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From: [email protected] (Robin Getz)
Subject: COP8 microcontroller FAQ
Message-ID: <[email protected]>
Followup-To: poster
Summary: This artile is a collection of information sources on the line
of National Semiconductor Corporation's ("National's") COP8
family of 8-bit microcontrollers.
Last-Modified: April 21, 1995
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Archive-name: microcontroller-faq/COP8
Posting-Frequency: monthly (20thish of each month)
Last-modified: 20June1995
URL: http://www.nsc.com/

This article is a draft collection of information sources on the line of
National Semiconductor Corporation ("National") COP8 microcontrollers.

The following topics are addressed:

0) Changes Since Last Time
0.1) Why should I read this?

1) ABOUT THIS FAQ
1.1) Who put this FAQ together?
1.2) How can I contribute to this list?
1.3) What newsgroups will this FAQ be posted to?
1.4) May I post this FAQ to my local BBS?
1.5) Are there any FAQs pertaining to other microcontrollers?

2) ABOUT THE COP8
2.1) The COP8 microcontroller
2.2) COP8 flavors / Numbering Scheme
2.3) COP8 chips and approximate prices (in US $)
2.4) Advantages in implementing control applications on this
family of microcontrollers
2.5) Techy Details
2.5.1) How fast are the parts?
2.5.2) What is the operating voltage of the devices?
2.5.3) How can I guarantee that my program will run reliably?
2.5.4) What kind of power savings features are available?
2.5.5) What about EMI?
2.5.6) Instruction Set
2.5.7) Can I hook up a LED to pins direct?

3) COP8 PRODUCTS
3.1) FTP sites
3.2) BBSs
3.3) Free languages and development tools
3.4) Free C compilers
3.5) Plans for COP8-based boards
3.6) Commercially available products
3.7) Contacting National

4) COP8 DOCUMENTATION
4.1) Periodicals
4.2) Data Books / Application Notes

----------------------------------------------------------------------

0) Changes since Last Time

Added a reference to [email protected] (a support line for help on
cop8 tools).

Somebody pointed out to me the other day - Since the COP8 and the 8051
are modified harvard - they can do a load/store instruction in one
instruction cycle. A Von Neuman machine can not do that. This makes
(for memory intensive applications) a harvard machine almost 2 times
as fast as a Von Neuman running at the same speed.....

Maybe architecture does make a difference on a 8-bit controller....

0.1) Why should I read this document?

The COP8 is a pretty cool 8-bit microcontroller that has never had a
lot of exposure into the hobbiest/smaller manufactures marketplace.
I would like to change that. (& on the internet the indiviaul can do
anything!)

In a nutshell, some of the strengths of the COP8 are:
o Efficient Instruction Set - 77% os instructions are single cycle/
single byte
o Efficient Input/Output utilization - i.e. on a 44-pin package > 80%
of this pins are devoted to I/O. Efficient pin usage facilitiates a
cleaner hardware design and smaller die size = Overall cost reduction
o Powerful Timers - i.e. processor-independent Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) and capture capabiliy - less software and processor overhead
o Low Poer Consumption (Low Voltage / Low Current)
o Multi-Input Wake Up (MIWU) - Only COP8 offers this unique feature
o Wide range of temperature and power supply operation
o Low cost Basic Family to address low-end 8-bit applications and
feature family to address mid-to-high end 8-bit market

And the Opposite side to the coin (have to be fair):
o Difficult (i.e. none) external memory interface
o No Multipy / Divide instructions
o Multiply / Divide hardware only offered on a couple devices
o Lack of EEPROM, and LCD (Although they are working on it)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1) ABOUT THIS FAQ

1.1) Who put this FAQ together?

After reading the excellent FAQs on the 8051 (Intel/Phillips) and
the 68hc11 (Motorola) put together by Russ Hersch
<[email protected]> (Nice work Russ), I decided to make a FAQ
on the COP8, National's family of 8-bit microcontrollers.

I work for National in the Geographic Business Unit (GBU) responsible for
technical support for New Business Development (NBD), so if you want to
call this advertising, and don't want me to continue to post this in
the future, please email me (that doesn't mean I will stop, but you
will get it off your chest ;-). I think that I have kept most of the
hype out - please let me know if you think otherwise.

This FAQ will hopefully give everyone a brief overview of why you should
have a further look at the COP8 instead of automatically picking a
HC11, or 8051. Not that they are bad parts, in fact they are better
at some things than the COP8. And COP8 is much better at some things
than the HC11 or 8051. The COP8 is a good chip, and well worth
learning and developing with. With everyone's help this FAQ should
turn out to be a useful document.

Because I admire Russ's FAQ's and I was too lazy to take the time to think
up my own format, I have copied his basic format and a couple of sections
(with his permission, of course).

1.2) How can I contribute to this list?

I ask that if you have any suggestions or additions, or you would like to
correct any of the information contained herein, please send me a note.

My Email address is: [email protected]
My Smail address is:
Robin Getz
National Semiconductor Corporation
MS 16-325
Santa Clara, CA, 94086
USA

I certainly hope that those of you who know of interesting items for
the COP8 will share with everyone by contributing to this list.

If you are a manufacturer and have an anonymous ftp site available
that supports the COP8, please let me know by Email so that I can
add it to this FAQ.

1.3) What newsgroups will this FAQ be posted to?

This FAQ will be posted to the following newsgroups:
comp.realtime Issues related to real-time computing.
comp.robotics All aspects of robots and their applications.
sci.electronics Circuits, theory, electrons and discussions.
comp.arch.embedded Embedded computer systems topics.

And sometime later, depending on what people think....
news.answers
comp.answers
sci.answers

The first four newsgroups often contain discussions, announcements,
or information on microcontrollers. Check them out from time to
time. By posting to the *.answers newsgroups, the FAQ will
automatically be archived. The archive name of this FAQ (also
included in the header) is: cop8-microcontroller-faq.

Items will be posted once a month. I can't promise that
it will be on time, but I hope to post it on the 25th of each month.

You may also want to check out the following newsgroups, since they
occasionally have items of interest for COP8 users.
comp.lang.misc
alt.comp.hardware.homebuilt

1.4) May I post this FAQ to my local BBS?

I am putting no restrictions on the use of this FAQ except - It must
be distributed in its entirety with the copyright notice, and no
financial gain may be realized from it. After all, I have spent, and
continue to spend, a lot of time on this, and the only thing that I
intend to gain from it is more information on the COP8, and getting
to know my fellow COP8 groupies better.

