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= Acoma_Pueblo =
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Introduction
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Acoma Pueblo ( , ) is a Native American pueblo approximately 60 mi
west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the United States.
Four communities make up the village of Acoma Pueblo: Sky City (Old
Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys. These communities are located
near the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area, which includes
several large cities and towns, including neighboring Laguna Pueblo.
The Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity, whose
historic land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly 5000000 acres. Today,
much of the Acoma community is primarily within the Acoma Indian
Reservation. Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark.
According to the 2010 United States Census, 4,989 people identified as
Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for over 2,000
years, making this one of the oldest continuously inhabited
communities in the United States (along with Taos and Hopi pueblos).
Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village
for more than two thousand years.
Names
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The English name 'Acoma' was borrowed from Spanish (1583) or (1598).
The Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word meaning 'person
from Acoma Pueblo'. itself is derived from (singular; plural: ). The
name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some
tribal authorities connect it to the similar word , 'preparedness,
place of preparedness', and suggest that this might be the origin of
the name. The name does not mean 'sky city'. Other tribal elders
assert that it means 'place that always was', while outsiders say it
means 'people of the white rock'.
'Acoma' has been spelled in various other ways in historical
documents, including 'ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus,
Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo,
Ako,' and 'A’ku-me.' The Spanish mission name was .
is the Spanish word for 'village' or 'small town' and 'people'. In
general usage, it is applied both to the people and to the unique
architecture of the southwestern native tribes.
The Acoma are called ( in Western Keresan, in Zuni, and in Navajo.
Language
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The Acoma language is classified in the western division of the
Keresan languages. In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people
speak both Acoma and English, elders speak an endangered indigenous
variant of New Mexican Spanish.
Origins and prehistory
========================
Pueblo people are believed to have descended from the Ancestral
Puebloans, Mogollon, and other ancient peoples. These influences are
seen in the architecture, farming style, and artistry of the Acoma. In
the 13th century, the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their canyon
homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For more than two
centuries, there were migrations in the area. The Acoma Pueblo emerged
by the 13th century. However, the Acoma themselves say the Sky City
Pueblo was established in the 11th century, with brick buildings as
early as 1144 on the mesa. Evidence for their antiquity is the unique
lack of adobe in their construction. This early founding date makes
Acoma Pueblo one of the earliest continuously inhabited communities in
the United States.
The Pueblo is situated on a 365 ft mesa, about 60 mi west of
Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has
sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years as they sought
protection from the raids of the neighboring Navajo and Apache
peoples.
European contact
==================
The first mention of Acoma was in 1539. Estevanico, a slave and was
the first person of African descent to explore North America, was the
first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Marcos de Niza, who
related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after the end of
his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus. He
called the Acoma people 'encaconados,' which meant that they had
turquoise hanging from their ears and noses.
Lieutenant Hernando de Alvarado of conquistador Francisco Vázquez de
Coronado's expedition described the Pueblo (which they called 'Acuco')
in 1540 as "a very strange place built upon solid rock" and "one of
the strongest places we have seen." Upon visiting the Pueblo, the
expedition "repented having gone up to the place." Further from
Alvarado's report:
It is believed Coronado's expedition were the first Europeans to
encounter the Acoma (Estevan was a native Moroccan). Alvarado
reported that first the Acoma refused entry even after persuasions,
but after Alvarado showed threats of an attack, the Acoma guards
welcomed the Spaniards peacefully, noting that they and their horses
were tired. The encounter shows that the Acoma had clothing made of
deerskin, buffalo hide, and woven cotton, as well as turquoise
jewelry, domestic turkeys, bread, pine nuts, and maize. The village
seemed to contain about 200 men.
Acoma was next visited by the Spanish 40 years later in 1581 by Fray
Agustín Rodríguez and Francisco Sánchez Chamuscado, with 12 soldiers,
3 other friars, and 13 others, including Indian servants. The Acoma at
this time were reported to be somewhat defensive and fearful. This
response may have been due to the knowledge of the Spanish enslavement
of other Indians to work in silver mines in the area. However,
eventually the Rodríguez and Chamuscado party convinced them to trade
goods for food. The Spaniard reports say the pueblo had about 500
houses of either three or four stories high.
