CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: ESCHATOLOGY

Eschatology

That branch of systematic theology which deals with the  doctrines of the last things
(<ta eschata>). The Greek title is of  comparatively recent introduction, but in modern
usage it has largely  supplanted its Latin equivalent <De Novissimis>. As the numerous
doctrinal  subjects belonging to this section of theology will be treated <ex professo>
under their several proper titles, it is proposed in this article merely to  take such a
view of the whole field as will serve to indicate the place of  eschatology in the general
framework of religion, explain its subject-matter  and the outlines of its content in the
various religions of mankind, and  illustrate by comparison the superiority of Christian
eschatological  teaching.

As a preliminary indication of the subject-matter, a distinction  may be made between
the eschatology of the individual and that of the race  and the universe at large. The
former, setting out from the doctrine of  personal immortality, or at least of survival in
some form after death,  seeks to ascertain the fate or condition, temporary or eternal, of
individual  souls, and how far the issues of the future depend on the present life. The
latter deals with events like the resurrection and the general judgment, in  which,
according to Christian Revelation, all men will participate, and with  the signs and
portents in the moral and physical order that are to precede  and accompany those
events. Both aspects -- the individual and the  universal -- belong to the adequate
concept of eschatology; but it is only  in Christian teaching that both receive due and
proportionate recognition.  Jewish eschatology only attained its completion in the
teaching of Christ  and the Apostles; while in ethnic religion eschatology seldom rose
above the  individual view, and even then was often so vague, and so little bound up
with any adequate notion of Divine justice and of moral retribu- tion, that  it barely
deserves to be ranked as religious teaching.

I. ETHNIC ESCHATOLOGIES

 Uncivilized societies

Even among uncivilized cultures the universality of religious beliefs, including belief in
some kind of  existence after death, is very generally admitted by modern
anthropologists.   Some exceptions, it is true, have been claimed to exist; but on closer
scrutiny the evidence for this claim has broken down in so many cases that we  are
justified in presuming against any exception. Among the uncivilized the  truth and
purity of eschatological beliefs vary, as a rule, with the purity  of the idea of God and of
the moral standards that prevail. Some savages  seem to limit existence after death to
the good (with extinction for the  wicked), as the Nicaraguas, or to men of rank, as the
Tongas; while the  Greenlanders, New Guinea negroes, and others seem to hold the
possibility of  a second death, in the other world or on the way to it. The next world
itself is variously located -- on the earth, in the skies, in the sun or moon  -- but most
commonly under the earth; while the life led there is conceived  either as a dull and
shadowy and more or less impotent existence, or as an  active continuation in a higher
or idealized form of the pursuits and  pleasures of earthly life. In most savage religions
there is no very high or  definite doctrine of moral retribution after death; but it is only
in the  case of a few of the most degraded cultures, whose condition is admittedly the
result of degeneration, that the notion of retribution is claimed to be  altogether
wanting. Sometimes mere physical prowess, as bravery or skill in  the hunt or in war,
takes the place of a strictly ethical standard; but, on  the other hand, some savage
religions contain unexpectedly clear and  elevated ideas of many primary moral duties.

Civilized Cultures

Coming to the higher or  civilized societies, we shall glance briefly at the eschatology of
the Babylonian   and Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Persian, and Greek religions.
Confucianism  can hardly be said to have an eschatology, except the very indefinite
belief  involved in the worship of ancestors, whose happiness was held to depend on
the conduct of their living descendants. Islamic eschatology contains  nothing
distinctive except the glorification of barbaric sensuality.

<(a) Babylonian and Assyrian>

In the ancient Babylonian religion (with which  the Assyrian is substantially identical)
eschatology never attained, in the  historical period, any high degree of development.
Retribution is confined  almost, if not quite, entirely to the present life, virtue being
rewarded by  the Divine bestowal of strength, prosperity, long life, numerous
offspring,  and the like, and wickedness punished by contrary temporal calamities. Yet
the existence of an hereafter is believed in. A kind of semi-material ghost,  or shade, or
double (<ekimmu>), survives the death of the body, and when the  body is buried (or,
less commonly, cremated) the ghost descends to the  underworld to join the company
of the departed. In the "Lay of Ishtar" this  underworld, to which she descended in
search of her deceased lover and of the   "waters of life", is described in gloomy colours;
and the same is true of  the other descriptions we possess. It is the "pit", the "land of no
return",  the "house of darkness", the "place where dust is their bread, and their food  is
mud"; and it is infested with demons, who, at least in Ishtar's case,  are empowered to
inflict various chastisements for sins committed in the  upper world.

Though Ishtar's case is held by some to be typical in this  respect, there is otherwise no
clear indication of a doctrine of moral  penalties for the wicked, and no promise of
rewards for the good. Good and  bad are involved in a common dismal fate. The
location of the region of the  dead is a subject of controversy among Assyriologists,
while the suggestion  of a brighter hope in the form of a resurrection (or rather of a
return to  earth) from the dead, which some would infer from the belief in the "waters
of life" and from references to Marduk, or Merodach, as "one who brings the  dead to
life", is an extremely doubtful conjecture. On the whole there is  nothing hopeful or
satisfying in the eschatology of this ancient religion.

<(b) Egyptian>

On the other hand, in the Egyptian religion, which for  antiquity competes with the
Babylonian, we meet with a highly developed and  comparatively elevated
eschatology. Leaving aside such difficult questions  as the relative priority and
influence of different, and even conflicting,  elements in the Egyptian religion, it will
suffice for the present purpose to  refer to what is most prominent in Egyptian
eschatology taken at its highest  and best. In the first place, then, life in its fullness,
unending life with  0siris, the sun-god, who journeys daily through the underworld,
even  identification with the god, with the right to be called by his name, is  what the
pious Egyptian looked forward to as the ultimate goal after death.  The departed are
habitually called the "living"; the coffin is the "chest of  the living", and the tomb the
"lord of life ". It is not merely the  disembodied spirit, the soul as we understand it, that
continues to live,  but the soul with certain bodily organs and functions suited to the
conditions of the new life. In the elaborate anthropology which underlies  Egyptian
eschatology, and which we find it hard to understand, several  constituents of the
human person are distinguished, the most important of  which is the <Ka>, a kind of
semi-material double; and to the justified who  pass the judgment after death the use of
these several constituents,  separated by death is restored.

This judgment which each undergoes is  described in detail in chapter 125 of the Book
of the Dead. The  examination covers a great variety of personal, social, and religious
duties  and observances; the deceased must be able to deny his guilt in regard to  forty-
two great categories of sins, and his heart (the symbol of conscience  and morality)
must stand the test of being weighed in the balance against the  image of Maat, goddess
of truth or justice. But the new life that begins  after a favourable judgment is not at first
any better or more spiritual than   life on earth. The justified is still a wayfarer with a
long and difficult  journey to accomplish before he reaches bliss and security in the
fertile  fields of Aalu. On this journey he is exposed to a variety of disasters, for  the
avoidance of which he depends on the use of his revivified powers and on  the
knowledge he has gained in life of the directions and magical charms  recorded in the
Book of the Dead, and also, and perhaps most of all, on the  aids provided by surviving
friends on earth. It is they who secure the  preservation of his corpse that he may return
and use it, who provide an  indestructible tomb as a home or shelter for his Ka, who
supply food and  drink for his sustenance, offer up prayers and sacrifices for his
benefit,  and aid his memory by inscribing on the walls of the tomb, or writing on  rolls
of papyrus enclosed in the wrappings of the mummy, chapters from the  Book of the
Dead. It does not, indeed, appear that the dead were ever  supposed to reach a state in
which they were independent of these earthly  aids. At any rate they were always
considered free to revisit the earthly  tomb, and in making the journey to and fro the
blessed had the power of  transforming themselves at will into various animal-shapes.
It was this  belief which, at the degenerate stage at which he encountered it, Herodotus
mistook for the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. It should be added  that the
identification of the blessed with Osiris ("Osiris N. N." is a  usual form of inscription)
did not, at least in the earlier and higher stage  of Egyptian religion, imply pantheistic
absorption in the deity or the loss  of individual personality. Regarding the fate of those
who fail in the  judgment after death, or succumb in the second probation, Egyptian
eschatology is less definite in its teaching. "Second death" and other  expressions
applied to them might seem to suggest annihilation; but it is  sufficiently clear from the
evidence as a whole that continued existence in a  condition of darkness and misery
was believed to be their portion. And as  there were degrees in the happiness of the
blessed, so also in the punishment  of the lost (Book of the Dead, tr. Budge, London,
1901).

<(c) Indian>

In the Vedic, the earliest historical form of the Indian religion,  eschatological belief is
simpler and purer than in the Brahministic and  Buddhistic forms that succeeded it.
Individual immortality is clearly  taught. There is a kingdom of the dead under the rule
of Yama, with  distinct realms for the good and the wicked. The good dwell in a realm
of  light and share in the feasts of the gods; the wicked are banished to a place  of
"nethermost darkness". Already, however, in the later Vedas, where these  beliefs and
developed expression, retribution begins to be ruled more by  ceremonial observances
than by strictly moral tests. On the other hand,  there is no trace as yet of the dreary
doctrine of transmigration, but  critics profess to discover the germs of later pantheism.

In Brahminism (q.v.)  retribution gains in prominence and severity, but becomes
hopelessly  involved in transmigration, and is made more and more dependent either
on  sacrificial observances or on theosophical knowledge. Though after death  there are
numerous heavens and hells for the reward and punishment of every  degree of merit
and demerit, these are not final states, but only so many  preludes to further rebirths in
higher or lower forms. Pantheistic  absorption in Brahma, the world- soul and only
reality, with the consequent  extinction of individual personalities - this is the only final
solution of  the problem of existence, the only salvation to which man may ultimately
look  forward. But it is a salvation which only a few may hope to reach after the
present life, the few who have acquired a perfect knowledge of Brahma. The  bulk of
men who cannot rise to this high philosophic wisdom may succeed, by  means of
sacrificial observances, in gaining a temporary heaven, but they are  destined to further
births and deaths.

Buddhist eschatology still further  develops and modifies the philosophical side of the
Brahministic doctrine of  salvation, and culminates in what is, strictly speaking, the
negation of  eschatology and of all theology -- a religion without a God, and a lofty
moral code without hope of reward or fear of punishment hereafter. Existence   itself,
or at least individual existence, is the primary evil; and the  craving for existence, with
the many forms of desire it begets, is the source  of all the misery in which life is
inextricably involved. Salvation, or the  state of Nirvana, is to be attained by the utter
extinction of every kind of  desire, and this is possible by knowledge -- not the
knowledge of God or the  soul, as in Brahminism, but the purely philosophical
knowledge of the real  truth of things. For all who do not reach this state of philosophic
enlightenment or who fail to live up to its requirements -- that is to say for  the vast
bulk of mankind -- there is nothing in prospect save a dreary cycle  of deaths and
rebirths with intercalated heavens and hells; and in Buddhism  this doctrine takes on a
still more dread and inexorable character than  pre-Buddhistic Brahminism. (See
BUDDHISM)

<(d) Persian>

In the ancient  Persian religion (Zoroastrianism, Mazdaism, Parseeism) we meet with
what is  perhaps, in its better elements, the highest type of ethnic eschatology. But  as
we know it in the Parsee literature, it contains elements that were  probably borrowed
from other religions; and as some of this literature is  certainly post-Christian, the
possibility of Jewish and even Christian ideas  having influenced the later
eschatological developments is not to be lost  sight of. The radical defect of the Persian
religion was its dualistic  conception of deity. The physical and moral world is the
theatre of a  perpetual conflict between Ahura Mazda (Ormuzd), the good, and Angra-
Mainyu  (Ahriman), the evil, principle, co-creators of the universe and of man. Yet  the
evil principle is not eternal <ex parte post>; he will finally be  vanquished and
exterminated. A pure monotheistic Providence promises at  times to replace dualism,
but never quite succeeds -- the latest effort in  this direction being the belief in Zvran
Akarana, or Boundless Time as the  supreme deity above both Ahriman and Ormuzd.
Morality has its sanction not  merely in future retribution, but in the present assurance
that every good  and pious deed is a victory for the cause of Ahura Mazda; but the call
to  the individual to be active in this cause, though vigorous and definite  enough, is
never quite free from ritual and ceremonial conditions, and as  time goes on becomes
more and more complicated by these observances,  especially by the laws of purity.
Certain elements are holy (fire, earth,  water), certain others unholy or impure (dead
bodies, the breath, and all  that leaves the body, etc.); and to defile oneself or the holy
elements by  contact with the impure is one of the deadliest sins. Consequently corpses
could not be buried or cremated, and were accordingly exposed on platforms  erected
for the purpose, so that birds of prey might devour them. When the  soul leaves the
body it has to cross the bridge of Chinvat (or Kinvad), the  bridge of the Gatherer, or
Accountant. For three days good and evil spirits  contend for the possession of the soul,
after which the reckoning is taken  and the just men is rejoiced by the apparition, in the
form of a fair maiden,  of his good deeds, words, and thoughts, and passes over safely
to a paradise  of bliss, while the wicked man is confronted by a hideous apparition of
his  evil deeds, and is dragged down to hell. If the judgment is neutral the soul  is
reserved in an intermediate state (so at least in the Pahlavi books) till  the decision at
the last day. The developed conception of the last days, as  it appears in the later
literature, has certain remarkable affinities with  Jewish Messianic and millennial
expectations. A time during which Ahriman  will gain the ascendancy is to be followed
by two millennial periods, in  each of which a great prophet will appear to herald the
coming of Soshyant  (or Sosioch), the Conqueror and Judge who will raise the dead to
life. The  resurrection will occupy fifty-seven years and will be followed by the  general
judgement, the separation of the good from the wicked, and the  passing of both
through a purgatorial fire gentle for the just, terrible for  sinners, but leading to the
restoration of all. Next will follow the final  combat between the good and the evil
spirits, in which the latter will  perish, all except Ahriman and the serpent Azhi, whose
destruction is  reserved to Ahura Mazda and Scraosha, the priest-god. And last of all
hell  itself will be purged, and the earth renewed by purifying fire.

<(e) Greek>

Greek eschatology as reflected in the Homeric poems remains at a low level.   It is only
very vaguely retributive and is altogether cheerless in its  outlook. Life on earth, for all
its shortcomings, is the highest good for  men, and death the worst of evils. Yet death is
not extinction. The <psyche>  survives - not the purely spiritual soul of later Greek and
Christian  thought, but an attenuated, semi-material ghost, or shade, or image, of the
earthly man; and the life of this shade in the underworld is a dull,  impoverished,
almost functionless existence. Nor is there any distinction of  fates either by way of
happiness or of misery in Hades. The judicial office  of Minos is illusory and has
nothing to do with earthly conduct; and there  is only one allusion to the Furies
suggestive of their activity among the  dead (Iliad XIX, 258-60). Tartarus, the lower hell,
is reserved for a few  special rebels against the gods, and the Elysian Fields for a few
special  favourites chosen by divine caprice.

In later Greek thought touching the  future life there are notable advances beyond the
Homeric state, but it is  doubtful whether the average popular faith ever reached a
much higher level.  Among early philosophers Anaxagoras contributes to the notion of
a purely  spiritual soul; but a more directly religious contribution is made by the
Eleusinian and Orphic mysteries, to the influence of which in brightening and
moralizing the hope of a future life we have the concurrent witness of  philosophers,
poets, and historians. In the Eleusinian mysteries there seems  to have been no definite
doctrinal teaching - merely the promise or  assurance for the initiated of the fullness of
life hereafter. With the  Orphic, on the other hand, the divine origin and pre- existence
of the soul,  for which the body is but a temporary prison, and the doctrine of a
retributive transmigration are more or less closely associated. It is hard  to see how far
the common belief of the people was influenced by these  mysteries, but in poetical and
philosophical literature their influence is  unmistakable. This is seen especially in
Pindar among the poets, and in  Plato among the philosophers. Pindar has a definite
promise of a future life  of bliss for the good or the initiated, and not merely for a few,
but for  all. Even for the wicked who descend to Hades there is hope; having,  purged
their wickedness they obtain rebirth on earth, and if, during three  successive
existences, they prove themselves worthy of the boon, they will  finally attain to
happiness in the Isles of the Blest. Though Plato's  teaching is vitiated by the doctrine of
pre-existence, metempsychosis, and  other serious errors it represents the highest
achievement of pagan  philosophic speculation on the subject of the future life. The
divine  dignity, spirituality, and essential immortality of the soul being  established, the
issues of the future for every soul are made clearly  dependent on its moral conduct in
the present life in the body. There is a  divine judgment after death, a heaven, a hell,
and an intermediate state for  penance and purification; and rewards and punishments
are graduated  according to the merits and demerits of each. The incurably wicked are
condemned to everlasting punishment in Tartarus; the less wicked or  indifferent go
also to Tartarus or to the Acherusian Lake, but only for a  time; those eminent for
goodness go to a happy home, the highest reward of  all being for those who have
purified themselves by philosophy.

From the  foregoing sketch we are able to judge both of the merits and defects of
ethnic systems of eschatology. Their merits are perhaps enhanced when they  are
presented, as above, in isolation from the other features of the  religions to which they
belonged. Yet their defects are obvious enough; and  even those of them that were best
and most promising turned out,  historically, to be failures. The precious elements of
eschatological truth  contained in the Egyptian religion were associated with error and
superstition, and were unable to save the religion from sinking to the state  of utter
degeneration in which it is found at the approach of the Christian  Era. Similarly, the
still richer and more profound eschatologies of the  Persian religion, vitiated by
dualism and other corrupting influences,  failed to realize the promise it contained, and
has survived only as a ruin  in modern Parseeism. Plato's speculative teaching failed to
influence in any  notable degree the popular religion of the Greco-Roman world; it
failed to  convert even the philosophical few; and in the hands of those who did
profess to adopt it, Platonism, uncorrected by Christianity ran to seed in  Pantheism
and other forms of error.

II. OLD-TESTAMENT ESCHATOLOGY

Without going into details either by way of exposition or of criticism, it  will be
sufficient to point out how Old Testament eschatology compares with  ethnic systems,
and how notwithstanding its deficiencies in point of  clearness and completeness, it
was not an unworthy preparation for the  fullness of Christian Revelation.

(1) Old Testament eschatology, even in its  earliest and most imperfect form, shares in
the distinctive character which  belongs to Old Testament religion generally. In the first
place, as a negative  distinction, we note the entire absence of certain erroneous ideas
and  tendencies that have a large place in ethnic religions. There is no  pantheism or
dualism no doctrine of pre-existence (Wisdom, viii, 17-20 does  not necessarily imply
this doctrine, as has sometimes been contended) or of  metempsychosis; nor is there any
trace, as might have been expected, of  Egyptian ideas or practices. In the next place, on
the positive side, the  Old Testament stands apart from ethnic religions in its doctrine of
God and of man  in relation to God. Its doctrine of God is pure and uncompromising
monotheism; the universe is ruled by the wisdom, Justice, and omnipotence of  the one,
true God. And man is created by God in His own image and likeness,  and destined to
relations of friendship and fellowship with Him. Here we  have revealed in clear and
definite terms the basal doctrines which are at  the root of eschatological truth, and
which, once they had taken hold of the  life of a people, were bound, even without new
additions to the revelation,  to safeguard the purity of an inadequate eschatology and to
lead in time to  richer and higher developments. Such additions and developments
occur in  Old Testament teaching; but before noticing them it is well to call attention to
the  two chief defects, or limitations, which attach to the earlier eschatology  and
continue, by their persistence in popular belief, to hinder more or less  the correct
understanding and acceptance by the Jewish people as a whole of  the highest
eschatological utterances of their own inspired teachers.

(2) The first of these defects is the silence of the earlier and of some of the  later books
on the subject of moral retribution after death, or at least the  extreme vagueness of
such passages in these books as might be understood to  refer to this subject. Death is
not extinction; but Sheol, the underworld of  the dead, in early Hebrew thought is not
very different from the Babylonian  Aralu or the Homeric Hades, except that Jahve is
God even there. It is a  dreary abode in which all that is prized in life, including
friendly  intercourse with God, comes to an end without any definite promise of
renewal. Dishonour. incurred in life or in death, clings to a man in Sheol,  like the
honour he may have won by a virtuous life on earth; but otherwise  conditions in Sheol
are not represented as retributive, except in the vaguest  way. Not that a more definite
retribution or the hope of renewal to a life  of blessedness is formally denied and
excluded; it simply fails to find  utterance in earlier Old Testament records. Religion is
pre-eminently an affair of  this life, and retribution works out here on earth. This idea
which to us  seems so strange, must, to be fairly appreciated, be taken in conjunction
with the national as opposed to the individual viewpoint [see under (3) of  this section];
and allowance must also be made for its pedagogic value for a  people like the early
Hebrews. Christ himself explains why Moses permitted  divorce ("by reason of the
hardness of your heart" Matt., xix 8);  revelation and legislation had to be tempered to
the capacity of a singularly  practical and unimaginative people, who were more
effectively confirmed in  the worship and service of God by a vivid sense of His
retributive  providence here on earth than they would have been but a higher and fuller
doctrine of future immortality with its postponement of moral rewards. Nor  must we
exaggerate the insufficiency of this early point of view. It gave a  deep religious value
and significance to every event of the present life, and  raised morality above the
narrow, utilitarian standpoint. Not worldly  prosperity as such was the ideal of the
pious Israelite, but prosperity  bestowed by God as the gracious reward of fidelity in
keeping His  Commandments. Yet, when all has been said, the inadequacy of this belief
for  the satisfaction of individual aspirations must be admitted; and this  inadequacy
was bound to prove itself sooner or later in experience. Even  the substitution of the
national for the individual standpoint could not  indefinitely hinder this result.

(3) The tendency to sink the individual in  the nation and to treat the latter as the
religious unit was one of the most  marked characteristics of Hebrew faith. And this
helped very much to support  and prolong the other limitation just noticed, according
to which retribution  was looked for in this life. Deferred and disappointed personal
hopes could  be solaced by the thought of their present or future realization in the
nation. It was only when the national calamities, culminating in the exile,  had
shattered for a time the people's hope of a glorious theocratic kingdom  that the
eschatology of the individual became prominent; and with the  restoration there was a
tendency to revert to the national point of view. It  is true of the 0. T. as a whole that the
eschatology of the people  overshadows that of the individual, though it is true at the
same time that,  in and through the former, the latter advances to a clear and definite
assurance of a personal resurrection from the dead, at least for the children  of Israel
who are to share, if found worthy, in the glories of the Messianic  Age.

It is beyond the scope of this article to attempt to trace the growth  or describe the
several phases of this national eschatology, which centres in  the hope of the
establishment of a theocratic and Messianic kingdom on earth  (see MESSIAS).
However spiritually this idea may be found expressed in Old Testament  prophecies, as
we read them now in the light of their progressive fulfillment  in the New Testament
Dispensation, the Jewish people as a whole clung to a material  and political
interpretation of the kingdom, coupling their own domination as  a people with the
triumph of God and the worldwide establishment of His  rule. There is much, indeed,
to account for this in the obscurity of the  prophecies themselves. The Messias as a
distinct person is not always  mentioned in connexion with the inauguration of the
kingdom, which leaves  room for the expectation of a theophany of Jahve in the
character of judge  and ruler. But even when the person and place of the Messias are
distinctly  foreshadowed, the fusion together in prophecy of what we have learned to
distinguish as His first and His second coming tends to give to the whole  picture of the
Messianic kingdom an eschatological character that belongs in  reality only to its final
stage. It is thus the resurrection of the dead in  Isaias, xxvi, 19, and Daniel, xii, 2, is
introduced; and many of the  descriptions foretelling "the day of the Lord", the
judgment on Jews and  Gentiles, the renovation of the earth and other phenomena that
usher in that  day while applicable in a limited sense to contemporary events and to the
inauguration of the Christian Era, are much more appropriately understood of  the end
of the world. It is not, therefore, surprising that the religious  hopes of the Jewish nation
should have be come so predominantly  eschatological, and that the popular
imagination, foreshortening the  perspective of Divine Revelation, should have learned
to look for the  establishment on earth of the glorious Kingdom of God, which
Christians are  assured will be realized only in heaven at the close of the present
dispensation.

(4) Passing from these general observations which seem  necessary for the true
understanding of Old Testament eschatology, a brief reference  will be made to the
passages which exhibit the growth of a higher and fuller  doctrine of immortality. The
recognition of individual as opposed to mere  corporate responsibility and retribution
may be reckoned, at least remotely,  as a gain to eschatology, even when retribution is
confined chiefly to this  life; and this principle is repeatedly recognized in the earliest
books.  (See Gen., xviii, 25; Ex., xxxii, 33; Num., xvi, 22; Deut., vii, 10;  xxiv, 16; II K;.,
xxiv, 17; IV K., xiv, 6; Is., iii, 10 sq.; xxxiii, 15  sqq.; Jer., xii, 1 sq.; xvii, 5-10; xxxii, 18 sq.;
Ezech. xiv, 12-20;  xviii, 4, 18 sqq.; Psalms, <passim>; Prov., ii, 21 sq.; x, 2; xi, 19, 31;
etc.) It is recognized also in the very terms of the problem dealt with in  the Book of Job.

But, coming to higher things, we find in the Psalms and in  Job the clear expression of a
hope or assurance for the just of a life of  blessedness after death. Here is voiced, under
Divine inspiration, the  innate craving of the righteous soul for everlasting fellowship
with God, the   protest of a strong and vivid faith against the popular conception of
Sheol.   Omitting doubtful passages, it is enough to refer to Psalms xv (A.V. xvi),  xvi
(A.V. xvii), xlviii (A.V. xlix ), and lxxii (A.V. lxxiii). Of these it  is not impossible to
explain the first two as prayers for deliverance from  some imminent danger of death,
but the assurance they express is too absolute  and universal to admit this interpretation
as the most natural. And this  assurance becomes still more definite in the other two
psalms, by reason of  the contrast which death is asserted to introduce between the
fates of the  just and the impious. The same faith emerges in the Book of Job, first as a
hope somewhat questionably expressed, and then as an assured conviction.  Despairing
of vindication in this life and rebelling against the thought that  righteousness should
remain finally unrewarded, the sufferer seeks  consolation in the hope of a renewal of
God's friendship beyond the grave:  "O that thou wouldest hide me in Sheol, that thou
wouldest keep me secret,  until thy wrath be past, that thou wouldest appoint me a set
time, and  remember me. If a man die, shall he live again? All the days of my warfare
would I wait, till my release should come" (xiv, 13 sq.). In xvii, 18 -  xvii, 9, the
expression of this hope is more absolute; and in xix, 23-27, it  takes the form of a
definite certainty that he will see God, his Redeemer:  "But I know that my Redeemer
liveth and that he shall stand up at the last  upon the earth [dust]; and after this my skin
has been destroyed, yet from  [al. without] my flesh shall I see God, whom I shall see
for myself and my  eyes shall behold, and not another" (25 - 27). In his risen body he
will see  God, according to the Vulgate (LXX) reading: "and in the last day I shall  rise
out of the earth. And I shall be clothed again with my skill, and in my  flesh I shall see
my God" (25 - 26).

The doctrine of the resurrection  finds definite expression in the Prophets; and in
Isaias, xxvi, 19: "thy  dead shall live, my dead bodies shall rise again. Awake and sing,
ye that  dwell in the dust" etc.; and Daniel, xii, 2: "and many of those that sleep  in the
dust of the earth shall awake: some unto everlasting life, and others  to everlasting
shame and contempt" etc., it is clearly a personal  resurrection that is taught -- in Isaias
a resurrection of righteous  Israelites; in Daniel, of both the righteous and the wicked.
The judgment,  which in Daniel is connected with the resurrection, is also personal; and
the   same is true of the judgment of the living (Jews and Gentiles) which in  various
forms the prophecies connect with the "day of the Lord". Some of the  Psalms (e. g.
xlviii) seem to imply a judgment of individuals, good and bad,  after death; and the
certainty of a future judgment of "every work, whether  it be good or evil", is the final
solution of the moral enigmas of earthly  life offered by Ecclesiastes (xii, 13-14; cf. iii,
17). Coming to the later   (deuterocanonical) books of the 0. T. we have clear evidence
in II Mach. of  Jewish faith not only in the resurrection of the body (vii, 9-14), but in the
efficacy of prayers and sacrifices for the dead who have died in godliness  (xi, 43 sqq.).
And in the second and first centuries B.C., in the Jewish  apocryphal literature, new
eschatological developments appear, chiefly in the   direction of a more definite
doctrine of retribution after death. The word  <Sheol> is still most commonly
understood of the general abode of the departed  awaiting the resurrection, this abode
having different divisions for the  reward of the righteous and the punishment of the
wicked; in reference to the  latter, <Sheol> is sometimes simply equivalent to <hell>.
<Gehenna> is the name  usually applied to the final place of punishment of the wicked
after the last   judgment, or even immediately after death; while <paradise> is often
used to  designate the intermediate abode of the souls of the just and <heaven> their
home of final blessedness.  Christ's use of these terms shows that the Jews of His day
were sufficiently  familiar with their New Testament meanings.

III. CATHOLIC ESCHATOLOGY

In this  article there is no critical discussion of New Testament eschatology nor any
attempt  to trace the historical developments of Catholic teaching from Scriptural and
traditional data; only a brief conspectus is given of the developed Catholic  system. For
critical and historical details and for the refutation of  opposing views the reader is
referred to the special articles dealing with  the various doctrines. The eschatological
summary which speaks of the "four  last things" (death, judgment, heaven, and hell) is
popular rather than  scientific. For systematic treatment it is best to distinguish between
(A)  individual and (B) universal and cosmic eschatology, including under (A):

death;  the particular judgment;  heaven, or eternal happiness;

purgatory, or the intermediate state;  hell, or eternal punishment;

and  under (B): <ul> the approach of the end of the world;  the resurrection  of the
body;  the general judgment; and  the final consummation of  all things.

The superiority of Catholic eschatology consists in the fact  that, without professing to
answer every question that idle curiosity may  suggest, it gives a clear, consistent,
satisfying statement of all that need  at present be known, or can profitably be
understood, regarding the eternal  issues of life and death for each of us personally,
and the final  consummation of the cosmos of which we are a part.

 (A) Individual Eschatology

<Death>

Death, which consists in the separation of soul and body,  is presented under many
aspects in Catholic teaching, but chiefly

as  being actually and historically, in the present order of supernatural  Providence, the
consequence and penalty of Adam's sin (Gen., ii, 17; Rom., v,  12, etc.);  as being the end
of man's period of probation, the event  which decides his eternal destiny (II Cor., v, 10;
John, ix, 4; Luke, xii,  40; xvi, 19 sqq.; etc.), though it does not exclude an intermediate
state of  purification for the imperfect who die in God's grace; and  as being  universal,
though as to its absolute universality (for those living at the  end of the world) there is
some room for doubt because of I Thess., iv, 14  sqq.; I Cor., xv, 51; II Tim., iv, 1.

<Particular Judgment>

That a particular judgment of  each soul takes place at death is implied in many
passages of the New Testament  (Luke, xvi, 22 sqq.; xxiii, 43; Acts, i, 25; etc.), and in the
teaching of  the Council of Florence (Denzinger, Enchiridion, no. 588) regarding the
speedy entry of each soul into heaven, purgatory, or hell. (See JUDGMENT,
PARTICULAR.)

<Heaven>

Heaven is the abode of the blessed, where (after the  resurrection with glorified bodies)
they enjoy, in the company of Christ and  the angels, the immediate vision of God face
to face, being supernaturally  elevated by the light of glory so as to be capable of such a
vision. There  are infinite degrees of glory corresponding to degrees of merit, but all are
unspeakably happy in the eternal possession of God. Only the perfectly pure  and holy
can enter heaven; but for those who have attained that state,  either at death or after a
course of purification in purgatory, entry into  heaven is not deferred, as has sometimes
been erroneously held, till after  the General Judgment.

<Purgatory>

Purgatory is the intermediate state of unknown  duration in which those who die
imperfect, but not in unrepented mortal sin,  undergo a course of penal purification, to
qualify for admission into heaven.   They share in the communion of saints (q. v.) and
are benefited by our  prayers and good works (see DEAD, PRAYERS FOR THE). The
denial of purgatory  by the Reformers introduced a dismal blank in their eschatology
and, after  the manner of extremes, has led to extreme reactions. (See PURGATORY.)

<Hell>

Hell, in Catholic teaching, designates the place or state of men (and angels)  who,
because of sin, are excluded forever from the Beatific Vision. In this  wide sense it
applies to the state of those who die with only original sin  on their souls (Council of
Florence, Denzinger, no. 588), although this is  not a state of misery or of subjective
punishment of any kind, but merely  implies the objective privation of supernatural
bliss, which is compatible  with a condition of perfect natural happiness. But in the
narrower sense in  which the name is ordinarily used, hell is the state of those who are
punished eternally for unrepented personal mortal sin. Beyond affirming the  existence
of such a state, with varying degrees of punishment corresponding  to degrees of guilt
and its eternal or unending duration, Catholic doctrine  does not go. It is a terrible and
mysterious truth, but it is clearly and  emphatically taught by Christ and the Apostles.
Rationalists may deny the  eternity of hell in spite of the authority of Christ, and
professing  Christians, who are unwilling to admit it, may try to explain away Christ's
words; but it remains as the Divinely revealed solution of the problem of  moral evil.
(See HELL.) Rival solutions have been sought for in some form  of the theory of
restitution or, less commonly, in the theory of annihilation   or conditional immortality.
The restitutionist view, which in its Origenist  form was condemned at the Council of
Constantinople in 543, and later at the  Fifth General Council (see APOCATASTASIS),
is the cardinal dogma of modern  Universalism (q. v.), and is favoured more or less by
liberal Protestants and  Anglicans. Based on an exaggerated optimism for which
present experience  offers no guarantee, this view assumes the all-conquering efficacy
of the  ministry of grace in a life of probation after death, and looks forward to  the
ultimate conversion of all sinners and the voluntary disappearance of  moral evil from
the universe. Annihilationists, on the other hand, failing to   find either in reason or
Revelation any grounds for such optimism, and  considering immortality itself to be a
grace and not the natural attribute of  the soul, believe that the finally impenitent will
be annihilated or cease to  exist - that God will thus ultimately be compelled to confess
the failure  of His purpose and power.

 (B) Universal and Cosmic Eschatology

<The Approach of the End of the World>

Notwithstanding Christ's express refusal to specify the time of the end  (Mark, xiii, 32;
Acts, i, 6 sq.), it was a common belief among early  Christians that the end of the world
was near. This seemed to have some  support in certain sayings of Christ in reference to
the destruction of  Jerusalem, which are set down in the Gospels side by side with
prophecies  relating to the end (Matt., xxiv; Luke, xxi), and in certain passages of the
Apostolic writings, which might, not unnaturally, have been so understood  (but see II
Thess., ii, 2 sqq., where St. Paul corrects this impression). On  the other hand, Christ
had clearly stated that the Gospel was to be preached  to all nations before the end
(Matt., xxiv, 14), and St. Paul looked forward  to the ultimate conversion of the Jewish
people as a remote event to be  preceded by the conversion of the Gentiles (Rom., xi, 25
sqq.). Various  others are spoken of as preceding or ushering in the end, as a great
apostasy  (II Thess., ii, 3 sqq.), or falling away from faith or charity (Luke, xviii,  8; xvii,
26; Matt., xxiv, 12), the reign of Antichrist, and great  social calamities and terrifying
physical convulsions. Yet the end will come  unexpectedly and take the living by
surprise.

<The Resurrection of the Body>

The visible coming  (<parousia>) of Christ in power and glory will be the signal for the
rising of  the dead (see RESURRECTION). It is Catholic teaching that all the dead who
are to be judged will rise, the wicked as well as the Just, and that they  will rise with
the bodies they had in this life. But nothing is defined as  to what is required to
constitute this identity of the risen and transformed  with the present body. Though not
formally defined, it is sufficiently  certain that there is to be only one general
resurrection, simultaneous for  the good and the bad. (See MILLENNIUM.) Regarding
the qualities of the  risen bodies in the case of the just we have St. Paul's description in I
Cor., xv (cf. Matt., xiii, 43; Phil., iii, 21) as a basis for theological  speculation; but in the
case of the damned we can only affirm that their  bodies will be incorruptible.

<The General Judgment>

Regarding the general judgment there is  nothing of importance to be added here to the
graphic description of the  event by Christ Himself, who is to be Judge (Matt., xxv; etc.).
(See  JUDGMENT, GENERAL.)

<The Consummation of All Things>

There is mention also of the physical universe  sharing in the general consummation (II
Pet., iii, 13; Rom., viii, 19 sqq.;  Apoc., xxi, 1 sqq.). The present heaven and earth will be
destroyed, and a  new heaven and earth take their place. But what, precisely, this
process  will involve, or what purpose the renovated world will serve is not revealed.
It may possibly be part of the glorious Kingdom of Christ of which "there  shall be no
end". Christ's militant reign is to cease with the  accomplishment of His office as Judge
(I Cor., xv, 24 sqq.), but as King of  the elect whom He has saved He will reign with
them in glory forever.

P. J. TONER

Transcribed by Michael C. Tinkler

Taken from the New Advent Web Page (www.knight.org/advent).

This article is part of the Catholic Encyclopedia Project, an effort aimed at placing the
entire Catholic Encyclopedia on the World Wide Web. The coordinator is Kevin Knight,
editor of the New Advent Catholic Website. If you would like to contribute to this
worthwhile project, you can contact him by e-mail at ([email protected]). For
more information please download the file cathen.txt/.zip.

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