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From:
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Subject: Intro to Shortwave (car) Radios
Date: 25 Dec 2002 03:34:17 GMT
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An Introduction to Shortwave Radios for Newbies
_________________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
* [1] What is a shortwave radio?
* [2] Why would anybody want/need one?
* [3] What do I need to know in order to use one?
* [4] What's the difference between digital & analog radios?
* [5] What radio accessories are especially useful for shortwave?
* [6] What's the difference between bands, wavelengths, kHz & MHz?
* [7] Can a shortwave radio be used like an ordinary AM/FM radio?
* [8] Where online can I get more information on SW (car) radios?
* [9] Abbreviations and Terminology
* [X] Appendix
_________________________________________________________________
[1] What is a shortwave radio?
On the technical side, a shortwave radio is a receiver that can
receive AM radio transmissions on frequencies between 3 & 30 MHz.
The main characteristic of these frequencies is their ability to
"propagate" for long distances, making possible such world-wide
communications as international broadcasting and coordination of
long-distance shipping. Most shortwave radios will also receive AM
transmissions below 3 MHz in the longwave & mediumwave broadcast
bands. Many will also receive transmissions above 30 MHz, such as
those in the FM broadcast band.
_________________________________________________________________
[2] Why would anybody want/need one?
The primary reasons people use shortwave radios range from personal
enjoyment to helping others in local emergencies. From a logistical
point of view, shortwave radios are a means of enabling the reception
of transmissions of interest or utility to a target audience that may
have considerable degrees of geographic distribution. Many countries
broadcast to the world in English, making it easy to find out the
position of such a country on those things that it finds important.
Shortwave radios provide a way to eavesdrop on the everyday workings
of foreign politics and commerce. You can also hear transmissions of
news and other programmes from domestic broadcasters. Shortwave radios
commonly include the longwave & mediumwave bands, and so can receive
the vast majority of AM transmissions, unlike most so-called "AM
radios". Many will also allow you to listen to SSB transmissions of
emergency (& other) information by amateur radio operators; however,
none of the traditional 'in-dash' shortwave car radios (e.g. Becker,
Blaupunkt, Mekka, Philips, Sony) can handle SSB.
_________________________________________________________________
[3] What do I need to know in order to use one?
For shortwave radios, all you need to know at first are the same
skills needed for FM radios, while putting off learning the concepts
and jargon till later. No special set of skills is required; however,
as you gain experience and develop special listening skills, your
listening enjoyment will increase accordingly. These skills include
keeping up on local and non-local issues which affect a broadcast
(e.g. strikes or ionospheric storms causing stations to "disappear");
using various types of antennas; troubleshooting and maintaining
your radio. In most cases, you can receive many stations using the
antenna that comes with the radio; however, to receive more distant
and/or weaker stations, you may have to set up an outdoor antenna; a
loop antenna is ideal where space is limited.
_________________________________________________________________
[4] What is the difference between digital & analog radios?
Shortwave radios are sometimes distinguished from each other by their
readouts and internal tuning methods, either of which may be analog
or digital. (With regard to the shortwave signals themselves: analog
is used for voice transmissions; in contrast, one could call BCD, CW,
FSK & RTTY transmissions "digital.")
Digital Readout: (e.g. MM.kkk MHz)
There are a variety of tuning methods that provide a digital readout.
At one extreme, there are radios which have a separate knob for each
digit. There are others which have one tuning knob to set the MHz part
of the frequency, and another to set the kHz part. There are also
radios which have only one tuning knob to cover the entire range of
frequencies, although most of these reduce the amount of turns needed
via knobs that have "fast" modes, or switches that quickly select
between a number of smaller tuning bands, or both.
At the other extreme are radios with digital readouts that have no
tuning knobs. Most of these have numeric keypads for selecting a
frequency. Some of these do not have numeric keypads, and are very
inflexible in use, unless you plan to listen only to the stations
that you have programmed into the radio's memories, in which case
their reduced cost, size and/or weight may better suit your needs.
Analog Readout
There is also a wide variety of analog readouts. Some use dials or
drums that rotate under indicators. Others use cursors that run along
linear scales. A few old analogs have the push-button memories also
found on old car radios. Selective modern radios do not use analog
readouts, but if they do, also have digital readouts, since it can be
difficult to tune in a shortwave station using only an analog readout.
Most analog-only radios on the market are small portables that are
unselective (they cannot separate stations that are right next to
each other) and only cover the main International Broadcast bands.
Digital Tuning
This uses PLLs to electronically tune in the desired frequency, and
allows for easy reception of SSB signals, and storage of frequencies
in memory chips. However, the micro-electronics needed tend to be
expensive, noisy, and power hungy, and most cheaper radios do not
exploit all possible benefits, such as scanning. On the other hand,
digital radio kits which interface with your computer exploit most
of the benefits of digital tuning for just a few hundred dollars.
Digital tuning is usually accomplished by pressing keys, and on some
radios by turning knobs.
Analog Tuning
This relies on circuits which are tuned directly by you, and not under
microchip control. As a result, stations tend to drift on most radios
with analog tuning, which makes SSB reception very difficult. Analog
tuning is done by turning knobs (or pushing car-radio-style buttons).
However, these radios often are more tolerant of abuse, last longer
on batteries, and are easier to use, than digital radios.
_________________________________________________________________
[5] What radio accessories are especially useful for shortwave?
There are several things you can get which may improve the performance
of a shortwave radio:
Antennas can make a radio more sensitive and thereby receive more weak
and/or distant stations. Pre-selectors are usually attached between the
antenna and the radio to prevent overload of the radio by the increased
total level of input signals. A tunable loop antenna can also do pre-
-selection, and is a good compromise where space is limited.
Headphones will allow you to focus on transmissions w/out distractions.
External speakers will allow you to improve on small built-in speakers.
Listening Guides and Technical References can give you information
(in print or on-line) on propagation of shortwave signals via the
ionosphere, use of your equipment, stations & frequencies.
Computer Software can do many things from decoding digital signals to
storing stations, frequencies and propagation times. Some radios can
be controlled by such software. A few radios are even dependent on
a computer into order to do some of the signal processing.
The last but not least important "accessory" is Experience. Time spent
working with a shortwave radio gives you more information to get the
most out of it, such as the best times in your area for reception of
certain frequencies, and develops skills to better operate it.
_________________________________________________________________
[6] What's the difference between bands, wavelengths, kHz & MHz?
A band is a range of frequencies (in kHz or MHz). Many analog radios
reference bands according to wavelengths (in metres), since the tuning
location of a station can also be expressed in terms of a 'wavelength'.
For example, the 16-metre band refers to the range of frequencies with
wavelengths of around 16 metres or more. You can use the following
equations to convert kHz, MHz, and metres.
* To convert MHz to kHz, multiply by 1000 kHz/MHz.
9.62 MHz x 1000 kHz/MHz = 9620 kHz
* To convert kHz to MHz, divide by 1000 kHz/MHz.
2780 kHz divided by 1000 kHz/MHz = 2.780 MHz
* To convert MHz to metres, divide 300 Mm/s by the number of MHz.
300 Mm/s divided by 7.1 MHz = 42.25 metres
* To convert metres to MHz, divide 300 Mm/s by the number of metres.
300 Mm/s divided by 14 metres = 21.428 MHz
300 Mm/s divided by 15 metres = 20.000 MHz
300 Mm/s divided by 16.901 m = 17.750 MHz
300 Mm/s divided by 17.321 m = 17.321 MHz
300 Mm/s divided by 20 metres = 15.000 MHz
( Note that as frequencies get higher, wavelengths get shorter.)
Low Frequencies
The 30 - 300 kHz range is known as the low frequency (LF) band.
Reception for this range is best between 6 p.m. and midnight (your
time). Many stations in this range serve as beacons for aircraft and
marine navigation by continuously transmitting their call letters.
In Europe, N. Africa and N. Asia, the LF band contains the longwave
AM broadcast band from 153 to 279 kHz, but in the Americas the only AM
broadcasts to be found are usually weather reports. Many of the other
broadcasts use Morse code, although some transmit in Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD), such as the time standard station WWVB on 60 kHz.
Medium Frequencies
The MF band is between 300 & 3000 kHz. In the Americas, the MF band
contains the mediumwave AM broadcast band between 525 & 1600 kHz,
extended to 1700 kHz in N. America, while in tropical areas,
frequencies between 2300 & 2500 kHz are often used as well.
Some ships also use the MF band. 500 kHz is set aside as an
international distress and emergency station. 2000 - 2300 kHz
is set aside for transmissions from ships and coastal stations.
The Coast Guard and small boats use this band, with 2182 kHz
set aside as the international distress and emergency channel.
The 160 metre amateur radio band is also located within the MF
band from 1800 - 2000 kHz. Most of these are SSB transmissions.
High Frequencies
The HF band is between 3,000 and 30,000 kHz, and is synonymous
with shortwave.
Certain frequencies within the HF band are set aside for specific
purposes; commonly used allocations are listed below:
Aircraft Frequencies
Amateur Radio Frequencies
CB Frequencies
International Broadcast Frequencies
Ship and Coastal Station Frequencies
Time Standard Frequencies
Aircraft Frequencies
Aircraft on international routes sometimes use SW. Most transmissions
are in SSB, although you can still hear some AM transmissions. Here
are some bands where you might hear aircraft communications.
4,650- 4,750 kHz
6,545- 6,765 kHz
8,815- 9,040 kHz
11,175-11,400 kHz
13,200-13,360 kHz
15,010-15,100 kHz
17,900-18,030 kHz
Amateur ('ham') Radio Frequencies
Amateur radio operators mostly use SSB transmissions for voice
communications. Morse code operators are licenced to use the lower
area, usually, of each band. Amateur radio operators with the more
senior voice licence are found in the upper area of each band.
Tuning to the amateur radio frequencies can be interesting and also
helpful, because amateur radio operators often broadcast emergency
information when other means of communication break down. Portions
of these bands are set aside for continuous wave (CW) transmissions
of Morse code or for single sideband (SSB) transmissions of voice
communications, as shown below.
80 metres:
3,500 - 3,800 kHz: CW
3,800 - 4,000 kHz: SSB
40 metres:
7,000 - 7,150 kHz: CW
7,150 - 7,300 kHz: SSB
30 metres:
10,100 - 10,150 kHZ
20 metres:
14,000 - 14,200 kHz: CW
14,200 - 14,350 kHz: SSB
16 metres:
18,068 - 18,168 kHz
14 metres:
21,000 - 21,250 kHz: CW
21,250 - 21,450 kHz: SSB
12 metres:
21,990 - 24,890 kHz
10 metres:
28,000 - 28,500 kHz: CW
28,500 - 29,700 kHz: SSB
Note: These allocations are not observed everywhere in the world,
particularly in the United States, as usual.
CB Frequencies
As does ham radio, CB radio transmissions will use SSB, but unlike
ham radio, broadcasts on the CB band do not require a licence. The
transmissions may also be in AM mode. They may also be used for
controlling objects as well as for personal communications.
There are 64 frequencies, called channels, separated by a frequency
step of 10 kHz from 26,895 to 27,535 kHz. 40 channels are reserved
for voice communications, from 26,965 to 27,405 kHz with one or more
channels reserved for emergency use. Channel 9 or 27,065 kHz is an
emergency channel in most countries of Oceania or America. In North
America, Channel 19 or 27,185 kHz is also an emergency channel.
International Broadcast Frequencies
International (and domestic) broadcasts are found in the following
shortwave bands. These are usually AM broadcasts containing news,
commentaries, music, and special features reflecting the culture of
the broadcasting country. You can often find other stations
transmitting just above or below these bands:
90 metres * 3,200 to 3,400 kHz
75 metres * 3,850 to 4,000 kHz
60 metres * 4,750 to 5,060 kHz
49 metres 5,900 to 6,200 kHz
41 metres ** 7,100 to 7,350 kHz
31 metres 9,400 to 9,990 kHz
25 metres 11,600 to 12,100 kHz
21 metres 13,500 to 13,870 kHz
19 metres 15,100 to 15,800 kHz
16 metres 17,480 to 17,900 kHz
15 metres 18,900 to 19,020 kHz
13 metres 21,450 to 21,750 kHz
11 metres 25,600 to 26,100 kHz
* Bands reserved for stations in tropical areas, but some non-
-tropical stations often disregard this.
** Interference is heavy in the 41 & 75 metre bands because amateur
radio operators and international stations share each range.
Ship and Coastal Station Frequencies
Most transmissions from ships and coastal stations are in SSB and CW.
You can hear these transmissions in the following HF bands:
4,063- 4,139 kHz
4,361- 4,438 kHz
8,195- 8,181 kHz
12,330-12,420 kHz
13,107-13,200 kHz
16,460-16,565 kHz
Time Standard Frequencies
The following stations announce the exact time of day at specified
intervals 24 hours a day. The time is given in the UTC time standard.
Most shortwave stations are on UTC time, regardless of what time zone
they are in.
CHU at Ottawa, Ontario:
3,330 kHz USB + 50% carrier
7,335 kHz USB + 50% carrier
14,670 kHz USB + 50% carrier
HD2IOA at Guayaquil, Ecuador
3,810 kHz
7,600 kHz
VNG at Llandilo, New South Wales
5,000 kHz
8,638 kHz
12,984 kHz
16,000 kHz
WWV at Fort Collins, Colorado and
WWVH at Kekaha, Hawaii:
5,000 kHz
10,000 kHz
15,000 kHz
20,000 kHz
YVTO at Caracas, Venezuela
6,100 kHz
_________________________________________________________________
[7] Can a shortwave radio be used like an ordinary AM/FM radio?
Just as for MW, SW signals can have dead-zones at varying distances
from a transmitter; your radio can be relatively nearby and still be
in a dead-zone. Even during the day, tuning it can be like using an
AM radio at night to tune in stations, except that antenna usage is
as for FM. In the following list are many 'full-time' frequencies in
Oceania/America. You might not be able to hear many of these, since
reception will vary as to the season, time of day, your location,
and many other conditions. Although this information is subject to
change at any time without notice, these stations have not changed
frequency very often. Average transmission time for each frequency
is at least 8 hours a day. This list can also help you test radios
before buying them, or get domestic programming without retuning
frequently when traveling in unfamiliar areas. Many shortwave radios
have clock radio functions, and this list can provide stations that
are likely to be transmitting when you program the radio to turn on,
and are likely to continue broadcasting, even if you hit 'snooze'
repeatedly. (When "DXing" these stations, the 4 digit frequencies
tend to work better at night.)
kHz Station, Location
3,205 Radio West Sepik, Papua New Guinea
3,210 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
3,290 GBC, Georgetown, Guyana
3,300 Radio Cultural, C.Guatemala, Guatemala
3,380 Centro Radiophonico de Imbabura, Ibarra, Ecuador
3,385 FR3, Cayenne, French Guyana
3,925 NBC, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
4,765 Radio Emissora Rural, Santarem, Brazil
4,820 HRVC, Tegucicalpa, Honduras
4,835 Radio Tezulutan, Coban, Guatemala
4,855 Radio Clube do Para, Belem, Brazil
4,875 La Cruz del Sur, La Paz, Bolivia
4,890 NBC, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
4,915 Radio Anhanguera, Goiania, Brazil
4,920 Radio Quito, Quito, Ecuador
4,920 ABC, Brisbane, Queensland
4,940 Radio Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
4,945 Radio Colosal, Neiva, Colombia
4,955 Radio Nacional, Bogota, Colombia
4,960 Radio Vanuatu, Efate-Emten, Vanuatu
4,965 Radio Santa Fe, Columbia
4,980 Ecos del Torbes, San Cristobal, Venezuela
4,990 Radio Apintie, Paramaribo, Suriname
5,020 SIBC, Honiara, Solomon Islands
5,025 Radio Rebelde, Bauta, Cuba
5,030 TIQ, Limon, Costa Rica
5,045 Radio Cultura do Para, Belem, Brazil
5,050 WWRB, Manchester, Tennessee
5,055 Faro del Caribe, San Jose, Costa Rica
5,070 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
5,085 WWRB, Manchester, Tennessee
5,095 HJGG, Bogota, Colombia
5,745 WHRI, Noblesville, Indiana
5,755 KAIJ, Dallas, Texas
5,825 EWTN, Birmingham, Alabama
5,935 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
5,950 GBS, Georgetown, Guyana
6,000 Radio Inconfidencia, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
6,010 Radio America, Lima, Peru
6,030 CFVP, Calgary, Alberta
6,030 Radio Santa Maria, Coyhaique, Chile
6,045 Radio Santa Rosa, Lima, Peru
6,070 CFRX, Toronto, Ontario
6,090 The Caribbean Beacon, Anguilla, BWI
6,095 Radio Nacional, Lima, Peru
6,105 Radio Panamericana, La Paz, Bolivia
6,115 Radio Union, Lima, Peru
6,120 Radio El Mundo, Buenos Aires, Argentina
6,150 ABC, Lyndhurst, Victoria
6,160 CKZN, St. John's, Newfoundland
6,160 CKZU, Vancouver, British Columbia
6,180 Radio Nacional da Amazonia, Brasilia, Brazil
6,185 Radio Educacion, Mexico DF, Mexico
6,350-usb AFN, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
6,458.5-usb AFN, Isabela, Puerto Rico
6,890 WWRB, Manchester, Tennessee
7,315 WHRI, Noblesville, Indiana
7,415 WBCQ, Monticello, Maine
7,425 Radio Catolica Mundial, Birmingham, Alabama
7,445 RFPI, El Rodeo, Costa Rica
7,510 KTBN, Salt Lake City, Utah
9,320 WWRB, Manchester, Tennessee
9,475 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
9,520 NBC, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
9,562 Radio Nacional, Lima, Peru
9,575 NBC, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
9,585 Radio Excelsior, Sao Paulo, Brazil
9,610 ABC, Wanneroo, W.Australia
9,625 CBC, Sackville, New Brunswick
9,705 Radio Mexico, Mexico DF, Mexico
9,725 TIQ, Limon, Costa Rica
9,745 HCJB, Quito, Ecuador
9,860 Radio Nacional, Lima, Peru
10,320-usb AFN, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
11,530 Radio Catolica Mundial, Birmingham, Alabama
11,770 Radio Mexico, Mexico DF, Mexico
11,775 The Caribbean Beacon, Anguilla, BWI
11,805 Radio Globo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
11,835 Radio El Espectador, Montevideo, Uruguay
11,915 Radio Gaucha, Porto Alegre, Brazil
11,925 Radio Bandeirantes, Sao Paulo, Brazil
11,935 Radio Clube Paranaense, Curitiba, Brazil
12,160 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
12,172 WWRB, Manchester, Tennessee
12,689.5-usb AFN, Key West, Florida
13,615 WEWN, Birmingham, Alabama
13,750 TIQ, Limon, Costa Rica
13,815 KAIJ, Dallas, Texas
13,845 WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee
15,040 RFPI, El Rodeo, Costa Rica
15,140 HCJB, Quito, Ecuador
15,170 RFO, Papeete, Fr. Polynesia
15,590 KTBN, Salt Lake City, Utah
15,725 Radio Miami International, Florida
15,745 WEWN, Birmingham, Alabama
17,650 WHRA, Greenbush, Maine
17,675 RNZI, Wellington, New Zealand
17,775 KVOH, Los Angeles, California
19,475 Radio Nacional, Asuncion, Paraguay
21,815-usb RFPI, El Rodeo, Costa Rica
22,980 Radio Monte Carlo, Montevideo, Uruguay
25,322 AAFR, Darwin, Northern Territory
25,873 WFLA, Tampa, Florida
29,880 Radio Sideral, Quito, Ecuador
_________________________________________________________________
[8] Where online can I get more information on SW (car) radios?
Aside from searching the archives of rec.radio.shortwave at
http://groups.google.com/groups?q=rec.radio.shortwave
you can also find information on many SW (car) radios at
http://www.shortwavestore.com/sony-shortwave-receivers.html
http://www.rnw.nl/realradio/rx_current.html
http://www.DXing.com/rx/rxindex.htm
_________________________________________________________________
[9] Abbreviations and Terminology
Below is a short list of common abbreviations and terms you may
encounter.
Abbreviations
AM (Amplitude Modulation)
BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator)
CB (Citizens' Band)
CW (Continuous Wave)
DX (old telegraph code for Distant TRANSmission)
ECSS(Exalted Carrier Single Sideband)
FM (Frequency Modulation)
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
HAM (AMateur radio)
HF (High Frequencies)
kHz (KiloHertz)
LSB (Lower SideBand)
LW (Longwave)
Mm/s(Mega metres per second)
MCW (Modulated Continuous Wave)
MHz (MegaHertz)
MW (MediumWave)
PLL (Phase Locked Loop)
RTTY(Radio TeleTYpe)
SSB (Single SideBand)
SWL (ShortWave Listening)
USB (Upper SideBand)
UTC (Universal Time: by atomic clocks Coordinated to track GMT)
VFO (Variable Frequency Oscillator)
VHF (Very High Frequencies)
Terminology
Amplitude Modulation: A technique that multiplexes audio frequencies
onto the upper side of a carrier to produce the USB, and a mirror
image of the audio frequencies beneath the carrier to produce the LSB.
The resulting AM signal is also known as Double Sideband (DSB).
BALUN: A device used with to match a BALanced antenna, like a dipole,
to an UNbalanced feedline, such as coaxial cable.
Beat Frequency Oscillator: A receiver circuit that generates a signal
to emulate the carrier missing in CW, FSK, RTTY & SSB signals, and so
enable intelligible reception.
Carrier: a radio signal transmitted at constant strength & frequency
that serves as the reference tuning frequency of the transmission.
Continuous Wave: a radio signal transmitted at constant frequency &
strength except when interrupted to send messages by Morse code.
DXing: listening to distant stations (D=distant, X=transmitter)
Exalted Carrier Single Sideband: a reception technique in which the
BFO is used to insert a carrier over the received carrier of a signal.
Frequency Step: The frequency increment for tuning or scanning.
Hertz: cycles per second ( cps - c/s )
Ionosphere: a region in the upper atmosphere where free electrons and
ions abound sufficiently to backscatter shortwave photons so that they
skip back to earth, instead of just continuing out into space.
Kilo: 1,000.
Longwave: Radio signals from 30 to 300 kHz in frequency, although
this term is often used to mean any radio signal lower than 500 kHz.
Lower Sideband: The sideband lower in frequency than the transmitter's
carrier.
Mediumwave: Radio signals from 300 to 3000 kHz (3 MHz) although
this term is often limited to mean a radio signal in the MW broadcast
band (at a minimum 530 to 1600 kHz).
Mega: 1,000,000.
Shortwave: Radio signals between 3 and 30 MHz although this term
is often used to include radio signals as low as 1610 kHz.
Sideband: That part of the radio signal above or below the carrier
frequency that directly corresponds to the original audio frequencies
at the transmitter's input (USB), or inversely corresponds in the
form of a mirror image (LSB).
Single Sideband: A modulation technique that suppresses one sideband
entirely and the carrier to varying degrees, leaving the remaining
sideband essentially unchanged.
Synchronous Detection: A demodulation technique that improves the
reception of AM signals. Ironically, there is no 'AM' radio on the
market that incorporates this feature. Found on many SW portables
from Sony, and on most modern desktop receivers. You will want it
if you spend much time listening to music. For listening to voice
broadcasts under poor reception conditions, ECSS can give results
as good, if not better.
Upper Sideband: The sideband higher in frequency than the carrier
of a transmission.
Very High Frequencies: The radio frequencies from 30 to 300 MHz.
The FM broadcast band is found here.
_________________________________________________________________
[X] Appendix
This intro is intended for those who know nothing about shortwave radios,
such as those who are wondering about using one on the same basis as using
any ordinary AM/FM radio. It is intended for those who are not technically
inclined or hobby-oriented (e.g. modifying or monitoring). It is more of
a guide to help someone decide whether a shortwave radio is a useful means
of acquiring information to justify the purchase of a new radio that is on
the market, particularly at the low end, such as portables and car radios.
Copies of this intro are distributed semi-annually to rec.answers,
news.answers & radio-related newsgroups on usenet and fidonet
(ncf.sigs.radio-tv.shortwave, etc.), and is to be on file at:
ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/faqs/radio/shortwave-radios-intro
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