In 1582, Acoma was visited again by Antonio de Espejo for three
months. The Acoma were reported to be wearing mantas. Espejo also
noted irrigation in Acomita, the farming village in the north valley
near San Jose River, which was two leagues from the mesa. He saw
evidence of intertribal trade with "mountain Querechos". Acoma oral
history does not confirm this trade but only tells of common
messengers to and from the mesa and Acomita, McCartys Village, and
Seama.
Juan de Oñate intended to colonize New Mexico starting from 1595 (he
formally held the area by April 1598). The Acoma warrior Zutacapan
heard of this plan and warned the mesa and organized a defense.
However, a pueblo elder, Chumpo, dissuaded war, partly to prevent
deaths and partly based on Zutancalpo's (Zutacapan's son) mentioning
of the widespread belief that the Spaniards were immortal. Thus, when
Oñate visited on October 27, 1598, Acoma met him peacefully, with no
resistance to Oñate's demand of surrender and obedience reported.
Oñate demonstrated his military power by firing a gun salute.
Zutacapan offered to meet Oñate formally in the religious kiva, which
is traditionally used as the place to make sacred oaths and pledges.
However, Oñate was scared of death and in suspicious ignorance of
Acoma customs refused to enter via ladder from the roof into the dark
kiva chambers. Purguapo was another Acoma man out of four chosen for
Spaniard negotiations.
Soon after Oñate's departure, Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá visited Acoma
by himself with a dog and a horse and asked for other supplies.
Villagrá refused to get off his horse and left to follow Oñate's
party. However, Zutacapan convinced him to return to receive supplies.
In questioning by Zutacapan, Villagrá said that 103 armed men were two
days away from Acoma. Zutacapan then told Villagrá to leave Acoma.
On December 1, 1598, Juan de Zaldívar, Oñate's nephew, reached Acoma
with 20-30 men and peacefully traded with them and had to wait some
days for their order of ground corn. On December 4, Zaldívar went with
16 armored men to Acoma to find out about the corn. Zutacapan met them
and directed them to the homes with the corn. Zaldívar's people then
divided into groups to collect the corn. The traditional oral Acoma
narrative tells that a group attacked some Acoma women, leading Acoma
warriors to retaliate. The Spanish documents do not report an attack
on the women and say that the division of the men was a reaction to
Zutacapan's plan to kill Zaldívar's party. The Acoma killed 12 of the
Spaniards, including Zaldívar. Five men escaped, although one died
from jumping over the citadel, leaving four to escape with the
remaining camp.
On December 20, 1598, Oñate learned of Zaldívar's death and, after
receiving encouraging advice from the friars, planned an attack in
revenge, as well to teach a lesson to other pueblos. Acomas requested
help from other tribes to defend against the Spanish. Among the
leaders were Gicombo, Popempol, Chumpo, Calpo, Buzcoico, Ezmicaio, and
Bempol (a recruited Apache war leader). On January 21, 1599, Vicente
de Zaldívar (Juan de Zaldívar's brother) reached Acoma with 70
soldiers. The Acoma Massacre started the next day and lasted for three
days. On January 23, men were able to climb the southern mesa
unnoticed by Acoma guards and breach the pueblo. The Spanish dragged a
cannon through the streets, toppling adobe walls and burning most of
the village, killing 800 people (decimating 20% of the 4,000
population) and imprisoning approximately 500 others. Almost all of
the remaining inhabitants were enslaved or left the town. The pueblo
surrendered at noon on January 24. Zaldívar lost only one of his men.
The Spanish amputated the right feet of men over 25 years old, and by
some accounts one or more toes of such enslaved men's right feet, and
forced them into slavery for 20 years. They also took males aged 12-25
and females over 12 away from their parents, putting most of them in
slavery for 20 years. The enslaved Acoma were given to government
officials and various missions. Two other Indian men visiting Acoma at
the time had their right hands cut off and were sent back to their
respective Pueblos as a warning of the consequences for resisting the
Spanish. On the north side of the mesa, a row of houses still retains
marks from the fire started by a cannon during this Acoma War. (Oñate
was later exiled from New Mexico for mismanagement, false reporting,
and cruelty by Philip III of Spain.)
