Scotism and Scotists

I. Scotism.

This is the name given to the philosophical and
theological system or school named after John Duns
Scotus . . . . It developed out of the Old Franciscan
School, to which Haymo of Faversham (d. 1244),
Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), John of Rupella (d.
1245), William of Melitora (d. 1260), St. Bonaventure
(d. 1274), Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (d. 1289),
John Pecham (d. 1292), Archbishop of Canterbury,
Richard of Middletown (d. about 1300), etc. belonged.
This school had at first but few peculiarities; it
followed Augustinism (Platonism), which then ruled
theology, and which was adopted not only by the
Parisian professors belonging to the secular clergy
(William of Auvergne, Henry of Ghent, etc.), but also
by prominent teachers of the Dominican Order (Roland of
Cremona, Robert Fitzacker, Robert of Kilwardby, etc.).
These theologians knew and utilized freely all the
writings of Aristotle, but employed the new Peripatetic
ideas only in part or in an uncritical fashion, and
intermingled with Platonic elements. Albertus Magnus
and especially St. Thomas (d. 1274) introduced
Aristoteleanism more widely into Scholasticism. The
procedure of St. Thomas was regarded as an innovation,
and called forth criticism, not only from the
Franciscans, but also from the secular doctors and even
many Dominicans (ef. Franz Ehrle in "Archiv f�r
Literatur- u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters", V,
1889, pp. 603 sqq.; Idem in "Zeitschrift f�r kathol.
Theologie", XIII, 1889, pp. 172 sqq.; Bernard Jansen,
ibid., XXXII, 1908, 289 sqq.). At this time appeared
Scotus, the Doctor Subtilis, and found the ground
already cleared for the conflict with the followers of
Aquinas. He made indeed very free use of
Aristoteleanism, much freer than his predecessors, but
in its employment exercised sharp criticism, and in
important points adhered to the teaching of the Older
Franciscan School -- especially with regard to the
plurality of forms or of souls, the spiritual matter of
the angels and of souls, etc., wherein and in other
points he combatted energetically St. Thomas. The
Scotism beginning with him, or what is known as the
Later Franciscan School, is thus only a continuation or
further development of the older school, with a much
wider, although not exclusive acceptance of Peripatetic
ideas, or with the express and strict challenge of the
same (e.g. the view that matter is the principium
individuationis). Concerning the relation of these
schools to each other, or the relation of Scotus to
Alexander of Hales and St. Bonaventure, consult the
work of the Flemish Recollect, M. Hauzeur ("Collatio
totius theologiae inter majores nostros, Alex. Alensem,
S. Bonaventuram, Duns Scotum etc.,', 2 vols., Li�ge,
1652-).