For this reason I have appended a copyright statement to the end of
this FAQ. I feel pretty silly doing this, but I just want to protect
myself. The copyright does not limit the use of this list for
non-commercial purposes. I hereby give my permission to one and all
to pass this list around and post it wherever you want - as long as
it is not for financial gain.

Thanks.

1.5) How about FAQs on other microcontrollers?

If anyone wishes to start a FAQ on another microcontroller, please
feel free to copy the format of this FAQ (I did). With a common
format, we will all benefit when trying to find information on a
particular microcontroller. If anyone has any comments on the format
itself, I'm open for suggestions.

Other Microcontroller FAQs

Subject: 68hc11 microcontrollers
Newsgroups: comp.realtime
comp.robotics
sci.electronics
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : <plus all mirror sites>
/pub/usenet/comp.answers/microcontroller-faq/68hc11
/pub/usenet/sci.answers/microcontroller-faq/68hc11
/pub/usenet/news.answers/microcontroller-faq/68hc11
Maintainer: Russ Hersch
Email: [email protected]

Subject: PIC microcontrollers
Newsgroups: comp.realtime
comp.robotics
sci.electronics
Maintainer: Tom Kellett
[email protected]

Subject: 8051 microcontrollers
Newsgroups: comp.sys.intel
comp.realtime
comp.robotics
comp.lang.forth
sci.electronics
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : <plus all mirror sites>
/pub/usenet/comp.answers/microcontroller-faq/8051
/pub/usenet/sci.answers/microcontroller-faq/8051
/pub/usenet/news.answers/microcontroller-faq/8051
Maintainer: Russ Hersch
Email: [email protected]

Subject: Microcontroller primer and FAQ
Newsgroups: comp.sys.intel
comp.realtime
comp.robotics
sci.electronics
alt.comp.hardware.homebuilt
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : <plus all mirror sites>
/pub/usenet/comp.answers/microcontroller-faq/primer
/pub/usenet/sci.answers/microcontroller-faq/primer
/pub/usenet/news.answers/microcontroller-faq/primer
Maintainer: Russ Hersch
Email: [email protected]

Additional FAQs of interest

Subject: Robotics
Newsgroups: comp.robotics
Maintainer: Kevin Dowling
Email: [email protected]

Subject: Electronics
Newsgroups: sci.electronics
Maintainer: Filip Gieszczykiewicz
Email: [email protected]

Subject: Real-time
Newsgroups: comp.realtime, comp.answers, news.answers
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : pub/usenet/comp.realtime
Maintainer: Mark Linimon
Email: [email protected]

Subject: Neural Networks
Newsgroups: comp.ai.neural-nets,comp.answers,news.answers
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : pub/usenet/neural-net-faq
URL: http://wwwipd.ira.uka.de/~prechelt/FAQ/neural-net-faq.html
Maintainer: Lutz Prechelt
Email: [email protected]

Subject: Fuzzy Logic
Newsgroups: comp.ai.fuzzy,comp.answers,news.answers
Archive: rtfm.mit.edu : pub/usenet/fuzzy-logic/
URL: http://www.cs.cmu.edu:8001/Web/Groups/AI/html/faqs
/ai/fuzzy/part1/faq.html (should be one line)
Maintainer: Mark Kantrowitz
Email: [email protected]

Other useful articles are also available. One article provides a
tabular cross reference of features and pin counts. This lists was
compiled and is being maintained by Roger Nelson
<[email protected]>.

For more information on various microcontrollers and their features,
refer to the Microcontroller primer and FAQ listed above. URL:
ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/comp.answers/microcontroller-faq/primer

----------------------------------------------------------------------

2) ABOUT THE COP8

2.1) The COP8 microcontroller

General

Firstly - COP8 (Control Orientated Processor) actually stands for
something. (Although the rest of the numbering scheme leaves something
to be desired). This is not a failed microprocessor that was cut down for
8-bit control (like some others). This is a full featured microcontroller
designed for bit level control. (Although National does make a 32-bit
processor (32000), the COP8 has nothing to do with it).

The COP8 is a powerful 8-bit data, 15-bit address (32K max ROM)
microcontroller from National with an instruction set that is
similar (somewhat) to the 8051, although it is much easier for
the beginner to understand and pick up (In my unbasised opinion
of course :)

Depending on the variety, the COP8 has built-in EEPROM/OTPROM, RAM,
digital I/O, timers, A/D converter, PWM generator, and synchronous
and asynchronous communications channels (RS232 and MICROWIRE/PLUS).
Typical current draw is less than 12ma, with powerdown modes that
can reduce current draw to typically less than 1 uA. (Although I
have seen ***50nA***)

A typical COP8 contains:
- CPU with Boolean processor
- fully static processor
- up to vectored 14 interrupts: 2 are external (8 pins can
be ORed into one interrupt, for a total of 9 external)
- arbitration levels
- 1,2 or 3 16-bit timer/counters (min 1 max 3)
- programmable full-duplex serial port (UART/USART or
MICROWIRE/PLUS)
- up to 56 I/O lines (11 pins min + Vcc/GND/Reset/CKI/CKO)
- up to 512 bytes RAM (64 bytes min)
- up to 16K ROM/EPROM in some models (768 bytes min)
- new parts are LOW EMI (typically lower than 14dB emissions)

The COP8 peripherals are POWERFUL. The timer that you will find on
a COP8 is much more powerful than on a typical microcontroller.
I will get into this a little later.

The COP8 instruction set is optimized for the one-bit operations so
often desired in real-world, real-time control applications. The
Boolean processor provides direct support for bit manipulation. This
leads to more efficient programs that need to deal with binary input
and output conditions inherent in digital-control problems. Bit
addressing can be used for test pin monitoring or program control
flags.

Architecture

The COP8 is a modified Harvard architecture. With the Harvard
architecture, the ROM is separated from the data memory (RAM). Both
ROM and RAM have their own separate addressing space with separate
address busses (there are two 0 addresses - 1 for ROM, 1 for RAM). The
COP8, though based on the Harvard Architecture, permits transfers from
ROM to RAM (hence modified).