A view from 2009 of the same building, where architectural
modifications are apparent
Survivors of the Acoma Massacre rebuilt their community between 1599
and 1620. The town remained uninhabited for several months, out of
fear of more attacks, until it began to be rebuilt in December 1599.
Oñate forced the Acoma and other local Indians to pay taxes in crops,
cotton, and labor. Spanish rule also brought Catholic missionaries
into the area. The Spanish renamed the pueblos with the names of
saints and started to construct churches in them. They introduced new
crops to the Acoma, including peaches, peppers, and wheat. A 1620
royal decree created Spanish civil offices in each pueblo, including
Acoma, with an appointed governor to take command. In 1680, the Pueblo
Revolt took place, with Acoma participating. The revolt brought
refugees from other pueblos. Those who eventually left Acoma moved
elsewhere to form Laguna Pueblo.
The Acoma suffered high mortality from smallpox epidemics, as they had
no immunity to such Eurasian infectious diseases. They also suffered
raiding from the Apache, Comanche, and Ute. On occasion, the Acoma
would side with the Spanish to fight against these nomadic tribes.
Forced to formally adopt Catholicism, the Acoma proceeded to practice
their traditional religion in secrecy, and combined elements of both
in a syncretic blend. Intermarriage and interaction became common
among the Acoma, other pueblos, and Hispanic villages. These
communities would intermingle in a kind of creolization to form the
culture of New Mexico.
San Esteban Del Rey Mission
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Between 1629 and 1641 Father Juan Ramirez oversaw construction of the
San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church. The Acoma were ordered to build
the church, moving 20000 ST of adobe, straw, sandstone, and mud to the
mesa for the church walls. Ponderosa pine was brought in by community
members from Mount Taylor, over 40 mi away. The 6000 ft2 church has an
altar flanked by 60 ft-high wood pillars. These are hand carved in red
and white designs, representing Christian and Indigenous beliefs. The
Acoma know their ancestors' hands built this structure, and they
consider it a cultural treasure.
In 1970, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In
2007, the mission church was designated a National Trust Historic
Site, the only Native American site in that ranking as identified by
the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a non-profit
organization.
19th and 20th century
=======================
During the 19th century, the Acoma people, while trying to uphold
traditional life, also adopted aspects of the once-rejected Spanish
culture and religion. By the 1880s, railroads brought increased
numbers of settlers and ended the pueblos' isolation.
In the 1920s, the All Indian Pueblo Council gathered for the first
time in more than 300 years. Responding to congressional interest in
appropriating Pueblo lands, the U.S. Congress passed the Pueblo Lands
Act in 1924. Despite successes in retaining their land, the Acoma had
difficulty in preserving their cultural traditions in the 20th
century. Protestant missionaries established schools in the area, and
the Bureau of Indian Affairs forced Acoma children into boarding
schools. By 1922, most children from the community were in boarding
schools, where they were forced to use English and practice
Christianity. Several generations became cut off from their culture
and language, with harsh effects on their families and societies.
Present day
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About 300 two- and three-story adobe buildings stand on the mesa, with
exterior ladders used to access the upper levels where residents live.
Access to the mesa is by a road blasted into the rock face during the
1950s, navigable by car and bus. Footpaths down the mesa can still be
used. Approximately 30 or so people live permanently on the mesa, with
the population increasing on the weekends, as family members come to
visit, and tourists, some 55,000 annually, visit for the day.
Acoma Pueblo has no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal.
Reservation lands surround the mesa, totaling 600 mi2. Tribal members
live both on the reservation and outside it. Contemporary Acoma
culture remains relatively closed. According to the 2000 United States
census, 4,989 people identify themselves as Acoma.
Governance and reservation
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Acoma government was maintained by two individuals: a 'cacique', or
head of the Pueblo, and a war captain, who would serve until their
deaths. Both individuals maintained strong religious connections to
their work, representing the theocracy of Acoma governance. The
Spanish imposed a group to oversee the Pueblo, but their power was not
taken seriously by the Acoma. The Spanish group would work with
external situations and comprised a governor, two lieutenant
governors, and a council. The Acoma also participated in the All
Indian Pueblo Council, which started in 1598 and arose again in the
20th century.