Concerning the character and teaching of Scotus we have
already spoken in the special article, where it was
stated that he has been unjustly charged with
Indeterminism, excessive Realism, Pantheism,
Nestorianism, etc. What has been there said holds good
of Scotism in general, the most important doctrines of
which were substantially developed by Scotus himself.
Little new has been added by the Scotists to the
teaching of their master; for the most part, they have
merely, in accordance with the different tendencies of
the day, restated its fundamental position and defended
it. It will be sufficient here to mention two works in
which the most important peculiarities of the Scotist
theology are briefly set forth and defended -- Johannes
de Rada, "Controversiae theol. inter S. Thom. et
Scotum" (1598-); Kilian Kazen berger, "Assertiones
centum ad mentem . . . Scoti" (new ed., Quaracehi,
1906). Reference may, however, be made to the influence
which Scotism exercised on the teaching of the Church
(i.e. on theology). It is especially noteworthy that
none of the propositions peculiar to Scotus or Scotism
has been censured by ecclesiastical authority, while
the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was soon
accepted by all schools, orders, and theologians
outside the Dominican Order, and was raised to a dogma
by Pius IX. The definition of the Council of Vienne of
1311 that all were to be regarded as heretics who
declared "quod anima rationalis . . . non sit forma
corporis humani per se et essentialiter" (the rational
soul is not per se and essentially the form of the
human body), was directed, not against the Scotist
doctrine of the forma corporeitatis, but only against
the erroneous view of Olivius; it is even more probable
that the Scotists of the day suggested the passing of
the Decree and formulated it (see B. Jansen, loc. cit.,
289 sqq., 471 sqq.). Nominalism is older than Scotus,
but its revival in Occamism may be traced to the one-
sided exaggeration of some propositions of Scotus. The
Scotist Formalism is the direct opposite of Nominalism,
and the Scotists were at one with the Thomists in
combatting the latter; Occam himself (d. about 1347)
was a bitter opponent of Scotus. The Council of Trent
defined as dogma a series of doctrines especially
emphasized by the Scotists (e.g. freedom of the will,
free co-operation with grace, meritoriousness of good
works, the causality of the sacraments ex opere
operato, the effect of absolution). In other points the
canons were intentionally so framed that they do not
affect Scotism (e.g. that the first man was constitutus
in holiness and justice). This was also done at the
Vatican Council. In the Thomistic-Molinistic
controversy concerning the foreknowledge of God,
predestination, the relation of grace to free will, the
Scotists took little part. They either supported one of
the parties, or took up a middle position, rejecting
both the predetermination of the Thomists and the
scientia media of the Molinists. God recognizes the
free future acts in His essence, and provides a free
decree of His will, which does not predetermine our
free will, but only accompanies it.

Jesuit philosophers and theologians adopted a series of
the Scotist propositions. Later authorities reject in
part many of these propositions and partly accept them,
or at least do not directly oppose them. This refers
mostly to doctrines touching the deepest philosophical
and theologieal questions, on which a completely
certain judgment is difficult to obtain. The following
are generally rejected: formalism with the distinctio
formalis, the spiritual matter of angels and of the
soul, the view that the metaphysical essence of God
consists in radical infinity, that the relationes
trinitariae are not a perfection simpliciter simplex;
that the Holy Ghost would be a distinct Person from the
Son, even though He proceeded from the Father alone;
that the angels can naturaliter know the secreta
cordium (secret thoughts); that the soul of Christ is
formally holy and impeccable, not by the very fact of
the hypostatic union, but through another gratia creata
(the visio beatifica); that the merits of Christ are
not simpliciter et intrinsece, but only extrinsece and
secundum quid, infinite; that there are indifferent
acts in individuo; that the gratia sanctificans and the
charitas habitualis are the same habitus; that
circumcision is a sacrament in the strict sense; that
transubstantiation makes the Body of Christ present per
modum adductionis, etc. Another series of propositions
was misunderstood even by Catholie theologians, and
then in this false sense rightly rejected -- e.g. the
doctrine of the univocatio entis, of the acceptation of
the merits of Christ and man, etc. Of the propositions
which have been accepted or at least favourably treated
by a large number of scholars, we may mention: the
Scotist view of the relation between essentia and
existentia; that between ens and nihil the distance is
not infinite but only as great as the reality that the
particular ens possesses; that the accidens as such
also possesses a separate existence (e.g. the
accidentia of bread and wine in the Eucharist); that
not only God, but also man can produce an esse
simpliciter (e.g. man by generation); haecceitas as the
principium individuationis. Also many propositions from
psychology: e.g. that the powers of the soul are not
merely accidents even natural and necessary of the
soul, that they are not really distinct from the
substance of the soul or from one another; that sense
perception is not purely passive; that the intellect
can recognize the singular directly, not merely
indirectly; that the soul separated from the body forms
its knowledge from things themselves, not merely from
the ideas which it has acquired through life or which
God infuses into it; that the soul is not united with
the body for the purpose of acquiring knowledge through
the senses but for the purpose of forming with it a new
species, i.e. human nature; that the moral virtues are
not necessarily inter se connexae, etc. Also many
propositions concerning the doctrine of the angels:
e.g. that the angels can be numerically distinct from
one another, and therefore several angels can belong to
the same species; that it is not merely through their
activity or the application of their powers that angels
can be in a given place; that they cannot go from place
to place without having to traverse the intermediate
space; that they do not acquire all natural knowledge
from infused ideas only, but also through contemplation
of things themselves; that their will must not
necessarily will good or evil, according as it has once
decided. Furthermore, that Adam in the state of
innocence could sin venially; that mortal sin, as an
offence against God, is not intrinsically and
simpliciter, but only extrinsically infinite; that
Christ would have become man, even if Adam had not
sinned; that the human nature of Christ had its proper
created existence; that in Christ there were two
filiationes, or sonships, a human and a Divine; that
the sacraments have only moral causality; that,
formally and in the last analysis, heavenly bappiness
consists not in the visio Dei, but in the fruitio; that
in hell venial sin is not punished with everlasting
punishment; etc.