The CPU has an 8-bit accumulator (A) that all arithmetic operations go
into. Two 8-bit index registers are present (X, B) to provide indexing
to anywhere in the memory map. Having the two index registers means the
COP8 is very good for processing data. Although an 8-bit processor, the
COP8 has some 16 bit (and bigger) peripherals (timers, 24 by 8 divide,
16 by 8 multiply, 16-bit A/D). An 8 bit stack pointer is also present,
and instructions are provided for stack manipulation.

Feature Family / Basic Family

The COP8 family is divided into two families - the Basic Family and
the Feature Family. There is little difference between the devices
although the feature family has the following advantages:
- 7 more instructions (including PUSH and POP)
- 2 auto-reload registers on timers / Basic family only has one
- IDLE Mode (Basic family only offers HALT mode)
- powerful peripherals ( A/D, UART, high speed timers, WatchDog,
comparators, etc. )

Onboard subsystems

Timer - Main timer system comprises of a single 16-bit counter
(2 x 8-bit registers) clocked at tc (1MHz at Crystal frequency of
10MHz). Timers have at least one associated register and all Feature
Family devices have 2 registers. All timers have at least 1uSec
accuracy and some have 100nS - check datasheet for specific details.
Timers can be configured in the following methods:
- External Counter (clocked on positive or negative edge)
- Timer w/ Auto-Load Register (PWM output)
- Timer with Capture (triggered on positive or negative edge)

Pulse Stream Generators - Some of the devices have specific timers
that are 100ns resolution 16-bit PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) outputs
only.

Multi-Input Wakeup -The Multi-Input WakeUp (MIWU) is used to return
(wakeup) the microcontroller from either HALT or IDLE modes.
Alternately MIWU may also be used to generate up to 8 edge
selectable external interrupts. The user can select whether the
trigger condition on the pins is going to be either a positive edge
(low to high) or a negative edge (high to low).

A-D Converters - 8-bit, 8-channel (multiplexed input) SAR
(Successive Approximation Register). Two dedicated pins Vref and
Agnd are provided for voltage reference. The time required for an
A/D conversion is dependent on the prescaler (fast conversion = more
power consumed - you can run the microcontroller fast - and the A/D
slow). The A/D converter has the following different modes of
operation:
- One channel conversion then stop
- Any specific channel to be scanned continuously
- Any differential channel pair measurement and then stop
- Any differential channel pair be scanned continuously

It also has a device that supports single slope A/D - the device
contains a constant current source, a comparator, an analog
mutliplexer, and a couple of 16-bit timers. These can be configured to
give the designer a 16-bit (resolution - not accuracy) A/D converter.

UART / USART - Asynchronous or synchronous serial communication block.
Clock generation (for asynchronous operation) is very sophisticated -
standard baud rates (300,1200,2400,4800,9600,19200,38400) can be generated
without having to select some obscure crystal frequency (Run the
controller at full speed). Synchronous operations occur at 16 x the speed
of asynchronous. Framing formats supported are: 1 Start, 7,8 or 9 data,
Parity/No Parity, 1 or 2 stop. The Attention Mode (or Network Mode) is
also supported, whereby a single master / multi-slave environment is set
up. This is a *very* powerful feature that can be used almost anywhere
when you need to talk to more than one controller / CPU. Diagnostic
mode is also enhanced from a regular UART. Internally, the Transmit
Shift Register is "looped back" into the Receive Shift Register.
Externally the receiver input pin (RDX) is connected to the
transmitter output pin(TDX). This allows the external UART to do a
continuity check of the external lines.

MICROWIRE/PLUS - A Synchronous serial communications port, comprised
of Serial Clock (SK), Serial Data In (SI), Serial Data Out (SO) and
optional chip selects. There are many specific MICROWIRE, MICROWIRE/PLUS
and SPI devices, (the only difference between SPI and MICROWIRE is
when the data is shifted in - and with MICROWIRE/PLUS - you control that)
such as A/Ds, D/As, EPROM, FLASH, EEPROM, MUX's.....

Comparator - A differential comparator, with a pair of inputs (positive
and negative) and an output. The comparator can be software disabled (to
save power). The output can either be brought outside (via a pin) or left
as a bit somewhere inside the controller.

BrownOut - BrownOut protection is usually an on-board protection circuit
that resets the device when the operating voltage (Vcc) is lower than the
Brownout voltage. The device is held in reset and will remain in reset
when Vcc stays below the Brownout voltage. The device will resume
execution (from reset) after Vcc has risen above the BrownOut Voltage.

CAN - The COP8 supports applications which require a low speed CAN
interface. The interface is compatible with CAN Specification 2.0 part B,
without the capability to receive/transmit extended frames. However,
extended frames on the bus are checked and acknowledged according to the
CAN specification. The maximum bus speed achievable with the CAN interface
is a function of crystal frequency, message length and software overhead.
The device can support a bus speed of up to 1 Mbit/s with a 10MHz
oscillator and 2 byte messages.

Hardware Multiply / Divide - This block supports a 1 byte x 2 bytes
(3 byte result) multiply operation (in one instruction cycle - 1uS) or a
3 byte x 2 byte (2 byte result) divide operation (in two instruction
cycles - 2uS). There are no multiplication errors that can occur ( FFh x
FF FFh = FE FF 01h which fits in three bytes). Divide errors are trapped
(overflow FF FF FFh / 1h = FF FF FFh which is bigger than two bytes and
division by zero)

2.2) COP8 flavors / Numbering Scheme

All devices include at least one 16-bit timer, MICROWIRE/PLUS serial
interface, common pinouts, common instruction set and most are
available in ...

Basic Family Numbering Scheme

COP8720CJ-XXX/N
^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^
|||||| ||| \-- Package Type : N - DIP
|||||| ||| : WM - Surface Mount
|||||| ||| : V - PLCC
|||||| ||| : J - DIP Windowed
|||||| |||
|||||| \\\---- Unique ROM id Code assigned by National
|||||| NOTE: OTP and windowed parts do not have
|||||| this code
||||||
||||\\-------- Features : CJ - Brown-out,high speed timers,
|||| comparators,MIWU
|||| C - 16-bit timer
||||
|||\---------- Number of pins : 0 - 28/40/44 (depends on package)
||| : 1 - 28
||| : 2 - 20
||| : 3 - 16
||| : 8 - Indicates Feature Family
||| : 5 - Indicates Feature Family
||| : 4 - Indicates Feature Family
|||
||\------------ ROM/RAM : 2 - 1k ROM / 64 btyes RAM
|| : 4 - 2k ROM / 128 bytes RAM
|| : 8 - 4k ROM / 128 bytes RAM
||
|\------------- If 7 is there indicates Programmability (EPROM)
| If 6 is there indicates EEPROM for RAM
| If nothing indicates ROM device with volatile RAM
|
\-------------- Temp range : 6 - Military (-55C to +125C)
8 - Industrial (-40C to +85C)
9 - Commercial (0C to +70C)

Feature Family Numbering Scheme

COP8788EG-XXX/N-R
^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ \ - OTP Oscillator Option: R - RC
|| ||| ||| | X - Crystal
|| ||| ||| |
|| ||| ||| \-- Package Type : N - DIP
|| ||| ||| : WM - Surface Mount
|| ||| ||| : V - PLCC
|| ||| ||| : J - DIP Windowed
|| ||| |||
|| ||| \\\---- Unique ROM id Code assigned by National
|| ||| NOTE: OTP and windowed parts do not have
|| ||| this code
|| |||
|| ||\-------- Features : F - 2 timers, 8-bit, 8-channel ADC
|| || G - 3 timers, 2 comparators, UART
|| || C - 1 timer, CAN, 2 comparators
|| || S - 1 timer, 1 comparator, UART
|| || L - 2 timers
|| || K - 1 time, Analog block, 1 comparator
|| || W - 2 timers, 4 Pulse Stream Generators
|| || Hardware Multiply divide
|| ||
|| |\--------- ROM/RAM : B - 2k ROM / 64 RAM
|| | C - 4k ROM / 128 RAM
|| | E - 8k ROM / 256 RAM
|| | G - 16k ROM / 512 RAM
|| |
|| \---------- Number of pins : 8 - 40/44 (depends on package)
|| : 5 - 20
|| : 4 - 28
|| : 2 - Indicates Basic Family device
|| : 1 - Indicates Basic Family device
|| : 0 - Indicates Basic Family device
||
|\------------- If 7 is there indicates Programmability (EPROM)
| If 6 is there indicates EEPROM for RAM
| If nothing indicates ROM device with volatile RAM
|
\-------------- Temp range : 6 - Military (-55C to +125C)
8 - Industrial (-40C to +85C)
9 - Commercial (0C to +70C)

2.3) COP8 chips and approximate prices (in US $)

I am affiliated with the manufacturer of these devices, & you will most
likely be purchasing parts from a distributor. If I was to list prices,
some people would think that was pricing fixing - so I can't (& won't).

The below prices are subject to lots of things, where you live (prices
vary by region), package type (DIP, SO, PLCC), Temperature range
(Commerical, Industrial, Military) and volume. Contact your favorite
National Distributor for more info.

OTPs
-----------
Basic Family |ROM|RAM|DI| |PL|TI|CO|UA|MI|WD|Other
Device | 5000 | | |P |SO|CC|ME|MP|RT|WU|OG|
COP8780 | 3.25 | 4k|128|40| |44| 1| | | | |
COP8781 | 2.55 | 4k|128|28|28| | 1| | | | |
COP8782 | 2.30 | 4k|128|20|20| | 1| | | | |
COP8720CJ | 4.00 | 1k| 64|28|28| | 2| 1| | Y| Y|
COP8722CJ | 3.50 | 1k| 64|20|20| | 2| 1| | Y| Y|
COP8740CJ | 5.25 | 2k|128|28|28| | 2| 1| | Y| Y|
COP8742CJ | 4.40 | 2k|128|20|20| | 2| 1| | Y| Y|

Feature Family
COP8784BC | 7.90 | 2k| 64|28|28| | 2| 2| | Y| |CAN, Power-On-Reset
COP8788CF | 7.65 | 4k|128|40| |44| 2| | | Y| Y|8-bit 8-chan
COP8784CF | 7.40 | 4k|128|28|28| | 2| | | Y| Y|A/D
COP8788EG | 7.85 | 8k|256|40| |44| 3| 2| 1| Y| Y|
COP8784EG | 7.60 | 8k|256|28|28| | 3| 2| 1| Y| Y|
COP8788CL | 6.70 | 4k|128|40| |44| 2| | | Y| Y|
COP8784CL | 6.45 | 4k|128|28|28| | 2| | | Y| Y|
COP8788EK | 9.40 | 8k|256|40| |44| 3| 1| | Y| Y|Analog fncts
COP8784EK | 9.10 | 8k|256|28|28| | 3| 1| | Y| Y|(16-bit A/D)

Otherwise you can call Future Active Industrial @ 800-723-5817. They do
stock parts on the shelf, and should be able to ship within a day or
two. To find you favorite local distributor, please call National, and
I am sure that we should be able to tell you.

ROMmed - Check with your local National Distributor.

2.4) Advantages in implementing control applications on this
family of microcontrollers

Traditional architecture - Modified Harvard (separate RAM and ROM busses)
leads to an easy to learn device as well as speeding the device up. As your
first microcontroller, this is very well suited to learning.

More features - a COP8 is typically a "one-chip" solution since it always
includes such items as serial I/O, PWM, and many I/O lines, and typically
includes on board A/D, UARTs, and many timers.

Fast and effective - the architecture correlates closely with the problem
being solved (control systems). Specialized instructions mean that fewer
bytes of code need to be fetched and fewer conditional jumps are processed.
(77% on instructions are single byte/single cycle - this means smaller and
faster code).

Low cost - high level of system integration within one component, only a
handful of components needed to create a working system.

2.5) Techy Details

Not all of the below features are on all of the devices (check the
datasheet):

2.5.1) How fast are the parts?

The COP8 has a max Clock input (CKI) of 10MHz. Since the parts have a
divide by 10 internal clock, the instruction cycle time (tc) is 1Mhz
or 1us. Most internal devices are fed with tc. The UART is fed by tc
through a very complex divide and prescaler, which allows any standard
baud rate to be generated with almost any tc. (i.e. Get the baud rate
you want without having to purchase that 9.8746856MHz crystal!) Some
timers are fed with CKI, giving a PWM output with **100ns** resolution.
Hardware multiply/divide are fed with CKI allowing a 3 byte by 2 byte
multiply to be completed in 1us, and a 3 byte by 2 byte divide completing
in 2us.

The parts are also fast because most of the instructions execute in one
tc. (1us).

2.5.2) What is the operating voltage of the devices?

The operating voltage of most of the ROMmed devices is between 2.3 <->
6.0V

The operating voltage of most of the OTP's is between 4.5 <-> 5.5V. A low
voltage (2ishV) OTP is expected within 12 months.

2.5.3) How can I guarantee that my program will run reliably?

You can't.

Not COP8, nor any other microcontroller is guaranteed to operate when a
10MegaWatt Radar wave is passing through it. EMI can cause any
microcontroller to do *VERY* funny things. What your microcontroller can
do is provide a couple features to ensure that the application realizes
that funny things have gone on.

The COP8 provides 3 methods of trapping these types of events.
NOTE: these events are just as likely to happen on a HC11, 8051,
PIC, ect . . . COP8 just traps them.

SOFTWARE TRAP - since the Program Counter (PC) is 15 bits in length
(Max theoretical ROM space of 32K) and the biggest part we make (currently)
is a 16K part (and most smaller) there is a possibility that the PC could
point to ROM that does not physically exist. This will be trapped within
one tc (instruction cycle) and cause an interrupt to occur. The interrupt
will reload the PC with a known value (0x00FF) and go to that value. A
Software Trap is the only non-maskible interrupt on the COP8. This can also
be valuable when your program takes 4097 bytes (As most programs do) and
you have to use a part with an 8K ROM. The upper 4095 bytes of ROM are
physically there, but unused. If the PC does the funky chicken and points
to those ROM locations, is this trapped? (Well - I wouldn't ask the
question if I didn't have the answer). Yes, this can be trapped. The
best method of doing this is to load all unused ROM locations with 0x00.
(Software Trap is simple a 00 OpCode). Since this is an interrupt, your
interrupt handler can do anything it wants. (i.e. re-initialize the device)

WATCHDOG - In a well thought out program this works wonderfully. The
software designer knows exactly how long program execution takes, and
services a timer every so often. This time frame (the amount of time
you have to service the timer) is software selectable between 2k->8k,
2k->16k, 2k->32k or 2k->64k tc. This means there is two ways to have
the watchdog time out - either servicing the clock too fast (more
than once every 2k tc) or too slow (having more than one selectable
go by). This is actually very powerful - if your "bug" is in your
routine that services the watchdog, you will still find out - on most
other microcontrollers this is not true.

When a Watchdog becomes active, nothing happens internally in the device
with the exception of on pin going low. This is because if you are
controlling a huge metal lathe with your COP8, and you have a watchdog, it
is a bad thing. If you reset the part, you continue on business as usual.
A Watchdog is a catastrophic failure. Maybe you want to turn off your
lathe, and sound an alarm that the lathe needs servicing.

This all seems well, but what happens in my real-time controller when my
crystal starts to fail? My real-time stops being very real time. (This is
another one of those questions that I better have an answer for.)

CLOCK MONITOR - This is guaranteed not to reject the clock if the
instruction cycle clock (1/tc) is greater than 10kHz. This equates to
a clock input rate (CKI) of greater than or equal to 100kHz. Again
this simply brings a pin (/RESET) low on the part - and nothing else.
This is software selectable (You can turn it off if you want to run
the parts slower than 100kHz.)

2.5.4) What kind of power savings features do you have?

The device can be placed into IDLE/HALT mode by software control.
In both Halt and Idle conditions the state of the microcontroller
remains. RAM is not cleared and any outputs are not changed.

HALT -
In Halt mode, all activities are stopped (including timers and
counters). The only way to wake up is by a reset or device
interrupt (such as an I/O port). The power requirements of the
device are minimal and the applied voltage (Vcc) can sometimes be
decreased below operating voltage without altering the state
(RAM/Outputs) of the device. Current consumption is typically
less than 1 uA.

A common application of HALT mode is in laptop keyboards. In
order to have maximum power saving, the controller is in halt
until it detects a keystroke (via a device interrupt). It then
wakes up, decodes and sends the keystroke to the host, and then
goes back into halt mode, waiting either for another keystroke,
or information from the host.

The disadvantage of HALT mode is that since *ALL* activities are
stopped (including your crystal oscillator) it takes some time
before your oscillator will start going again - sometimes this can
be in the range of 12 - 100mS (that's milli, not micro). In some
applications this is a bad thing - and you want to wake up faster.
(NOTE: this is a function of the oscillator design, not the
microcontroller.)

IDLE -
In IDLE mode, all activities are stopped except:
- associated on-board oscillator circuitry
- watchdog logic (if any)
- the clock monitor
- the idle timer (a free running timer)
Power supply requirements on the microcontroller in this mode are
typically around 30% of normal power requirements of the
microprocessor. Idle mode is exited by a reset, or some other
stimulus (such as timer interrupt, serial port, etc.). A special
timer/counter (the idle timer) causes the chip to wake up at a
regular interval to check if things are OK. The chip then goes
back to sleep.

IDLE mode is extremely useful for remote, unattended data logging
- the microprocessor wakes up at regular intervals, takes its
measurements, logs the data, and then goes back to sleep.

Since the crystal is still going during IDLE mode, the time that it
takes to get going again is two tc (2 uSec) - but the trade off is
more power consumption.

2.5.5) What about EMI?

The control and minimization of Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)
is a technology that is, out of necessity, growing rapidly. EMI will
be defined shortly but, for now, you might be more familiar with the
terms Radio Noise, Electrical Noise, or Radio Frequency
Interference (RFI). The technology's exploration includes a wide
frequency spectrum, from dc to 40GHz. It also deals with
susceptibility to EMI as well as the emissions of EMI by equipment
or components. Emissions corresponds to that potential EMi which
comes out of a piece of equipment or component. Susceptibility, on
the other hand, is that which couples from the outside to the
inside.

In COP8 designs to date, we have looked at noise situations ranging
from 1MHz to 200MHz. EMI, in some cases, can affect radio reception,
TV reception, accuracy of navigation equipment, etc. In severe
cases, EMI might even affect medical equipment, radar equipment
and automotive systems.

EMI is a form of electrical-noise pollution. Think of the time
when an electric drill or some other power tool jammed a nearby
radio with buzzing or crackling noises. This is annoying - but not
catastrophic. This is much different than when aircraft navigation
errors occur from EMI Interruption of air traffic controller
service or maybe even computer memory loss due to noise could
cause two aircraft to collide resulting in the loss of lives and
property.

The ultimate question is - What is National doing to reduce EMI
emissions on it's COP8? Well, the answer is...LOTS.

Gradual Turn-On Outputs - The outputs and bi-direction ports (except
pin G7, CKO) use gradual turn on (GTO) output drives. These drivers
generate less EMI than standard drives by having slower turn-on time
and thereby reducing the peak instantaneous current. They have
slightly longer propagation delay than standard drivers.

Idd CHOKE - The rate of change (di/dt) of Idd to the chip nucleus is
controlled through the use of a Idd choke block. This block actively
reduces current transients reaching the supply and thus reduces the
H field emissions from the system.

Level shifters are required for all I/O Port pins to ensure that the
switching is consistent and to ensure that the resultant changes in
the internal Vcc are not coupled to the port pins.

The oscillator uses a separate power supply filter to minimize the
direct coupling of the oscillator frequency to the supply.

Low EMI Logic - In order to further reduce EMI, the logic in the
chip is disabled when inactive (by disabling the clocks). This
will reduce switching and hence current consumption and EMI.

Not all devices have the above described EMI enhancements - *only*
the newer devices. National holds 11 patents on EMI reducing
technology that is incorporated in the COP8.

2.5.6) Instruction Set

The strength of the instruction set is based on the following
features:
o Mostly single-byte opcode instructions minimize program size.
o One instruction cycle for the majority of single-byte
instructions to minimize program execution time.
o Many single-byte, multiple function instructions such as DRSZ
(Decrement Register and Skip if Zero).
o Three memory mapped pointers: two for register indirect
addressing, and one for the software stack.
o Sixteen memory mapped registers that allow an optimized
implementation of certain instructions.
o Ability to set, reset, and test any individual bit in data memory
address space, including the memory-mapped I/O ports and
registers.
o Register-Indirect LOAD and EXCHANGE instructions with optional
automatic post-incrementing or decrementing of the register
pointer. This allows for greater efficiency (both in cycle time
and program code) in loading, walking across and processing
fields in data memory.
o Unique instructions to optimize program size and
efficiency. Some of these instructions are: DRSZ, IFBNE, DCOR,
RETSK, VIS and RRC.
o Forty nine basic intructions
o Ten addressing modes provide great flexibility
o Easy to Program

The feature family has seven instructions not available on the
basic family devices. These instructions are:
o Push Data onto Stack (PUSH)
o Pop Data off of Stack (POP)
o And Skip if Zero (ANDSZ)
o Rotate Left through Carry (RLC)
o If Not Equal (IFNE)
o Vector Interrupt Select (VIS)
o Reset Pending Bit (RPND)

The feature family instruction set contains a faster version of the
LD B,# (B>15) instruction than the basic family. In the basic family
this instruction is 2-bytes/3-cycles. In feature family devices,
this instruction is 2-bytes/2-cycles. The feature family supports an
additional addressing mode for the IFEQ instruction; the memory
direct-immediate operand addressing mode (IFEQ MD,#).

Accumulator Bit Manipulation Instructions - The Accumulator bit
manipulation instructions allow the user to shift the Accumulator
bits and to swap its two nibbles.
Rotate Right Through Carry (RRC)
Rotate Left Through Carry (RLC)
Swap Nibbles of Accumulator (SWAP)

Stack Control Instructions
Push Data onto Stack (PUSH)
Pop Data off of Stack (POP)

Arithmetic Instructions - The arithmetic instructions perform
binary arithmetic such as addition and subtraction, with or without
the Carry bit.
Add (ADD)
Add with Carry (ADC)
Subtract (SUB)
Subtract with Carry (SUBC)
Increment (INC)
Decrement (DEC)
Decimal Correct (DCOR)
Clear Accumulator (CLR)
Set Carry (SC)
Reset Carry (RC)

Conditional Instructions - The conditional instructions test a
condition. If the condition is true, the next instruction is
executed in the normal matter; if the condition is false, the next
instruction is skipped.
If Equal (IFEQ)
If Not Equal (IFNE)
If Greater Than (IFGT)
If Carry (IFC)
If Not Carry (IFNC)
If Bit (IFBIT)
If B Pointer Not Equal (IFBNE)
And Skip if Zero (ANDSZ)
Decrement Register and Skip if Zero (DRSZ)

Load and Exchange Instructions - The load and exchange instructions
write byte values in registers or memory. The addressing mode
determines the source of the data.
Load (LD)
Load Accumulator Indirect (LAID)
Exchange (X)

Logical Instructions - The logical instructions perform the basic
logical operations AND, OR, and XOR (Exclusive OR). Other logical
operations can be performed by combining these basic operations.
For example, complementing is accomplished by exclusive-ORing the
Accumulator with FFh.
Logical AND (AND)
Logical OR (OR)
Exclusive OR (XOR)

Memory Bit Manipulation Instructions - The memory bit manipulation
instructions allow the user to set and reset (clear) individual
bits in memory.
Set Bit (SBIT)
Reset Bit (RBIT)
Reset Pending Bit (RPND)

Transfer-of Control Instructions - The transfer-of-control
instructions change the usual sequential program flow by altering
the contents of the Program Counter. The Jump to Subroutine
instruction saves the Program Counter contents on the stack before
jumping; the Return instructions pops the top of the stack back
into the Program Counter.
Jump Relative (JP)
Jump Absolute (JMP)
Jump Absolute Long (JMPL)
Jump Indirect (JID)
Jump to Subroutine (JSR)
Jump to Subroutine Long (JSRL)
Return from Subroutine (RET)
Return from Subroutine and Skip (RETSK)
Return from Interrupt (RETI)
Software Trap Interrupt (INTR)
Vector Interrupt Select (VIS)

No-Operation Instruction - The no-operation instruction does
nothing, except to occupy space in the program memory and time in
execution.
No-Operation (NOP)

2.5.7) Can I hook up a LED direct?

Yep - you sure can. On all devices is a 8-bit port named D-port.
D-port pins can sink 10 mA (tested) 40mA (typical), and can
source 2mA (tested) 22mA (typical). All other ports can sink
2mA (tested) 17mA (typical) and can source 1mA (tested) 8mA
(typical).

You should check the datasheet - some parts differ.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

3) COP8 PRODUCTS

This section includes descriptions and references to free and
commercial software for the COP8. FTP sites and BBSs contain many
quality packages and code samples for free. For heavy duty use, you
might prefer the many commercial packages that are available. With
the public domain (or free) stuff, you're usually on your own. The
commercial packages usually provide extensive documentation and
support.

Because not a lot of little companies use COP8, ('cause until about
a year ago we didn't make OTPs - the COP8 is used primarily by huge
companies - I don't think there is an American designed and built
car that doesn't have a COP in it somewhere - and those guys are not
going to use OTPs) there is not very much free software for the COP8.

Hopefully this will change. - If you have a good idea for a new
product (or are interested in porting your (or somebody else's)
existing tool to be used with the COP8 - please contact me.)

3.1) FTP sites

The following is a list of the various anonymous ftp sites that have
COP8 source code and programming languages. There are many others
that are not listed here that contain bits and pieces. Usually you
can find them using Archie and searching for "COP8", "National", or
"cop8".

3.2) BBSs

The following BBSs sometimes have COP8 information:

National Semiconductor Corporation
- contains code from Applications Notes and other interesting
items
- phone - (800) - NSC MICRO
672 6427
- (408) - 781 4818
4819
4810
4807
- internet - telnet nscmicro.nsc.com
- ftp nscmicro.nsc.com

Circuit Cellar, Inc.
- contains code from their magazine articles and from the
original Circuit Cellar articles in Byte magazine, also
contains many other interesting items
- The BBS is mentioned in the masthead of each issue (on the
table of contents page). Excerpts from the BBS appear in Ken
Davidson's ConnecTime column in every issue with a description
of how to access the system at the end of every column.
- (203)871-1988
- Voice: (203)875-2751
- Fax: (203)872-2204

Electronics Now
- contains code from their magazine articles
- (516)293-2283
- 1200/2400
- 8 Data Bits, No parity, 1 Stop bit

3.3) Free languages and development tools

There are none. (Besides the Assembler and Software Utilities that
National gives away)

Hopefully this will change. - If you have a good idea for a new
product (or are interested in porting your (or somebody else's)
existing tool to be used with the COP8 - please contact me.
National has a program in place with incentives for people who do things
with COP8 - for more information contact [email protected])

3.4) Free C compilers

There are none.

Hopefully this will change. - If you have a good idea for a new
product (or are interested in porting your (or somebody else's)
existing tool to be used with the COP8 - please contact me.
See above 3.3)

3.5) Plans for COP8-based boards

There are none.

Hopefully this will change. - If you have a good idea for a new
product (or are interested in porting your (or somebody else's)
existing tool to be used with the COP8 - please contact me.
See above 3.3)

3.6) Commercially available products

Many firms (large and small) offer a variety of COP8 programming
languages, support packages, and development systems. No endorsement
is implied by inclusion in this list. I have made an attempt to
include as many companies as possible. I apologize to those I left
out; It's only because I didn't know about you. If you want to be
included in this list, just drop me a line - please. Any corrections
appreciated.

C compilers - ByteCraft - contains a complete C compiler and integrated
development environment for the COP8 family of microcontrollers. This
system provides ease of use and debugging capabilities not found in
other compilers. AI system generates efficient, tight object code and
fast execution. Includes linker and built in macro assembler.

COP8 C-Code Development System
ByteCraft Limited
421 King Street North
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
N2J 4E4
(519) 888 - 6911
[email protected]

Assemblers
National Semiconductor Corporation
- available for free on ftp:\\nscmicro.nsc.com\pub\cop8\assembler\

Fuzzy Logic
NeuFuz4 - NueFuz4 software, with up to 4 analog inputs and 1 analog
output. Generates COP8 assembly Code.
Contact National, or a National distributor.
- demo copy on nscmicro.nsc.com

In System Emulators
iceMaster - Metalink - full in circuit emulator supporting all of
the COP8 basic and feature family. Includes features such as a
full performance analyzer, 4k - frame trace buffer, symbolic
debugging, electrically transparent, 32K program space, hardware
breakpoints.

debug Module - Metalink - almost full in circuit emulator (does
not support hardware breakpoints). Includes features such as
8 software breakpoints, 100 frame trace buffer, symbolic debugging,
Sockets for programming COP8 OTPs in DIP, SO and PLCC.

Evaluation and Programming Unit (EPU) - Metalink - in circuit
simulation (non real-time emulation). Includes features such as
4k program size, 8 software breakpoints, 100 frame trace buffer,
Symbolic debugging, 40-pin DIP socket for programming COP8780 and
COP87M80 OTPs.

All Metalink Tools can be purchased through National.

Real-time Operating Systems (RTOS)
There are none.

Hopefully this will change. - If you have a good idea for a new
product (or are interested in porting your (or somebody else's)
existing tool to be used with the COP8 - please contact me.)

Programmers for OTPs and Windowed parts
North America Europe ASIA
Metalink (602) 926-0797 (49) 8141-1030 (852) 737-1800
Xeltek (408) 745-7974 (49) 2041-684758 (65) 276-6433
BP Microsystems (800) 225-2102 (49) 89-8576667 (852) 3888-0629
Data I/O (800) 322-8246 (49) 89-85-8020 (33) 432-6991
Abcom (89) 808707
System General (408) 263-6667 (31) 921-7844 (886) 2-9173005

3.7) Contacting National

Worldwide support (in English) on COP8 Tools you can email:
[email protected]

For pricing, avaliblity, or support in your native language, call:
Country Tel Fax
Australia (3) 558 - 9999 (3) 558 - 9998
Brazil (55-11) 212 - 5066 (55-11) 212 - 1181
Bulgaria (02) 88 - 01 - 16 (02) 80 - 36 - 18
Canada (800) 272 - 9959 (800) 432 - 9672
Denmark (57) 67 - 20 - 80 (57) 67 - 20 - 82
Finland (0) 759 - 1855 (0) 759 - 1393
France (01) 40 - 94 - 88 - 88 (01) 40 - 94 - 88 - 11
Germany (0 - 69) 789 - 1090 (0 - 69) 789 - 4383
Hong Kong (852) 737 - 1600 (852) 736 - 9960
Ireland (01) 260 - 0022 (01) 283 - 0650
Italy (02) 57500300 (02) 57500400
Japan (043) 299 - 2300 (043) 299 - 2500
Korea (02) 784 - 8051 (02) 784 - 8054
Mexico (525) 661 - 7155 (525) 661 - 6905
Puerto Rico (809) 758 - 9211 (809) 763 - 6959
Singapore (65) 225 - 2226 (65) 225 - 7080
Spain (01) 7 - 33 - 29 - 58 (01) 7 - 33 - 80 - 18
Sweden (08) 7228050 (08) 7229095
Switzerland (01) 8 - 30 - 27 - 27 (01) 8 - 30 - 19 - 00
Taiwan (02) 521 - 3288 (02) 561 - 3054
United Kingdom (0793) 61 - 41 - 41 (0793) 52 - 21 - 80
United States (800) 272 - 9959 (800) 432 - 9672

----------------------------------------------------------------------

4) COP8 DOCUMENTATION

4.1) Periodicals

Various magazines and journals (journals seems to be THE popular name
for magazines these days) provide articles from time to time on the
COP8 line of microcontrollers:

The Computer Applications Journal (Circuit Cellar Ink)
- programming and construction articles
- POB 7694, Riverton, NJ 08077-8784
- Fax: (203)872-2204
- Voice orders: (609) 786-0409
- On-line orders (BBS): (203) 871-1988
- Email orders: [email protected]
- $21.95, $31.95 surface Canada and Mexico,
$49.95 air all other countries

Computer Design
- industry announcements and trends
- One Technology Park Drive, P.O. Box 990, Westford, MA 01886
- (508)692-0700

The Computer Journal
- programming and construction articles
- PO Box 535, Lincoln 96648

Dr. Dobbs Journal
- programming articles, concepts, and designs
- 411 Borel Ave., San Mateo, CA 94402
- (415)358-9500

Electronic Engineering Times
- industry announcements and trends
- 500-B Bi-County Boulevard, Farmingdale, NY 11735
- (516)293-3000

Electronics Now
- construction articles
- Box 55115, Boulder, CO 80321-5115
- $19.97 one year

Elektor Electronics
- programming and construction articles
- World Wide Subscription Service Ltd
Unit 4, Gibbs Reed Farm, Pashley Road
Ticehurst TN5 7HE, England
- 27 UK pounds
or
- Old Colony Sound Lab, P.O. Box 243, Peterborough, NH 03458
- Tel. (603) 924-6371, 924-6526
- Fax: (603) 924-9467
- $57 USA and Canada per year

Embedded Systems Programming
- programming and systems design articles
- Miller Freeman Publications
- 500 Howard St., San Francisco, CA 94105
- (415) 397-1881

Microcomputer Journal (formerly Computer Craft)
- programming and construction articles
- 76 N. Broadway, Hicksville, NY 11801
- $18.95 one year, foreign $23.00, foreign air mail $76.00

Midnight Engineering
- 1700 Washington Ave., Rocky Road, CO 81067
- (719)254-4553

Nuts & Volts Magazine
- A National Publication for the Buying and Selling of
Electronic Equipment
- 430 Princeland Court, Corona, CA 91719
- Mailed third class, USA only: $17.00 one year
$31.00 two years
- Mailed first class, one year only: $34.00-USA
$35.00-Canada/Mexico
- Foreign/Air Mail - $70.00; Foreign/Surface - $39.00
- (800)783-4624
- Email: [email protected]

4.2) Data Books / Application Notes

If you know of any books that cover the COP8, or if you can provide
any details on the books listed here, please send me a note. Thanks.

Books provided by National about the COP8

COP8 Databook
- Lit # 400007-001
- Current databook for COP8

COP8 Advertisement
- Lit #620900-001
- Introduces 8-bit microcontrollers and COP8

Utility Disk
- Mac Version - Lit #630000-001
- Win Version - Lit #630001-001
- Typical microcontroller application and sample application code

Product Overview Disk
- Mac Version - Lit #630004-001
- Win Version - Lit #630005-001
- Self-lead COP8 overview. Shows product features/benefit and
includes an electronic selection guide.

COP8 Selection Guide
- Lit # 630006-001
- Selection guide including 20 application examples

COP8 Selection Sheet
- Lit #620899-001
- Selection guide only

COP8 Designers Information Kit
- Lit #630007-005
- Includes databook, Selection Guide, Independent Software Analysis
Utility and Overview disks

Independent 8-bit Instruction Set Analysis
- Lit #630008-001
- Independently prepared software analysis of National's COP8,
Motorola's M68HC05, Intel's 8051 and Microchip's PIC16C5X.

8780 EPU Product Brief
- Lit #610506-001
- Metalink's COP8780 Evaluation / Programming Unit

Debug Module Product Brief
- Lit #610520-001
- Fact sheet on Metalink's Debug Module

iceMaster Product Brief
- 630074-001
- Fact Sheet on Metalink's in-circuit emulator

COP8C Product Brief
- Lit #610505-001
- Fact Sheet on ByteCraft's C compiler for COP8

NueFuz Product Information Pack
- Lit #633101-002
- Intro to NeuFuz4 (disk, app-not and fact sheet)

Application Notes
- Lit #100823-001 - Timekeeping using a COP800
- Lit #100643-001 - EMI / RFI Board Design
- Lit #100959-001 - Battery charger with Neufuz
- Lit #400007-001 - Others can be found in the 1994 databook.

Programmer's Reference Guide
- Programmer's Reference Guide includes block diagrams, connection
diagrams, memory map, instruction set, bytes and cycles per
instruction, and device features.
- Lit #630018-001 - COP820/840
- Lit #630019-001 - COP888CL / COP888CF / COP888CG

COP800 Basic Family Users Manual
- Doc #420410703-001
- Describes all basic family devices, in-depth features and
common pitfalls

COP888 Features Family Users Manual
- Doc #420411060-001
- Describes all feature family devices, in-depth features and
common pitfalls

COP8 Assembler / Linker / Librarian Users' Manual
- Doc #424421632-001
- Printed version of COP8 Assembler Manual.

NeuFuz User's Manual
- Doc #424421645-001
- Manual for Neural / Fuzzy software

Dial-A-Helper User's Manual
- Doc #420410902-001
- Manual for National's BBS

__________________________________________________________

Some parts Copyright (c) 1994 by Russell Hersch,<[email protected]>
all rights reserved. (Used with permission)

The rest is Copyright (c) 1995 Robin Getz all rights reserved.
-----------------------------------
Robin Getz - [email protected]