The Acoma control approximately 500000 acres of their traditional
land. Mesas, valleys, hills, and arroyos dot the landscape that
averages about 7000 ft in altitude, with about 10 in of rain each
year. Since 1977, the Acoma have increased their domain through
several land purchases. On the reservation, only tribal members may
own land and almost all enrolled members live on the property. The
cacique is still active in the community and is from the Antelope
clan. The cacique appoints tribal council members, staff, and the
governor.
In 2011, Acoma Pueblo and the Pueblo of Santa Clara were victims of
heavy flooding. New Mexico supplied more than $1 million to fund
emergency preparedness and damage repair for victims, and governor
Susana Martinez requested additional funding from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency.
Warfare and weaponry
======================
Historically, engagements in warfare were common for Acoma, like other
Pueblos. Weapons used included clubs, stones, spears, and darts. The
Acoma later would serve as auxiliaries for forces under Spain and
Mexico, fighting against raids and protecting merchants on the Santa
Fe Trail. After the 19th century, raiding tribes were less of a threat
and Acoma military culture began to decline. The war captain position
eventually would change to a civil and religious function.
Architecture
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Acoma Pueblo has three rows of three-story, apartment-style buildings,
which face south on top of the mesa. The buildings are constructed
from adobe brick, with beams across the roof that were covered with
poles, brush, and then plaster. The roof for one level would serve as
the floor for another. Each level is connected to others by ladders,
serving as a unique defensive aid; the ladders are the only way to
enter the buildings, as the traditional design has no windows or
doors. The lower levels of the buildings were used for storage. Baking
ovens are outside the buildings, with water being collected from two
natural cisterns. Acoma also has seven rectangular kivas and a village
plaza, which serves as the spiritual center for the village.
Family life
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About 20 matrilineal clans were recognized by the Acoma. Traditional
child rearing involved very little discipline . Couples were generally
monogamous, and divorce was rare. A quick burial followed death, then
four days and nights of vigil. Women wore cotton dresses and sandals
or high moccasin boots. Men wore cotton kilts and leather sandals.
Rabbit and deer skin was also used for clothing and robes. In the 17th
century, horses were introduced to the Pueblo by the Spanish.
Education was overseen by kiva headmen, who taught about human
behavior, spirit and body, astrology, ethics, child psychology,
oratory, history, dance, and music.
Since the 1970s, Acoma Pueblo has retained control over education
services, which have been keys in maintaining traditional and
contemporary lifestyles. They share a high school with Laguna Pueblo.
Alcoholism, drug use, and other health issues are prominent on the
reservation and Indian Health Service hospitals and native healers
cooperate to battle health problems. Alcohol is banned on the Pueblo.
The community is served by the Acoma-Canoncito-Laguna (ACL) Hospital
run by the Indian Health Services and located in Acoma. Today, 19
clans still remain active.
Religion
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Traditional Acoma religion stresses harmony between life and nature.
The Sun is a representative of the Creator deity. Mountains
surrounding the community, the Sun above, and the Earth below help to
balance and define the Acoma world. Traditional religious ceremonies
may revolve around the weather, including seeking to ensure healthy
rainfall. The Acoma also use kachinas in rituals. The Pueblos also had
one or more kivas, which served as religious chambers. The leader of
each Pueblo would serve as the community religious leader, or
'cacique'. The cacique would observe the Sun and use it as a guide for
scheduling ceremonies, some which were kept secret.
Many Acoma are Catholic, but blend aspects of Catholicism and their
traditional religion. Many old rituals are still performed. In
September, the Acoma honor their patron saint, Saint Stephen. For
feast day, the mesa is opened to the public for the celebration. More
than 2,000 pilgrims attend the San Esteban Festival. The celebration
begins at San Esteban Del Rey Mission, and a carved pine effigy of
Saint Stephen is removed from the altar and carried into the main
plaza with people chanting, shooting rifles, and ringing steeple
bells. The procession then proceeds past the cemetery, down narrow
streets, and to the plaza. Upon arriving at the plaza, the effigy is
placed in a shrine lined with woven blankets and guarded by two Acoma
men. A celebration follows with dancing and feasting. During the
festival, vendors sell goods, such as traditional pottery and cuisine.
