In this article, I shall discuss some of the physical aspects of the
passion, or suffering, of Jesus Christ. We shall follow Him from
Gethsemane, through His trial, His scourging, His path along the Via
Dolorosa, to His last dying hours on the cross.
I suddenly relized that I had taken the crucifixion more or less for
granted all these years - that I had grown callous to its horror by a too easy
familiarity with the grim details - and a too distant friendship with Him. It
finally occured to me that as a physician, I did not even know the actual
immediate cause of death. The Gospel writers do not help us very much on this
point, because crucifixion and scourging were so common during their lifetime
that they undoubtedly considered a detailed description totally superfluous -
so we have the concise words of the Evangelist: "Pilate, having scourged
Jesus, delivered Him to them to be crucified - and they crucified Him".
What did the body of Jesus of Nazareth actually endure during those
hours of torture?
This led me first to a study of the practice of crucifixion itself;
that is, the torture and execution of a person by fixation to a cross.
The upright portion of the cross (or stipes) could have the crossarm (or
patibulum) attached two or three feet below it's top (this is what we commonly
think of today as the classic form of the cross, the one which we have later
named the Latin cross). However, the common form used in our Lord's day was
the Tau cross, shaped like the Greek letter Tau or like our "T". In this
cross the patibulum was placed in a notch at the top of the stipes. There is
fairly overwhelming archeological evidence that it was on this type of cross
that Jesus was crucified.
The upright post, or stipes, was generally fixed in the ground at the
site of execution and the condemned man was forced to carry the patibulum,
apparently weighing about 110 pounds, from the prison to the place of
execution. Roman historical accounts and experimental work have shown that
the nails were driven between the small bones of the wrists and not through
the palms. Nails driven trough the palms will strip out between the fingers
when they support the weight of a human body. The misconception may have come
about through a misunderstanding of Jesus' words to Thomas, "observe my
hands". Anatomists, both modern and ancient, have always considered the
wrists as part of the hand.
A titulus, or small sign, stating the victim's crime was usually
carried at the front of the procession and later nailed to the cross above the
head. This sign with it's staff nailed to the top of the cross would have
given it somewhat the characteristic form of the Latin cross.
The physical passion of Christ began in Gethsemane. Of the many aspects
of this initial suffering, I shall only discuss the one of physiological
interest, the bloody sweat. It is interesting that the physician of the
group, St. Luke, is the only one to mention this. He says, "And being in
agony, He prayed the longer. And his sweat became as drops of blood,
trickling down upon the ground".
Though very rare, the phenomenon of Hematidrosis, or bloody sweat, is
well documented. Under great emotional stress, tiny capillaries in the sweat
glands can break, thus mixing blood with sweat. This process alone could
have produced marked weakness and possible shock.
We shall move rapidly through the betrayal and arrest. I must stress
again that important portions of the Passion story are missing from this
account. This may be frustrating to you, but in order to adhere to our
purpose of discussion only of the purely physical aspect of the Passion, this
is necessary. After the arrest in the middle of the night, Jesus was brought
before the Sanhedrin and Caiaphas, the High Priest; it is here that the
first physical trauma was inflicted. A soldier struck Jesus accross the face
for remaining silent when questioned by Caiaphas. The palace guards then
blindfolded Him and mockingly taunted Him to identify each of them as they
passed by, spat on Him, and struck Him in the face.
In the morning, Jesus, battered and bruised, dehydrated, and
exhausted from a sleepless night, is taken across Jerusalem to the Praetorium
of the Fortess Antonia, the seat of government of the Procurator of Judea,
Pontius Pilate. You are, of course, familiar with Pilate's acton in
attempting to pass responsibility to Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Judea.
Jesus apparently sufferd no physical mistreatment at the hands of Herod and
was returned to Pilate. It was then, in response to the cries of the mob,
that Pilate ordered Bar-Abbas released and condemned Jesus to scourging and
crucifixion. Most Roman writers from this period do not associate the two.
