as
consisting of two parts. First, all we know of the objective world is
its structure, and the structure of the objective world is precisely
mirrored in our own consciousness. We therefore have no reason to
doubt that the objective world too is "mind-stuff". Dualistic
metaphysics, then, cannot be evidentially supported.
But, second, not only can we not know that the objective world is
nonmentalistic, we also cannot intelligibly suppose that it could be
material. To conceive of a dualism entails attributing material
properties to the objective world. However, this presupposes that we
could observe that the objective world has material properties. But
this is absurd, for whatever is observed must ultimately be the
content of our own consciousness, and consequently, nonmaterial.
Eddington believed that physics cannot explain consciousness - "light
waves are propagated from the table to the eye; chemical changes occur
in the retina; propagation of some kind occurs in the optic nerves;
atomic changes follow in the brain. Just where the final leap into
consciousness occurs is not clear. We do not know the last stage of
the message in the physical world before it became a sensation in
consciousness".
Ian Barbour, in his book 'Issues in Science and Religion' (1966), p.
133, cites Eddington's 'The Nature of the Physical World' (1928) for a
text that argues the Heisenberg uncertainty principle provides a
scientific basis for "the defense of the idea of human freedom" and
his 'Science and the Unseen World' (1929) for support of philosophical
idealism, "the thesis that reality is basically mental".
Charles De Koninck points out that Eddington believed in objective
reality existing apart from our minds, but was using the phrase
"mind-stuff" to highlight the inherent intelligibility of the world:
that our minds and the physical world are made of the same "stuff" and
that our minds are the inescapable connection to the world. As De
Koninck quotes Eddington,
Science
=========
Against Albert Einstein and others who advocated determinism,
indeterminism--championed by Eddington--says that a physical object
has an ontologically undetermined component that is not due to the
epistemological limitations of physicists' understanding. The
uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, then, would not
necessarily be due to hidden variables but to an indeterminism in
nature itself. Eddington proclaimed "It is a consequence of the advent
of the quantum theory that physics is no longer pledged to a scheme of
deterministic law".
Eddington agreed with the tenet of logical positivism that "the
meaning of a scientific statement is to be ascertained by reference to
the steps which would be taken to verify it".
* Arrow of time
* Classical unified field theories
* Degenerate matter
* Dimensionless physical constant
* Dirac large numbers hypothesis (also called the Eddington-Dirac
number)
* Eddington number
* Introduction to quantum mechanics
* Luminiferous aether
* Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism
* Special relativity
* Theory of everything (also called "final theory" or "ultimate
theory")
* Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
* List of experiments
Popular and philosophical writings
======================================================================
Eddington wrote a parody of 'The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam', recounting
his 1919 solar eclipse experiment. It contained the following
quatrain:
In addition to his textbook 'The Mathematical Theory of Relativity',
during the 1920s and 30s, Eddington gave numerous lectures,
interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity, and later, quantum
mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including 'The
Nature of the Physical World' and 'New Pathways in Science'. His use
of literary allusions and humour helped make these difficult subjects
more accessible. One familiar image drawn by Eddington consisted of
his "two tables", which represent a paradox concerned with what really
exists: one table is the familiar and commonplace one, with properties
of extension, colour, and permanence, it is "substantial" in the sense
that it is constituted of "substance"; the other is his 'scientific'
one, nothing but myriad minute particles in empty space: the table
which "modern physics has by delicate test and remorseless logic
assured me . . . is the only one which is really there ... wherever
'there' may be." He began the lectures where he discussed this paradox
in 1927 with an allusion to these two tables: The second table is
mostly emptiness, with numerous electric charges moving around at
great speed, and this table is not "substantial" in any way. Eddington
portrays the two tables as a recent innovation: physicists "used to
borrow the raw material of [their] world from the familiar world", but
for the new concepts, such as the electron, quantum or potential,
there is no "familiar counterpart to these things" in "the world of
commonplace experience".
Eddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public,
not only because of his clear exposition, but also for his willingness
to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new
physics. He argued for a deeply rooted philosophical harmony between
scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the
positivist nature of relativity and quantum physics provided new room
for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other
spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide
proof of religious propositions.
His popular writings made him a household name in Great Britain
between the world wars.
Death
======================================================================
Eddington died of cancer in the Evelyn Nursing Home, Cambridge, on 22
November 1944. He was unmarried. His body was cremated at Cambridge
Crematorium (Cambridgeshire) on 27 November 1944; the cremated remains
were buried in the grave of his mother in the Ascension Parish Burial
Ground in Cambridge.
Cambridge University's North West Cambridge development has been named
Eddington in his honour.
Eddington was played by David Tennant in the television film 'Einstein
and Eddington', with Einstein played by Andy Serkis. The film was
notable for its groundbreaking portrayal of Eddington as a somewhat
repressed gay man. It was first broadcast in 2008.
The actor Paul Eddington was a relative, mentioning in his
autobiography (in light of his own weakness in mathematics) "what I
then felt to be the misfortune" of being related to "one of the
foremost physicists in the world". Paul's father Albert and Sir Arthur
were second cousins, both great-grandsons of William Eddington
(1755-1806).