Subsistence
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Before contact with the Spanish, Acoma people primarily ate corn,
beans, and squash. 'Mut-tze-nee' was a popular thin corn bread. They
also raised turkeys, tobacco, and sunflowers. The Acoma hunted
antelope, deer, and rabbits. Wild seeds, berries, nuts, and other
foods were gathered. After 1700, new foods were noted in the
historical record. Staples included blue corn drink, pudding, corn
mush, corn balls, wheat cake, peach-bark drink, paper bread, flour
bread, wild berries, and prickly pear fruit. After contact with the
Spanish, goats, horses, sheep and donkeys were raised.
In contemporary Acoma, other foods are also popular, such as apple
pastries, corn tamales, green-chili stew with lamb, fresh corn, and
wheat pudding with brown sugar.
Irrigation techniques such as dams and terraces were used for
agriculture. Farming tools were made of wood and stone. Harvested corn
would be ground with hands and mortar.
Ethnobotany
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A list of Acoma Pueblo ethnobotany shows 68 documented plant uses.
In 1932, George R. Swank published a Master's thesis titled "The
Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians," containing short
sections on the Puebloans' history, culture and mythology as well as
an extensive treatment of plant uses and names.
Economy
=========
Historical Acoma economic practices are described as socialistic or
communal. Labor was shared and produce was distributed equally.
Trading networks were extensive, spreading thousands of miles
throughout the region. During fixed times in the summer and fall,
trading fairs were held. The largest fair was held in Taos by the
Comanche. Nomadic traders would exchange slaves, buckskins, buffalo
hide, jerky, and horses. Pueblo people would trade for copper and
shell ornaments, macaw feathers, and turquoise. Since 1821, the Acoma
traded via the Santa Fe Trail. The arrival of railroads in the 1880s
made the Acoma dependent on American-made goods, which suppressed
traditional arts such as weaving and pottery.
Today, the Acoma produce a variety of goods. They grow alfalfa, oats,
wheat, chilies, corn, melon, squash, vegetables, and fruit, and they
raise cattle. They have natural reserves of gas, geothermal, and coal
resources. Uranium mines in the area provided work for the Acoma until
their closings in the 1980s. After that, the tribe provided most
employment. However, high unemployment rates trouble the Pueblo. The
uranium mines left radiation pollution, causing the tribal fishing
lake to be drained and some health problems within the community.
Tourism
=========
Tourism is a major source of income for the tribe. In 2008, Pueblo
Acoma opened the Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum at the
base of the mesa, replacing the original, which was destroyed by fire
in 2000. The center and museum seek to sustain and preserve Acoma
culture. Films about Acoma history are shown and a café serves
traditional foods. The architecture was inspired by pueblo design and
indigenous architectural traditions, with wide doorways in the middle,
which in traditional homes make the bringing of supplies easier. The
windowpanes contain flecks of mica, a mineral which is used to create
mesa windows. The complex is also fire resistant, unlike traditional
pueblos, and is painted in light pinks and purples to match the
landscape surrounding it. Traditional Acoma artwork is exhibited and
demonstrated at the center, including ceramic chimneys crafted on the
rooftop. Arts and crafts also bring income.
Acoma Pueblo is open to the public by guided tour from March until
October, though June and July have periods of closure for cultural
activities. Photography of the Pueblo and surrounding land is
restricted. Tours and camera permits are purchased at the Sky City
Cultural Center. While photography is allowed with permit, video
recordings, drawings, and sketching are prohibited. All photography is
forbidden within the church.
The Acoma Pueblo also has a casino and hotel the Sky City Casino
Hotel. The casino and hotel are alcohol-free and are maintained by the
Acoma Business Enterprise, which oversees most Acoma businesses.
Arts
======
Acoma seed pot by B. Aragon - traditionally, seeds were stored inside
this type of pottery and the pots broken as needed
At Acoma, pottery remains one of the most notable artforms. Men create
weavings and silver jewelry, as well.