Many scholars believe that Pilate originally ordered Jesus scourged as his
full punishment and that the death sentence by crucifixion came only in
response to the taunt by the mob that the Procurator was not properly
defending Caesar against this pretender who claimed to be the "KING OF THE
JEWS".
Preparations for the scourging are carried out. The prisoner is
stripped of His clothing and His hands tied to a post above His head. It is
doubtful whether the Romans made any attempt to follow the Jewish law in this
matter of scourging. The Jews had an ancient law prohibiting more than forty
lashes. The Pharisees, always making sure that the law was strictly kept,
insisted that only thirty-nine lashes be given. (In this way, they were sure
of remaining within the law in case of a miscount). The Roman legionnaire
steps forward with the flagrum in his hand. This is a short whip consisting
of several heavy, leather thongs with two small balls of lead attached near
the ends of each. The heavy whip is brought down with full force again and
again accross Jesus' shoulders, back, and legs. At first the heavy thongs
cut through the skin only. Then as blows continue, they cut deeper into the
tissues, producing first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and veins of
the skin, and finally spurting arterial bleeding from vessels in the
underlying muscles. The small balls of lead first produce large, deep
bruises which are broken open by subsequent blows. Finally the skin of the
back is hanging in long ribbons and the entire area is an unrecognizable mass
of torn, bleeding tissue. When it is determined by the centurian in charge
that the prisoner is near death, the beating is finally stopped.
The half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to slump to the stone
pavement, wet with His own blood. The Roman soldiers see a great joke in
this provincial Jew claiming to be a king. They throw a robe across His
shoulders and place a stick in His hand for a scepter. They still need a
crown to make their travesty complete. A small bundle of flexible branches
covered with long thorns (commonly used for firewood) are plaited into a shape
of a crown and this is pressed into His scalp. Again there is copious
bleeding (the scalp being one of the most vascular areas of the body). After
mocking Him and striking Him across the face, the soldiers take the stick
from His hand and strike Him across the head, driving the thorns deeper into
His scalp. Finally, they tire of their sadistic sport and the robe is torn
from His back. This had already become adherent to the clots of blood and
serum in the wounds, and it's removal, just as in the careless removal of a
surgical bandage, causes excruciating pain... almost as though He were again
being whipped - and the wounds begin to bleed again.
In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return His garments. The
heavy patibulum of the cross is tied across His shoulders, and the procession
of the condemned Christ, two thieves, and the execution detail of Roman
soldiers headed by a centurion, begins it's slow journey. In spite of His
efforts to walk erect, the weight of the heavy wooden beam, together with
the shock produced by copious blood loss, is too much. He stumbles and
falls. The rough wood of the beam gouges into the lacrated skin and muscles
of the shoulders. The centurian, anxious to get on with the crucifixion,
selects a stalwart North African onlooker - Simon of Cyrene, to carry the
cross. Jesus follows, still bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy sweat of
shock. The 650 yard journey to Golgotha is finally completed. The prisoner
is again stripped of His clothes - except for a loin cloth which is allowed
the Jews.
The crucifixion begins. Jesus is offered wine mixed with Myrrh, a mild
analgesic mixture. He refuses to drink. Simon is ordered to place the
patibulum on the ground and Jesus is quickly thrown backward with His
shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire feels for the depression at the
front of the wrist. He drives a heavy, square, wrought-iron nail through
the wrist and deep into the wood. Quickly he moves to the other side and
repeats the action, being careful not to pull the arms too tightly, but to
allow some flexion and movement. The patibulum is then lifted in place at the
top of the stipes and the titulus reading "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the
Jews" is nailed in place.
The left foot is pressed backward against the right foot, and with both
feet extended and toes down, a nail is driven through the arch of each,
leaving the knees moderately flexed. The victim is now crucified. As He
slowly sags down with more weight on the nails in the wrists, excruciating -
fiery pain shoots along the fingers and up the arms to explode in the brain as
the nails in the wrists are putting pressure on the median nerves. As He
pushes Himself upward to avoid this stretching torment, He places His full
weight on the nail tearing through the nerves between the metatarsal bones of
the feet.
At this point, another phenomenon occurs. As the arms fatigue, great
waves of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in deep, relentless,
throbbing pain. With these cramps comes the inability to push Himself upward.
Hanging by His arms, the pectoral muscles are parlyzed and the intercostal
muscles are unable to act. Air can be drawn into the lungs, but cannot be
exhaled. Jesus fights to raise Himself in order to get even one short breath.
Finally, carbon dioxide builds up in the lungs and in the blood stream and
the cramps partially subside. Spasmodically, He is able to push Himself
upward to exhale and bring in the life-giving oxygen. It was undoubtedly
during these periods that He utterd the seven short sentences which are
recorded:
The first, looking down at the Roman soldiers throwing dice for His
seamless garment, "Father, forgive them for they know not what they do."
The second, to the persistent thief, "Today thou shalt be with me in
Paradise."
The third, looking down at the terrified, grief stricken, adelescent
John (the beloved Apostle), he said, "Behold thy mother", and looking to
Mary, His mother, "Woman, behold thy son."
The fourth cry is from the beginning of the 22nd Psalm, "My God, my
God, why hast thou forsaken me?"
Hours of this limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending
cramps, intermittent partial asphixiation, searing pain as the tissue is
torn from His lacerated back as He moves up and down against the rough timber.
Then another agony begins. A deep crushing pain deep in the chest as the
pericardium slowly fills with serum and begins to compress the heart.
Let us remember again the 22nd Psalm, verse 14: "I am poured out like
water, and all my bones are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is
melted in the midst of my bowels."
It is now almost over - the loss of tissue fluids has reached a critical
level, the compressed heart is struggling to pump heavy, thick, sluggish
blood into the tissues, the tortured lungs are making a frantic effort to
gasp in small gulps of air. The markedly dehydrated tissues send their flood
of stimuli to the brain.
Jesus gasps His fifth cry, "I thirst."
Let us remember another verse from the prophetic 22nd Psalm: "My
strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue cleaveth to my jaws; and
thou hast brought me into the dust of death."
A sponge soaked in Posca, the cheap, sour wine which is the staple
drink of the Roman legionnaires, is lifted to His lips. He apparently does
not take any of the liquid. The body of Jesus is now in extremis, and He can
feel the chill of death creeping through His tissues. This realization brings
out His sixth words, possibly little more than a tortured whisper: "It is
finished."
His mission of atonement has been completed. Finally He can allow His
body to die.
With one last surge of strength, He once again presses His torn feet
against the nail, straightens His legs, takes a deeper breath, and utters
His seventh and last cry: "Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit."
The rest you know. In order that the Sabbath not be profaned, the Jews
asked that the condemned men be dispatched and removed from the crosses. The
common method of ending a crucifixion was by crurefracture, the breaking of
the legs. This prevented the victim from pushing himself upward; the tension
could not be relieved from the muscles of the chest, and rapid suffocation
then occurred. The legs of the two thieves were broken, but when they came
to Jesus, they saw that this was unnecessary.
Apparently to make doubly sure of death, the legionnaire drove his
lance through the fifth interspace between the ribs, upward through the
pericardium and into the heart. The 34th verse of the 19th chapter of the
Gospel according to St. John: "And immediately there came out blood and
water." Thus there was an escape of watery fluid from the sac surrounding the
heart and blood from the interior of heart. We therefore, have rather
conclusive postmortem evidence that our Lord died, not the usual crucifixion
death by suffocation, but of heart failure due to shock and a constriction of
the heart by fluid in the pericardium.
Thus we have seen a glimpse of the epitomy of evil which man can exibit
toward man - and toward God. This is not a pretty sight and is apt to leave
us despondent and depressed. How grateful we can be that we have a sequel, a
glimpse of the infinite mercy of God toward man - the miracle of the atonement
and the expectation of Easter morning!