Scotism thus exercised also positively a wholesome
influence on the development of philosophy and
theology; its importance is not, as is often asserted,
purely negative -- that is, it does not consist only in
the fact that it exercised a wholesome criticism on St.
Thomas and his school, and thus preserved science from
stagnation. A comparison of the Scotist teaching with
that of St. Thomas has been often attempted -- for
example, in the abovementioned work of Hauzeur at the
end of the first volume; by Sarnano, "Conciliatio
omnium controversiarum etc." (1589-). It may be
admitted that in many cases the difference is rather in
the terminology, or that a reconciliation is possible,
if one emphasize certain parts of Scotus or St. Thomas,
and pass over or tone down others. However, in not a
few points the contradiction still remains. Generally
speaking, Scotism found its supporters within the
Franciscan Order; certainly, opposition to the
Dominicans, i.e. to St. Thomas, made many members of
the order disciples of Scotus. However, this does not
mean that the foundation and development of Scotism is
to be referred to the rivalry existing between the two
orders. Even Aquinas found at first not a few opponents
in his order, nor did all his fellow-Dominicans follow
him in every particular (e.g. Durandus of St. Pour�ain,
d. 1332). The Scotist doctrines were also supported by
many Minorites, of whose purity of purpose there can be
no doubt, and of whom many have been included in the
catalogue of saints and beati (e.g. Sts. Bernardine,
John Capistran, Jacob of the March, Angelus of
Chiavasso, etc.). Furthermore, Scotism found not a few
supporters among secular professors and in other
religious orders (e.g. the Augustinians, Servites,
etc.), especially in England, Ireland, and Spain. On
the other hand, not all the Minorites were Scotists.
Many attached themselves to St. Bonaventure, or
favoured an eclecticism from Scotus, St. Thomas, St.
Bonaventure, etc. The Conventuals seem to have adhered
most faithfully to Scotus, particularly at the
University of Padua, where many highly esteemed
teachers lectured. Scotism found least support among
the Capuchins, who preferred St. Bonaventure. Besides
Scotus, the order had other highly- prized teachers,
such as Alexander of Hales, Richard of Middleton, and
especially St. Bonaventure (proclaimed Doctor ecclesia
by Sixtus V in 1587), the ascetico-mystical trend of
whose theology was more suited to wide circles in the
order than the critical, dispassionate, and often
abstruse teaching of the Subtle Doctor. In Spain the
martyred tertiary, Blessed Raymund Lullus (d. 1315),
also had many friends. It may be said that the whole
order as such never had a uniform and special school of
Scotists; the teachers, preachers, etc. were never
compelled to espouse Scotism. His disciples did indeed
call Scotus "Doctor noster", "Doctor (vel Magister)
Ordinis", but even among these many partly followed
their own course (e.g. Petrus Aureolus), while Walter
Burleigh (Burlaeus, d. about 1340) and still more so
Occam were opponents of Scotus.

It is only at the end of the fifteenth or the beginning
of the sixteenth century that a special Scotist School
can be spoken of. The works of the master were then
collected, brought out in many editions, commentated,
etc. Since 1501 we also find numerous regulations of
general chapters recommending or directly prescribing
Scotism as the teaching of the order, although St.
Bonaventure's writings were also to a great extent
admitted (ef. Marian Fern�ndez Garcia, "Lexicon
scholasticum etc.", Quaracchi, 1910; "B. Joan. Duns
Scoti: De rerum principio etc. ", Quaracchi, 1910,
preface article 3, nn. 46 sqq., where many regulations
of 1501-1907 are given). Scotism appears to have
attained its greatest popularity at the beginning of
the seventeenth century; during the sixteenth and the
seventeenth centuries we even find special Scotist
chairs, e.g. at Paris, Rome, Coimbra, Salamanca,
Alcal�, Padua, and Pavia. In the eighteenth century it
had still an important following, but in the nineteenth
it suffered a great decline. One of the reasons for
this was the repeated suppressions of the order in
almost every country, while the recommendation of the
teaching of St. Thomas by several popes could not be
favourable to Scotism. It has even been asserted that
it is now merely tolerated; but this statement is a
priori improbable in regard to a school of which not a
single proposition has been censured, and to which so
many highly venerated men (bishops, cardinals, popes,
and saints) have belonged; and it is still less
probable in view of the approval of the various general
statutes (repeated so often down to the present day),
in which Scotism is at least recommended. In their
Decrees Leo XIII and Pius X have recommended not alone
St. Thomas, but also Scholasticism in general, and this
includes also the Scotist School. In 1897 Leo XIII
approved the "Constitutiones Generales Fratrum
Minorum", of which article 245 prescribes for the
members of the order: "In doctrinis philosophicis et
theologicis antiqae scholae Franciscanae inhaerere
studeant, quin tamen ceteros scholasticos negligant"
(In philosophical and theological doctrine they shall
take care to follow the ancient Franciscan School,
without, however, neglecting the other Schoolmen.) On
11 April, 1904, in a letter to the Minister General,
Father Dionysius Schuler, Pius X expressed his pleasure
at the revival of studies in the order in connexion
with the Franciscan schools of the Middle Ages, and on
19 June, 1908, in a letter to the abovementioned Father
Marian, praised his book, "Mentis in Deum quotidiana
elevatio duce B. Joanne Duns Scoto etc. (Quaracehi,
1907. See Marian, op. cit., n. 66.)

II. Scotists.

Most Scotists are both philosophers and theologians.

Fourteenth Century. Pupils of Scotus: Francis Mayron
(d. 1327), a very fruitful writer, who introduced the
actus sorbonicus into the University of Paris, i.e. the
uninterrupted disputation lasting the whole day. Petrus
Aureolus (d. about 1322), Archbishop of Aix. William de
Rubione (about 1333). Jerome de Atharia, Order of the
Blessed Trinity (about 1323). Antonius Andreae (d.
about 1320) from Aragon, a true disciple of Scotus, who
is said to have written several treatises attributed to
the master. John de Bassolis (d. about 1347). Alvarus
Pelagius (d. about 1350). Bishop Petrus de Aquila (d.
1371), called Scotellus from his faithful adherence to
Scotus, of whose teaching he issued a compendium (new
ed., Levanti, 1907-). Landulf Caraccioli (d. 1351),
Archbishop of Amalfi. Nicolaus Bonet (Bovet), who went
to Peking and died as Bishop of Malta in 1360; John
Bacon, Carmelite (d. 1346).

Fifteenth Century. William Butler (d. 1410). Petrus de
Candia (d. 1410 as Pope Alexander V). Nicolaus de
Orbellis (d. about 1465), who wrote a commentary on the
Sentences (many editions) William Vorilong (Vorlion
etc., d. 1464), a celebrated theologian, who wrote a
frequently quoted "Comm. super Sentent.", but who also
followed St. Bonaventure. Angelus Serpetri, General of
the Order (d. 1454). William Gorris (about 1480), not a
Franciscan, who composed the "Scotus pauperum". Blessed
Angelus of Chivasso (d. 1495), whose "Summa" (called
Angelica) is extant in about thirty editions and
contains a great deal of Scotist doctrine; it was
publicly burned by Luther with the "Corpus juris
canonici" in 1520. Antonius Sirretus (Sirectus, d.
about 1490), famous for his "Formalitates", to whieb
several later Scotists wrote commentaries. Tartaretus
(about 1495), rector of the University of Paris, and
not a Franciscan; Elector Frederick III of Saxony had
his philosophical commentaries introduced into the
University of Wittenberg at his expense. Thomas
Pencket, Augustinian (d. 1487), knew Scotus almost by
heart, and edited his works. Francis Sampson, General
of the Order (d. 1491), was called by Pope Sixtus IV,
before whom he held a disputation, the most learned of
all. Francis de Rovere (d. 1484 as Sixtus IV), who
defended in a disputation before Pius II and also in
his writings the doctrine that the blood shed by Christ
on the Cross was released from the hypostatic union.
Stephen Brulefer (d. about 1499), renowned professor in
Paris and later a Franciscan, who wrote "Comm. in
Bonavent. et Scotum" (often edited).

Sixteenth Century. This period is very rich in names.
The following may be mentioned: Paul Scriptoris (d.
1505), professor at the University of T�bingen, who had
as students all the other professors and many other
members of religious orders. Nicholas de N�sse (d.
1509). Mauritius a Portu (d. 1513 as Archbishop of
Tuam, Ireland), who wrote a commentary on many works of
Scotus. Francis Lichetus, General of the Order (d.
1520). Anthony Trombetta, Archbishop of Athens (d.
1518), who wrote and edited able Scotist works. Philip
Varagius (about 1510). Johannes de Monte (about 1510).
Gometius of Lisbon (d. 1513), re-edited the often
issued fourteenth-century "Summa Astesana". Frizzoli
(d. 1520). James Almainus (about 1520), Parisian
magister and not a Franciscan, favoured Gallicanism.
Antonius de Fantes, physician, composed in 1530 a
Scotus lexicon. Jerome Cadius (d. 1529). Le Bret (about
1527), wrote "Parvus Scotus". Paduanus Barletta (about
1545). James Bargius (about 1560). Johannes Dovetus,
who wrote in 1579 "Monotesseron formalitatum Scoti,
Sieretti, Trombettae et Bruliferi". Joseph Angles,
bishop and celebrated moralist (d. 1587), wrote the
often edited "Flores theol. ". Damian Giner issued the
"Opus Oxoniense Scoti" in a more convenient form
(1598). Cardinal Sarnanus (d. 1595), a highly
distinguished scholar, wrote a commentary on some
philosophical works of Scotus, and edited the works of
many Scotists. Salvator Bartolucci (about 1586), also a
zealous editor. Felix Perettus (d. 1590 as Sixtus V).

Seventeenth Century. Of very many names we may mention:
Gothutius (about 1605). Guido Bartholucci (about 1610).
Petrus Bonaventura (about 1607). Ruitz (about 1613)
Smissing (d. 1626). Philip Faber (d. 1630).
Albergonius, bishop (d. 1636). Centini, bishop (d.
1640). Matthaus de Sousa (about 1629). Merinero, bishop
(about 1663). Francis Felix (about 1642). Vulpes (d.
1647) wrote "Summa" and "Commen. theologiae Scoti" in
twelve folio volumes. Blondus, bishop (d. 1644) -
Gavatius, archbishop (d. 1658). Wadding (d. 1657), a
well-known annalist, edited with other Irishmen in the
College of S. Isidore at Rome the complete works of
Scotus (12 vols., Lyons, 1639), with the commentaries
of Pitigianus of Arezzo (d. 1616), Poncius (d. 1660),
Mauritius a Portu (Mac Caughwell), Archbishop of Armagh
and Primate of Ireland (d. 1626), and Anthony Illckey
(d. 1641); reprinted Paris, 1891-95. Bricemo, named on
account of his keenness of intellect the Second Scotus,
Bishop of Venezuela (d. 1667). Belluti (d. 1676),
edited with Mastrius a highly prized "Philosophia ad
mentem Scoti" (many editions). Mastrius himself (d.
1673) wrote a celebrated "Disputationes theol." (many
editions) and "Theologia ad mentem Scoti" (1671, etc.).
Ferchius (d. 1666) wrote "Vita et apologia Scoti, etc."
Bruodinus (d. 1664). Herinckx (d. 1678), Bishop of
Ypres. St�mel (d. 1681 at Fulda). Boivin, highly
esteemed philosopher and theologian (several editions
of works, 1678, etc.) Sannig (about 1690). Lambrecht
(about 1696), named the Viennese Scotus. Bishop Gennari
(d. 1684). Cardinal Brar `catius (d. 1693), held in
high favour by several popes. Hernandez (d. 1695).-
Macedo (d. 1681), a Portuguese, professor at Padua is
said to have composed over one hundred writings and was
renowned for his public disputations.

Eighteenth Century. Frassen (d. 1711) was for thirty
years a celebrated professor at the Sorbonne and wrote
"Scotus academicus seu universa theo Scoti" (many
editions, 1672, etc.; last ed., Rome 1900-), a very
profound and lucid work. Du randus (d. 1720) wrote the
great "Clypeus scotisticus (many editions). Dupasquier,
"Summa phil." an "Summa theol." (about 1720; many
editions). Hieronymus a Montefortino "Duns Scoti Summ.
theol. ex universis opp. eius . . . juxta ordiner
Summae Angelici Doctoris" (6 vols., 1728-34; new ed.,
Rome, 1900-03), a very able work. Panger (d 1732 at
Augsburg), Scotist moralist. Kikh (d. 1769 at Munich),
Scotist dogmatic theologian. P�rez L�pez (d. 1724).
Krisper (d. 1749). Hermann, Abbot of St. Trudbert,
"Theologia sec. Scoti principia" (1720). Melgaco
(1747). Bishop Sarmentero (d. 1775).

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. In the nineteenth
century, although Scotism was retained in the schools
of the Franciscan Order in accordance with the
statutes, we meet but few tractates secundum mentem
Scoti, in any case no celebrated ones. The twentieth
century appears to promise better. Father Fern�ndez, a
Spaniard, is a zealous Scotist. Beside the
abovementioned writings, he has written a large "Scotus
Lexicon", and is at present (1911) issuing new edition
of Scotus's "Comment. in Sentent.' Another zealous
worker is Father Deodat-Marie de Basley; his
fortnightly journal, "La bonne parole" (now entitled
"Revue Duns Scot."), contains much Scotistica. He is
also engaged on the "Capitali opera B. Joan. Duns
Scoti" (Le Havre, 1908) of which the "Praeparatio
philosophica" and "Synthesis theologica credendorum"
have already appeared. Father Parthenius Minges has
explained and defended much of the Scotist doctrine in
his "Compend. theolog. dogmat. specialis et generalis"
(Munich, 1901-02), and in a number of other works (cf
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, V, 199). WADDING, Scriptores
Ord. Min. (1806; new ed., Rome, 1006) also SRARALEA,
Supplementum (1806; new ed., Rome, 1908) HURTER,
Nomenclator (1906-); WERNER, Joh. Duns Scotus (Vienna,
1881); HOLZAPFEL, Handbuch der Gesch. des Franz..
ordens (Freiburg, 1909), 268 sqq.

-- PARTHENIUS MINGES.

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