Awards and honors
===================
* Smith's Prize (1907)
* International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences (1922)
* Bruce Medal of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924)
* Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences (1924)
* Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1924)
* International Member of the United States National Academy of
Sciences (1925)
* Foreign membership of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (1926)
* Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (French
Astronomical Society) (1928)
* Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1928)
* Knighthood (1930)
* International Member of the American Philosophical Society (1931)
* Order of Merit (1938)
* Honorary member of the Norwegian Astronomical Society (1939)
* Hon. Freeman of Kendal, 1930
Named after him
=================
* Lunar crater Eddington
* asteroid 2761 Eddington
* Royal Astronomical Society's Eddington Medal
* Eddington mission, now cancelled
* Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the University of Essex
* Eddington Astronomical Society, an amateur society based in his
hometown of Kendal
* Eddington, a house (group of students, used for in-school sports
matches) of Kirkbie Kendal School
* Eddington, a new suburb of North West Cambridge, opened in 2017
* Eddington Community Interest Company (CIC), 2003. A Community Centre
focusing on Climate Information and projects, including a Waste Food
Community Café and Larder, in partnership with SLACC (South Lakes
Action on Climate Change), converting the former United Reform Church
in Kendal
Service
=========
* Gave the Swarthmore Lecture in 1929
* Chairman of the National Peace Council 1941-1943
* President of the International Astronomical Union; of the Physical
Society, 1930-32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921-23
* Romanes Lecturer, 1922
* Gifford Lecturer, 1927
In popular culture
======================================================================
* Eddington is a central figure in the short story "The
Mathematician's Nightmare: The Vision of Professor Squarepunt" by
Bertrand Russell, a work featured in 'The Mathematical Magpie' (1962)
by Clifton Fadiman.
* He was portrayed by David Tennant in the television film 'Einstein
and Eddington', a co-production of the BBC and HBO, broadcast in the
United Kingdom on Saturday, 22 November 2008, on BBC2.
* His thoughts on humour and religious experience were quoted in the
adventure game 'The Witness', a production of the Thelka, Inc.,
released on 26 January 2016.
* 'Time' placed him on the cover on 16 April 1934.
* The song “In Transit”, from the 2023 album 'Signs Of Life' by Neil
Gaiman and Fourplay String Quartet was written in memory of him.
Publications
======================================================================
* 1914. 'Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe'. London:
Macmillan.
* 1918. '[
https://archive.org/details/reportontherelat028829mbp Report
on the relativity theory of gravitation]'. London, Fleetway Press,
Ltd.
* 1920. 'Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General
Relativity Theory'. Cambridge University Press.
* 1922. 'The theory of relativity and its influence on scientific
thought'
* 1923. 1952. The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge
University Press.
* 1925. 'The Domain of Physical Science'. 2005 reprint:
* 1926.
'[
http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html
Stars and Atoms]'. Oxford: British Association.
* 1926. 'The Internal Constitution of Stars'. Cambridge University
Press.
* 1928. 'The Nature of the Physical World'. MacMillan. 1935 replica
edition: , University of Michigan 1981 edition: (1926-27 Gifford
lectures)
* 1929.
'[
https://archive.org/stream/scienceunseenwor00eddi#page/n5/mode/2up
Science and the Unseen World]'. US Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin.
1980 Reprint Arden Library . 2004 US reprint - Whitefish, Montana :
Kessinger Publications: . 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin
(Swarthmore Lecture), with a new foreword by George Ellis.
* 1930. 'Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist
Sees It'. [
https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDjjY8CW4QMC
Arrow/scrollable preview.]
* 1933. 'The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate',
1900-1931'. Cambridge University Press.
* 1935. 'New Pathways in Science'. Cambridge University Press.
* 1936. 'Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons'. Cambridge Univ.
Press.
* 1939. 'Philosophy of Physical Science'. Cambridge University Press.
(1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge)
* 1946. 'Fundamental Theory'. Cambridge University Press.
People
========
* List of science and religion scholars
Other
=======
* Infinite monkey theorem
* Numerology
* Ontic structural realism
Further reading
======================================================================
* Durham, Ian T., "Eddington & Uncertainty". Physics in
Perspective (September - December). Arxiv, 'History of Physics'
*
* Lecchini, Stefano, "How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the
Mass-Luminosity Relation" 'Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy
of Science', pp. 224. (2007)
*
* Stanley, Matthew. "An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919
Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer." 'Isis' 94
(2003): 57-89.
* Stanley, Matthew. "So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington,
and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology" in 'British Journal for
the History of Science', 2007, 40: 53-82.
*
*
External links
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*
[
http://www.trinitycollegechapel.com/about/memorials/brasses/eddington/
Trinity College Chapel]
*
[
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html
Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944)] . University of St Andrews,
Scotland.
* [
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html
Quotations by Arthur Eddington]
* [
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur
Stanley Eddington] The Bruce Medalists.
* Russell, Henry Norris,
"'[
http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R
Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington'".
Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928).
*
[
https://web.archive.org/web/20070928092625/http://www.cosmobrain.com.br/cosmoforum/viewtopic.php?t=118
Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space] project in
proceeding in fórum astronomical.
*
*
[
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Eddington/index.html
Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley
Eddington]
* [
http://www.allais.wiki/priorartdocs/eddington.htm Eddington books:
'The Nature of the Physical World', 'The Philosophy of Physical
Science', 'Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons', and
'Fundamental Theory']
Obituaries
============
* [
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html
Obituary 1] by Henry Norris Russell, 'Astrophysical Journal' 101
(1943-46) 133
* [
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html
Obituary 2] by A. Vibert Douglas, 'Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada,' 39 (1943-46) 1
* [
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html
Obituary 3] by Harold Spencer Jones and E. T. Whittaker, 'Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society' 105 (1943-46) 68
* [
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html
Obituary 4] by Herbert Dingle, 'The Observatory' 66 (1943-46) 1
* 'The Times', Thursday, 23 November 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D:
Obituary (unsigned) - Image of cutting available at
License
=========
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Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Eddington