Pottery
=========
Acoma pottery dates back more than 1,000 years. Dense local clay, dug
up at a nearby site, is essential to Acoma pottery. The clay is dried
and strengthened by the addition of pulverized pottery shards. The
pieces then are shaped, painted, and fired. Geometric patterns,
thunderbirds, and rainbows are traditional designs, which are applied
with the spike of a yucca. A potter lightly strikes the side of the
pot upon completion and holds it to his or her ear; if the pot does
not ring, it will crack during firing. If this is found, the piece is
destroyed and ground into shards for future use.
Communities
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* Acomita
* Anzac
* McCartys
* Sky Line
* Old Sky Line
Notable people
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*Loren Aragon, fashion designer
* Marie Chino, traditional pottery artist
* Vera Chino, traditional pottery artist
* Lucy Lewis, traditional pottery artist
*Georgene Louis, attorney and member of the New Mexico House of
Representatives
* Simon J. Ortiz, poet, author, and educator
* Anton Docher, "The Padre of Isleta", French priest
*Rachel Concho, traditional pottery artist known for seed pots
Gallery
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File:Runners, Acoma (1909).jpg|Acoma runners,
File:Julio 03.gif|Photograph of Enchanted Mesa taken from Acoma in
1899
File:AcomaIllustration1846.jpg|Illustration of the Acoma mesa from
1846
File:AcomaPuebloReflection.gif|Acoma Pueblo and its reflection in a
pool of water
File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 072.jpg|Acoma water girls by
Edward S. Curtis
File:"Catching the Bread" part of the ceremony of the Fiesta de San
Esteban (Saint Stephen), Acoma Pueblo, ca.1900 (CHS-4514).jpg|Fiesta
de San Esteban, Acoma Pueblo, c. 1900
File:Sky City Cultural Center, Acoma.jpg|The Sky City Cultural Center
File:Lucy lewis fineline jar.jpg|Fineline black-on-white olla by Lucy
M. Lewis, c. 1960-1970s, collection of the Fred Jones Jr. Museum of
Art
File:An Acoma squaw dress made by Acoma Indian men only, ca.1898
(CHS-5165).jpg|Acoma dress made by men, c. 1898
File:Pueblo of Acoma, Mesa Encantada, Acoma, N. M (NYPL
b12647398-62175).tiff|Acoma, Mesa Encantada, 1898
File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 055.jpg|Acoma woman, 1926
File:Curtis Old trail at Acoma 1904.jpg|Old trail (entrance) to Acoma
Pueblo, 1904
File:Curtis Acoma from the South 1904.jpg|View of Acoma from the
south, 1904
File:Corral between the rock walls near the Acoma Pueblo, 1886
(CHS-4530).jpg|Corral between the rock walls near the Acoma Pueblo,
1886
File:Building at Acoma Peublo.JPG|An Acoma building
File:AcomaPuebloFromDistance.jpg|View of Acoma mesa, 1899
See also
======================================================================
* San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church
* Acoma Indian Reservation
* Solomon Bibo
* Enchanted Mesa
* National Register of Historic Places listings in Cibola County, New
Mexico
* List of National Historic Landmarks in New Mexico
* List of Indian reservations in the United States
* List of Native American peoples in the United States
* List of the oldest buildings in the United States
References
======================================================================
Further reading
* Minge, Ward Alan and Simon Ortiz. 'Acoma: Pueblo in the Sky'.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press (1991).
External links
======================================================================
*
*
*[
https://smarthistory.org/acoma-polychrome-water-jar/ Acoma
Polychrome Water Jar] (video), The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Smarthistory
*Albert J. Capron:
[
https://archive.org/details/pacificmonthly13woodrich/page/n503/mode/2up
'The Legend of Pueblo de Acoma, the Cloud City of New Mexico.'], The
Pacific Monthly, Vol. II, Nr. 3, July 1899, p. 109 - 116, in Internet
Archive
*[
https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220717/http://www.acomazuni.com/acoma.cfm
AcomaZuni.com: Acoma "Sky City"]
*
*[
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73788 Ácoma, the sky city: A study
in Pueblo-Indian history and civilization] (1926), Mrs. William T.
Sedgwick, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
License
=========
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License URL:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo
