Latin Literature in Christianity (Sixth to Twentieth Century)

During the Middle Ages the so-called church Latin was to a great
extent the language of poetry, and it was only on the advent of
the Renaissance that classical Latin revived and flourished in the
writings of the neo-Latinists as it does even today though to a
more modest extent. To present to the reader an account of Latin
poetry in a manner at once methodical and clear is not an easy
task; a strict adherence to chronology interferes with clearness
of treatment, and an arrangement according to the different kinds
of poetry would demand a repeated handling of some of the poets.
However, the latter method is preferable because it enables us to
trace the historical development of this literature.

A. The Latin Drama

Both in its inception and its subsequent development Latin
dramatic poetry displays a peculiar character. "In no domain of
literature", says W. Creizenach in the opening sentence of his
well-known work on the history of the drama "do the Middle Ages
show so complete a suspension of the tradition of classical
antiquity as in the drama." Terence was indeed read and taught in
the schools of the Middle Ages, but the true dramatic art of the
Roman poet was misunderstood. Nowhere do we find evidence that any
of his comedies were placed on the stage in schools or elsewhere;
for this an adequate conception of classical stagecraft was
wanting. The very knowledge of the metres of Terence was lost in
the Middle Ages, and, just as the difference between comedy and
tragedy was misunderstood, so also the difference between these
and other kinds of poetical composition was no longer understood.
It is thus clear why we can speak of imitations of the Roman metre
only in rare and completely isolated cases, for example, in the
case of the nun Hroswitha of Gandersheim in the tenth century. But
even she shared the mistaken views of her age concerning the
comedies of Terence, having no idea that these works were written
for the stage nor indeed any conception of the dramatic art. Her
imitations therefore can be regarded only as literary dramas on
spiritual subjects, which exercised no influence whatever on the
subsequent development of the drama. Two centuries later we find
an example of how Plautus fared at the hands of his poetical
imitators. The fact that, like Seneca, Plautus is scarcely ever
mentioned among the school-texts of the Middle Ages makes it
easier to understand how at the close of the twelfth century
Vitalis of Blois came to recast the "Amphitruo" and the
"Querulus", a later sequel to the "Aulularia", into satirical epic
poems.

That the drama might therefore never have developed in the Middle
Ages were it not for the effective stimulus supplied by the
ecclesiastical liturgy is quite conceivable. Liturgy began by
assuming more solemn forms and finally gave rise to the religious
drama which was at first naturally composed in the liturgical
Latin language, but subsequently degenerated into a mixture of
Latin and the vernacular until it finally assumed an entirely
vernacular form. The origin of the drama may be traced to the so-
called Easter celebrations which came into life when the strictly
ecclesiastical liturgy as developed into a dramatic scene by the
introduction of hymns and sequences in a dialogue form. A further
step in the development was reached when narration in John, xx, 4
sqq., was translated into action and the Apostles Peter and John
were represented as hastening to the tomb of the risen Saviour.
This form appears in a Paschal celebration at St. Lambrecht and
another at Augsburg, both dating back to the twelfth century. This
expansion of the Easter celebration by the introduction of scenes
participated in by the Apostles spread from Germany over Holland
and Italy, but seems to have found a less sympathetic reception in
France. The third and final step in the development of the Easter
celebrations was the inclusion of the apparition of the risen
Christ. Among others a Nuremberg antiphonary of the thirteenth
century contains all three scenes, joined together so as to give
unity of action, thus possessing the character of a little drama.
Of such Paschal celebrations, which still formed a part of the
ecclesiastical liturgy, 224 have been already discovered: 159 in
Germany, 52 in France, and the remainder in Italy, Spain, and
Holland. The taste for dramatic representations, awakened in the
people by the Easter celebrations, was fostered by the clergy, and
by bringing out the human side of such characters as Pilate,
Judas, the Jews, and the soldiers, a true drama was gradually
created.

That the Easter plays were originally composed in Latin is proved
by numerous still existing examples, such as those of
"Benediktbeuren", "Klosterneuburg ", and the "Mystery of Tours";
gradually, however, passages in the vernacular were introduced,
and finally this alone was made use of. Passion-plays were first
produced in connection with the Easter plays but soon developed
into independent dramas, generally in the mother-tongue. As late
as 1537 the passion-play "Christus Xylonicus" was written in Latin
by Barthelemy de Loches of Orleans. As the Easter plays developed
from the Easter celebrations, so Christmas plays developed from
the ecclesiastical celebrations at Christmas. In these the
preparatory season of Advent also was symbolized in the
predictions of the Prophets. Similarly the plays of the Three
Kings originated in connection with the Feast of the Epiphany;
there the person of Herod and the Massacre of the Innocents are
the materials for a very effective drama. It was but natural that
all the plays dealing with the Christmas season should be brought
together into a connected whole or cycle, beginning with the play
of the Shepherds, continuing in that of the Three Kings, and
ending with the Massacre of the Innocents. That this combination
of plays actually existed we have abundant manuscript evidence,
particularly famous is the Freising cycle.

The transition to the so-called eschatological plays -- the climax
of the history of the Redemption -- was easy. Two such plays enjoy
a special celebrity, "The Wise and Foolish Virgins", which
appeared in France in the twelfth century, and "The Appearance and
Disappearance of Antichrist , written by a German poet about 1160.
The latter, which is also entitled "The Roman Emperor of the
German Nation and Antichrist", has also been regarded as an Easter
play, because the arrival of Antichrist was expected at Easter.
The second title agrees better with the contents of the play. The
poet, who must have been a learned scholar, drew his inspiration
from the politico-religious constitution of the Roman Empire as it
existed in the golden period of Frederick Barbarossa, and from the
Crusades. This ambitious play with its minute directions for
representation is divided into two main actions -- the realization
of a Christian world empire under the German nation, and the
doings of Antichrist and his final overthrow by the Kingdom of
Christ. The unity and conception of the two parts is indicated by
the fact that the nations appearing in the first part suggest to
the spectator what will be their attitude toward Antichrist. The
drama was intended to convey the impression that the German people
alone could fulfil the world-wide office of the Roman Empire and
that the Church needed such a protector.

The extension of the ecclesiastical plays by the introduction of
purely worldly elements led gradually to the disappearance of
spiritual influence, the decay of which may also be gathered from
the gradual adoption of the vernacular for these plays. While the
first bloom of the neo-Latin drama is thus attributable to the
influence of the Church, its second era of prosperity was purely
secular in character and began with the labours of the so-called
Humanists in Italy, who called into life the literary drama.
Numerous as they were, we do not meet with a single genuine
dramatist among them; still many sporadic attempts at play-writing
were made by them. The pagan classics were naturally adopted as
model -- Seneca for tragedy as is shown b the plays of Mussato,
Loschi, or Dati, and especially the "Progne" of Corraro. On the
other hand Plautus and Terence found more numerous imitators,
whose works did not degenerate into ribaldry, as is seen from the
attempts of Poggio, Beccadelli, Bruni, Fidelfo, etc. These
humanistic attempts attained a measure of success in the school
drama. A beginning was made with the production of the ancient
dramas in the original text; such productions were introduced into
the curriculum of the Li�ge school of the Hieronomites and they
are occasionally mentioned at Vienna, Rostock, and Louvain. A
permanent school-stage was erected in Strasburg by the Protestant
rector John Stunn, who wished that "all the comedies of Plautus
and Terence should be produced if possible, within half a year."

The second step in the development was the imitation of the
classical drama, which may be traced to Wimpfeling's "Stylpho";
produced for the first time at Heidelberg in 1470, this play was
still produced in 1505, a proof of its great popularity. A
glorification and defence of classical studies was found in the
comedy of "Codrus" by Kerkmeister, master of the M�nster grammar
school. The contrast between humanistic studies and medieval
methods, which does not come into prominence in Wimpfeling's
"Stylpho", forms here the main theme. Into the same category falls
a comedy by Bebel, demonstrating the superiority of humanistic
culture over medieval learning. Into these plays important current
events are introduced, such as the war of Charles VII against
Naples, the Turkish peril, the political situation after the
Battle of Guinegate (1513), etc. The best-known of these dialogue
writers were Jacob Locher, Johann von Kitzcher, and Hetwann
Schottenius Hessus.

Another hybrid class of drama was the allegorical festival plays,
which were fitted out as show-pieces after the fashion of the
Italian mask comedies. A brilliant example of this class is the
"Ludus Diana" in which Conrad Celtes (1501) panagyrizes the pre-
eminence of the emperor in the chase. Similar to that of the
festival plays was the development of the so-called moralities in
the Netherlands schools of rhetoric. These represented the strife
between the good and the bad principles (virtus et voluptas) for
the soul of man, e. g., Locher's Spectaculum de judicio Paridis"
or the well-known dramatized version of the "Choice of Hercules .
Side by side with these semi-dramatic plays proceeded the attempts
to follow more closely the ancient dramatic form in the school
drama with its varied contents. Reuchlin with his three-act
comedy, which treats as subject the wonderful skull of Sergius may
be regarded as the real founder of the school drama. With "Henno ,
his second and still more famous drama, the humanistic comedy
became naturalized in Germany. The great master of this art is
unquestionably George Macropedius (i. e., Langhveldt) with his
three farces "Aluta (1535), Andriska" ( 1537), and "Bassarus"
(1540). A further development led to the religious school drama,
which generally drew its subject-matter from Holy Writ. To further
his own objects Luther had counselled the dramatization of
Biblical subjects, and tales from the Bible were thus by free
treatment of the incidents made to mirror the conditions of the
time while containing occasional satirical sallies. Among the
numerous writers of this class must be mentioned before all as the
pioneer, the Netherlander Wilhelm Graphaus (Willem van de
Voltldergroft), who became a Protestant: his much-discussed
Acolastus" (the story of the prodigal son), which follows the
Protestant tendency of representing the uselessness of good works
and justification by faith alone, was reprinted at least forty-
seven times in various countries between 1529 and 1585, frequently
translated, and produced everywhere.

This species of drama was cultivated by the Catholics also, who
introduced greater variety of subject matter by including lives of
the saints. Thus Cornelius Crocus wrote a "St. Joseph in Egypt",
Petrus Papeus "[Good?] Samaritan", and George Holonius several
martyr-plays. The founder of the school drama in Germany was Sixt
Birk (Xistus Betulius): his "Susanna", "Judith", and "Eva" have
primarily an educative aim, but are coupled with Protestant
tendencies. His example was followed by a fair number of
imitators: by George Buchanan (1582), a Scotchman, wrote Jephthe"
and "Baptistes" and the bellicose Naogeorgus treats with still
more bitterness the differences between Catholics and Protestants
in his "Hamanus", "Jeremias", and "Judas Iscariot". Among the
polemical dramatists on the Catholic side Cornelius Laurimanus and
Andreas Fabricius must be mentioned.

Although the number of the Biblical school dramas was not small,
it was far surpassed by the number of the moralities. As has been
said, these originated in the Netherlands and it was the
Maastricht priest Christian Ischyrius (Sterck), who freely adapted
the famous English morality "Everyman". This is the dramatized and
widely circulated Ars moriendi and represents the importance of a
good preparation for death. The same subject in a somewhat more
detailed form is treated by Macropedius in his "Hecastus" (1538).
The conclusion of the drama is an exposition of justification by
faith in the merits of Christ. This inclination of the Catholic
poet towards Luther's teaching found great applause among
Protestants, and fostered the development of polemico-satirical
sectarian plays, as Naogeorgus's "Mercator" (1539) shows. The
Catholic standpoint also found its exposition in the moralities,
for example in the Miles Christianus" of Laurimanus (1575), the
"Euripus" of the Minorite Levin Brecht, the Pornius" of Hannardus
Gamerius the "Evangelicus fluctuans" (1569) of Andreas Fabricius,
who had composed his "Religio patiens" three years earlier in the
service of the Counter-Reformation. Still more bitter now grew the
polemics in the dramas, which borrowed their material from
contemporary history. The most notorious of this class is the
"Pamachius" of the pope hater Thomas Naogeorgus, who found many
imitators.

Towards the end of the sixteenth century materials derived from
ancient popular legends and history first came into greater vogue,
and gradually led to the Latin historical drama, of which we find
numerous examples at the famous representations given at the
Strasburg academy under its founder Sturm. This example found
ready imitation, especially wherever the influence of the English
comedy-writers had made itself felt. In this way Latin drama
enjoyed a period of prosperity everywhere until the seventeenth
century. The best known dramatic poet of the latter half of the
sixteenth century was the unfortunate Nicodemus Frischlin.
Examples of every kind of school drama may be found among his
works: "Dido" (1581), "Venus" (1584), and "Helvetiogermani"
(1588), owe their subjects to the ancient classical period;
"Rebecca" (1576), "Susanna (1577), his incomplete Christianized
drama of "Ruth", after the manner of Terence, the "Marriage of
Cana", and a Prologue to Joseph" treat Biblical topics; German
legend is represented by Hildegardis" the wife of Charlemagne,
whose fate is copied from that of St. Genevi�ve; of a polemico-
satirical nature are Priscianus vapulans (1578), a mockery of
medieval Latin, and Phasma (1580), in which the sectarian spirit
of the age is scourged. A play of an entirely original character
is his Julius redivivus": Cicero and Caesar ascend from the lower
world to Germany, and express their wonder at German discoveries
(gunpowder, printing). All these attempts at a Latin school drama,
in so far as they served educational purposes, were most zealously
welcomed in the schools of the regular orders (especially those of
the Jesuits), and cultivated with great success. Thus the purely
external side of the dramatic art developed from the crudest of
beginnings to the brilliant settings of the so-called ludi
caesarii. With the suppression of the Society of Jesus the school
drama came to a rapid end, and no serious attempt has been since
made to revive it and restore it to its former position. However
from time to time new plays have been produced both in Europe and
America, and the "St. John Damascene", written by Father Harzheim
of the Society of Jesus is worthy to take its place among the best
productions of the Jesuit dramatists.

B. Latin Lyrical Poetry

This division of Latin poetry falls naturally into two classes:
secular and religious. The former includes the poems of itinerant
scholars and the Humanists, the latter hymnody. The development of
vagrant scholars (clerici vagi) is connected with the foundation
of the universities, as students wandered about to visit these
newly founded institutions of learning. From the middle of the
twelfth century imperial privileges protected these traveling
scholars. The majority intended to devote themselves to theology,
but comparatively few reached orders. The remainder found their
callings as amanuenses or tutors in noble families, or degenerated
into loose-living goliards or into wandering scholars who became a
veritable plague during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. as
they wandered, begging, from place to place, demanded hospitality
in monasteries and castles and like the wandering minstrels paid
with their songs, jugglery, buffoonery, and tales. Proud of their
scholarly attainments, they used Latin in their poetical
compositions. and thus arose a special literature, the goliardic
poetry. Of this two great collections are still extant, the
"Benediktbeuren" collection and the so-called Harleian manuscript
(no. 978) at Cambridge. The arrangement of "Carmina burana", as
the first publisher, Schmeller, named them, was upon a uniform
plan, according to which they were divided into serious comic, and
dramatic pieces. Songs celebrate the spring and the winter, in
which sentiments of love also find expression, follow one another
in great variety. Together with these are pious hymns of
enthusiasm for the Crusades or of praise for the Blessed Virgin.
We also find the most riotous drinking-songs, often of a loose,
erotic nature, nor are diatribes of a satirical nature wanting:
these soured and dissolute, though educated, tramps delighted
especially in lampoons against the pope, bishops. and nobles,
inveighing with bitter sarcasm against the avarice, ambition and
incontinence of the clergy. In this Professor Sch�nbach sees the
influence of the Catharists.

Concerning the composers of this extensive literature nothing can
be stated with certainty. The poems were in a certain sense
regarded as folk-songs, that is as common property and
international in the full sense of the word. Some representative
poets are indeed mentioned, e.g., Golias, Primas, Archipoeta, but
these are merely assumed names. Particularly famous among the
poems is the "Confessio Goliae" which was referred to the
Archipoeta, and may be regarded as the prototype of the goliardic
songs: strophes 12-17 (Meum est propositam in taberna mori) are
even today sung as a drinking-song in German student circles. The
identity of the Archipoeta has been the subject of much
investigation, but so far without success. Paris was an important
centre of these itinerant poets, particularly in the time of
Abelard (1079-1142), and it was probably thence that they derived
the name of goliards, Abelard having been called Golias by St.
Bernard. From Paris their poetry passed to England and Germany,
but in Italy it found little favour. At a later period, when the
goliardic songs had become known everywhere, the origin of their
title appears to have grown obscure, and thus emerged a Bishop
Golias -- a name referred to the Latin gula -- to whom a parody on
the Apocalypse and biting satires on the pope were ascribed. There
even appeared poets as filius or puer or discipulus de familia
Goliae, and frequent mention is made of a goliardic order with the
titles of abbot, prior, etc. Apart from their satirical attitude
towards ecclesiastical life, the goliards showed their free and at
times heretical views in their parodies of religious hymns, their
irreverence in adapting ecclesiastical melodies to secular texts.
and their use of metaphors and expressions from church hymns in
their loose verses.

In outward form the poetry of the goliards resembled the
ecclesiastical sequences, rhyme being combined with an easily sung
rhythm and the verses being joined into strophes. Singularly rapid
in its development, its decay was no less sudden. The cause of its
decline is traceable partly to the conditions of the time and
partly to the character of the goliardic poets. In a burlesque
edict of 1265 the goliards were compared to bats -- neither
quadrupeds nor birds. This was indeed a not inapt comparison, for
their unfortunate begging rendered them odious to clergy and laity
alike. Forgetting their higher educational parts, they found it
necessary to ally themselves more and more closely with the
strolling players and thus became subject to the ecclesiastical
censures repeatedly decreed by synods and councils against these
wandering musicians. Thus, regarded virtually as outlaws, they are
heard of no more in France after the thirteenth century, although
then are referred to in the synods of Germany until the following
century. Together with the poets gradually disappeared their
songs, and only a few are preserved in the Kommersb�cher of the
student world. Yet the influence of their poetry on the secular
German lyric, and perhaps also on the outer form of religious
poetry, was both stimulating and permanent. In this fact lies
their principal literary importance and they are valuable as
illustrations of the literary culture of the time.

Quite distinct in subject and form is the lyric poetry of the
humanistic period, the era of the revival of classical learning.
The work of a few scattered poets, it could not attain the
popularity won by the goliardic poetry, even had its form not been
exclusively imitation of ancient classical versification. From the
beginning of the sixteenth century the Catholic humanist, Vida,
had been engaged among other works on the composition of odes,
elegies, and hymns: he belonged to the poetae urbani of the Medici
period of Leo X, many of whom wrote lyrical, in addition to their
epical, pieces. Johannes Dantiscus, who died in 1548 as Bishop of
Ermland, composed thirty religious hymns after the fashion of the
older ones in the Breviary, without any trace of classical
imitation. Even the renowned Nicolaus Copernicus composed seven
odes embodying the beautiful Christian truths associated with
Advent and Christmas. Among the Humanists of France, John Salmon
(Salmonius Macrinus) was named the French Horace, and among the
numerous other names those of Erixius with his "Carmina" (1519)
and Theodore de B�ze with his "Poemata" (1548) deserve special
mention. In Belgium and the Netherlands Johannes Secundus (Jan
Nicolai Everaerts, d. 1536) was conspicuous as a classical poet.
From Holland Latin poetry found an entrance also into the Northern
Empire under the patronage of Queen Christina, while even Iceland
had its representative in the Protestant Bishop Sveinsson (1605-
74), who among other works published a rich collection of poems to
the Blessed Virgin in the most varied ancient classical metres.

As in the domain of drama, so also in that of lyrical poetry,
Humanism showed itself most fruitful in Germany, particularly in
connection with the dissemination of the new doctrine of Luther.
"Thus among the neo-Latinist poets we meet a large number of
preachers, school-rectors, university and grammar school
professors who translated the Psalms into Horatian metres,
converted ecclesiastical and edifying songs of every type into the
most divine ancient strophes, and finally, an immeasurable number
of occasional poems, celebrated in verse princes and potentates,
religious and secular festivals, the consecration of churches,
christenings, marriage, interments, installations, occasions of
public rejoicing and calamity" (Baumgartner). The Jesuits were as
distinguished for their fruitful activity in the field of lyrical
poetry as in the school drama. With Sarbiewski (q. v.), the Polish
Horace, were associated by Urban VIII for the revision of the old
hymn in the Breviary Famian Strada, Tarquinius Galuzzi, Hieronymus
Petrucci and Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. In addition to Balde (q.
v.) there were among the German Jesuit poets a notable number of
lyricists. Of the many names we may mention Jacob Masen, Nicola
Avancini, Adam Widl, and John Bissel, who must be numbered among
the best-known imitators of Horace. In the Netherlands, France,
Italy, England, Portugal and Spain, their number was not smaller,
nor their achievements of less value. For example the Dutch
Hosschius (de Hossche, 1596-1669) excels both Balde and Sarbiewski
in purity of language and smoothness of verse. Simon Rettenbacher
(163-1706), the Benedictine imitator of Balde, whose lyrics show a
true poetic gift, also deserves a place among the neo-Latinist
writers of odes. The nineteenth century added but one name to the
list of Latin lyricists, that of Leo XIII, whose poems evince an
intimate knowledge of ancient classical literature. The other
trend of neo-Latinist lyric poetry embraces religious hymnody.
"The whole career of ecclesiastical and devotional hymnody from
its cradle to the present day may be divided into three natural
periods, of which the first is the most important, the second the
longest and the third the most insignificant." Such is the
division of Latin ecclesiastical hymnody (q. v.) given by the
greatest authority, the late Father Guido Dreves formerly a member
of the Society of Jesus.

C. The neo-Latin Epic

The epic forms, as is natural, the largest part of our inheritance
of Christian Latin poetry. As a lucid treatment according to any
regular division of the subject-matter is difficult, we shall
content ourselves with a chronological sketch of it. The
foundation of the Benedictine Order was in every respect an event
of prime importance. The Benedictines advanced the interests of
culture, not only to supply the needs of life, but also to
embellish it. Thus among the earliest companions of St. Benedict
we already find a poet, Marcus of Monte Cassino, who in his
distich sang the praises of the deceased founder of his order.
During the sixth century, while the foundations of a rich
literature were being thus laid the culture formerly so
flourishing in Northern Africa had almost died out. The imperial
governor, Flavius Cresconius Corippus, and Bishop Verecundus were
still regarded as poets of some merit: but the former lacked
poetic inspiration, the latter, poetic form. Among the Visigoths
in Spain, however, we find true poets, e. g., St. Eugenius II with
his version of the Hexaemeron. In Gaul in the sixth century
flourished the most celebrated poet of his age, Venantius
Fortunatus. Most original is his "Epithalamium" on the marriage of
Sigebert I of Austrasia to the Visigothic princess Brunehaut,
Christian thought being clothed in ancient mythological forms.
About 250 more or less extensive poems of Venantius are extant,
including a "Life of St. Martin" in more than two thousand
hexameter verses. Most of his composition are occasional poems. In
addition to his well-known hymns "Vexilla regis" and "Pange
lingua", his elegies treating of the tragical fate of the family
of Radegundis found the greatest appreciation. About the same
period there sprang up in the British Isles a rich harvest of
Latin culture One of the most eminent poets is St. Aldhelm, a
scion of the royal house of Wessex: his great work "De laudibus
virginum", containing 3000 verses, attained a wide renown which it
long enjoyed. The Venerable Bede also cultivated Latin poetry,
writing a eulogy of St. Cuthbert in 976 hexameters.

Ireland transmitted the true Faith, together with higher culture,
to Germany. The earliest pioneers were Saints Columbanus and Gall:
the former is credited with some poems, the latter founded Saint-
Gall. The real apostle of Germany, St. Boniface, left behind some
hundreds of didactic verses. The seeds sown by this saint
flourished and spread under the energetic Charlemagne, who
succeeded without neglecting his extensive affairs of state, in
making his Court a Round Table of Science and Art, at which Latin
was the colloquial speech. The soul of this learned circle was
Alcuin, who showed his knowledge of classical antiquity in two
great epic poems, the "Life of St. Willibrord" and the history of
his native York. In command of language and skill of versification
as well as in the number of poems transmitted to posterity,
Theodulf the Goth surpassed all members of the Round Table.
Movements similar to that at Charlemagne's Court are observed in
the contemporary monastic schools of Fulda, Reichenau, and Saint-
Gall. It will suffice to mention a few of the chief names from the
multitude of poets. Walafrid Strabo's "De visionibus Wettini",
containing about 1000 hexameters, is justly regarded as the
precursor of Dante's "Divine Comedy". His verses on the equestrian
statue of Theodoric, "Versus de imagine tetrici", are of literary
importance, because he represents the king as a tyrant hating God
and man. Highly interesting also for the art of gardening is his
great poem Hortulus", in which he describes the monastery garden
with its various herbs, etc. Contemporary with Walafrid and
characterized by the same spirit were the poets Ernoldas,
Nigellus, Ermenrich, Sedulius Scottus, etc. As a "real gem from
the treasury of old manuscripts" F. R�ckert describes the elegy on
Hathumod, the first Abbess of Gandersheim written by the
Benedictine Father Agius. From the same monk of Corwey we have the
poem "On the translation of St. Liborius" and a poetical biography
of Charlemagne. A peculiar work was written by Albert Odo of Cluny
under the title "Occupatio": it is an epico-didactic poem against
pride and debauchery, which he demonstrates to be the chief vices
in the history of the world.

The golden age of Saint-Gall begins with the end of the ninth
century, after which opens the epoch of the four famous Notkers
and the five not less renowned Ekkehards. The first Ekkehard is
the author of the well-known "Waltharius" which Ekkehard IV
revised. About the time when the "Waltharius" was revised, there
appeared another epic poem "Ruodlieb" -- a romance in Latin
hexameters by an unknown author, describing the adventurous fate
of the hero -- which is unfortunately only partly extant. The name
of the poet who in 1175 composed in Latin hexameters the first
"animal" epic, "Ecbasis cuius dam captivi per tropologiam", is
also unknown. The frame-work of the poem is the story of a monk
mho runs away from the monastery but is brought back again under
the form of a calf. The "Fable of the Bees" forms the "animal"
epic in which the enmity of the wolf and fox is the central point.
In the twelfth century this "animal" epic received an extension
probably from Magister Nivardus of Flanders under the title
"Ysengrimus" or "Renardus vulpes": from the poem thus extended an
extract was made later and this is the last product of the animal"
epic in the thirteenth century. Like Charlemagne Otto the Great
(936-73) sought to make his Court the centre of science, art, and
literature. The most brilliant representative of this period is
the nun Hroswitha, pupil of the emperor's niece Gerberga. It was
in the epic that she achieved her first poetic successes: these
were her well-known "Legends", which were followed by two long
epic poems in praise of the imperial house (see HROSWITHA) .

The chroniclers and historians of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries but seldom use verse in their narratives, their stories
being intended above all else for strictly historical purposes.
Histories in verse however, were not wanting. Thus Flodoard
records in legendary fashion almost the whole ecclesiastical
history of the first ten centuries. Walter of Speyer wrote during
the same period the first Legend of St. Christopher", and an
unknown poet composed "The Epic of the Saxon War" (of Henry IV).
Other poets wrote on the Crusades, Walter of Ch�tillon even
ventured on an "Alexandreis", while Hildebert produced a "
Historia Mahumetis" in verse.

The Humanists of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are
characterized by a closer approach to ancient classical form.
Marbod (d. 1123) was a scholarly poet, and left behind a
considerable number of legends and didactic aphorisms. His younger
contemporary Hildebert of Tours also wrote a fair number of
religious poems: more important are the two "Roman Elegies", in
which he treats of the remains of ancient Rome and the sufferings
of the papal capital under Paschal II. Most artistic in its
conception and execution, is his fragment "Liber mathematicus", in
which the tragical complications caused by the superstitious fear
arising from an unfavourable horoscope are depicted. That the
medieval Scholastics could combine theological knowledge with
humanistic culture may be seen from the works of the two scholars
John of Salisbury and Alanus de Insulis. That the influence of
this humanistic culture was unfortunately not always for good, the
notorious prurient narratives of Matthew of Vend�me prove. In the
days of the goliards there were also poets who depicted in verse
contemporary events. Thus the achievements of Barbarossa were sung
by no less than three poets.

Humanism attained its full bloom in the era of the Renaissance,
which began in Italy. Dante gives strong evidence of this
movement, as does even more strongly Francesco Petrarch, whose
epic "Africa" enjoyed wide renown. Giovanni Boccaccio, a
contemporary of the preceding, belongs rather to Italian
literature, although he also cultivated Latin poetry. The
humanistic movement found favourable reception and encouragement
everywhere. In Florence there sprang up about the Augustinian
monk, Luigi Marsigli (d. 1394), a kind of literary academy for the
cultivation of ancient literature while in the following century
the city of the Medici developed into the literary centre of all
Italy. Most representatives of the new movement preserved their
close connection with the Church, although a few isolated
forerunners of the great revolt of the sixteenth century already
made their appearance. The seeds of this religious revolution were
sown by the lampoons and libidinous poems of such men as Poggio
Bracciolini, Antonio Beccadelli and Lorenzo Valla. Maffeo Vegio on
the other hand followed the purely humanistic direction of the
true Renaissance; he added a thirteenth book to Virgil's "Aeneid",
making the poem conclude with the death of Aeneas. He also
composed poetic versions of the "Death of Astyanax" and " The
Golden Fleece", and still later composed a "Life of St. Anthony .
An epic eulogizing the elder Hunyadi was begun by the Hungarian
Janus Pannonius, but unfortunately left unfinished. A legendary
poem of an entirely original character is the "Josephina", written
in twelve cantos by John Gerson, the learned chancellor of the
University of Paris. It reminds us of a similar poem by Hroswitha,
though the apocryphal narratives taken from the so-called Gospel
of St. James are marked by greater depth. Humanism was planted in
Germany by Petrarch during his residence there as ambassador to
Charles IV, with whom he corresponded after his departure. The
interest in humanistic studies was also spread by Aeneas Silvius
at the Council of Basle.

As in Italy, the movement rapidly developed everywhere, evincing
at first a religious tendency but afterwards becoming hostile to
the Church. In the century preceding the "Reformation", indeed,
the foremost representatives of Humanism remained true to the
ancient Faith. Conrad Celtes, although his four Books of "Amores"
are a reflection of his dissolute life sang later of Catholic
truths and the lives of the saints. Similarly Willibald Pirkheimer
(d. 1528) among many others, notwithstanding his satire "Eccius
desolatus", remained faithful to the Church. On the other hand
Esoban Hessus, Crotus Rubeanus, and above all Ulrich von Hutten
espoused the cause of the new doctrine in their highly satirical
writings. A somewhat protean character was displayed by Desiderius
Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose early works include hymns to Christ
and the Virgin Mary. "Laus stultitia", a satire on all the estates
after the fashion of Brant's "Narrenschiff", was written in seven
day to cheer his sick friend, Thomas More. In England especially
at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the humanistic
movement developed along the same lines as in Germany. The first
direction was given to the movement mainly by Thomas More, whose
"Utopia" (1515) is world renowned. In Italy the Renaissance
movement continued into the sixteenth century. Sadolet's poem on
"The Laocoon Group" is known throughout the literary world, while
his epic on the heroic death of Caius Curtius is equally finished.
Not less famous is Vida s "Christiad ": he also wrote didactic
poems on "Silk-worms" and "Chess". Among the more important works
of this period must also be included Jacopo Sannazaro with his
classically finished epic "De partu Virginis", at which he
laboured for twenty years. His Naenia" on the death of Christ also
merits every praise. The example of Vida and Sannazaro spurred
numerous other poets to undertake extensive epical works, of which
none attained the excellence of their models.

In other countries also the new literary movement continued,
although it produced richer fruit in the field of dramatic and
lyric poetry than in epic poetry. The singular attempt of Laurenz
Rhodomannus to compose a "Legend of Luther" in opposition to the
Catholic legend deserves mention on account of its peculiarity.
Among the works of the dramatists we also meet with more or less
ambitious attempts at epic verse. This is especially true of the
dramatists of the Society of Jesus. J. Masen's "Sarcotis", for
example enjoys a certain fame as the proto-type of Milton's
"Paradise Lost" and Vondel's "Lucifer". Biedermann and Avancini
also composed small epic narratives. Balde produced many epical
works, his "Batrachomyomachia" is an allegorical treatment of the
Thirty Years' War, and his "Obsequies of Tilly bring to light many
interesting particulars concerning the great general. He also
celebrated in verse the heroic death of Dampierre and Bouquois.
Not least among his works is his "Urania Victrix". But, instead of
accumulating further names, let us bring forward just a few of the
more important poems: the "Puer Jesus" of Tommaso Ceva must be
placed in the front rank of idyllic compositions; the "Life of
Mary" (2086 distichs) of the Brazilian missionary, Venerable
Joseph de Anchieta, is a model for similar works. During the
nineteenth century the Latin epic more or less centred around the
endowment of the rich native of Amsterdam, Jacob Henry Hoeufft,
who founded a competitive prize for Latin poetry. Peter Esseiva, a
Swiss, is the best-known prize winner: he celebrated in beautiful
classical verse and brilliant Latin such modern inventions as the
railroad, etc., and also treated strictly religious and light
topics (e. g., in "The Flood", "The Grievances of an Old Maid") .
Leo XIII was the last writer who wrote short epical poems in
addition to his odes. Baumgartner, the author of "Weltliteratur",
assigns to Latin Christian poetry the well-merited praise: "It
still contains creative suggestions and offers the noblest of
intellectual enjoyment."

N. SCHEID
Transcribed by Michael C. Tinkler


From the Catholic Encyclopedia, copyright � 1913 by the
Encyclopedia Press, Inc. Electronic version copyright � 1996 by
New Advent, Inc.

Taken from the New Advent Web Page (www.knight.org/advent).

This article is part of the Catholic Encyclopedia Project, an
effort aimed at placing the  entire Catholic Encyclopedia 1913
edition on the World Wide Web. The coordinator is Kevin Knight,
editor of the New Advent Catholic Website. If you would like to
contribute to this  worthwhile project, you can contact him by e-
mail at (knight.org/advent). For  more information please download
the file cathen.txt/.zip.

-------------------------------------------------------

  Provided courtesy of:

       Eternal Word Television Network
       PO Box 3610
       Manassas, VA 22110
       Voice: 703-791-2576
       Fax: 703-791-4250
       Web: http://www.ewtn.com
       Email address: [email protected]

-------------------------------------------------------

You are viewing proxied material from gopher.ratthing.com. The copyright of proxied material belongs to its original authors. Any comments or complaints in relation to proxied material should be directed to the original authors of the content concerned. Please see the disclaimer for more details.