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From: Henriette Kress <[email protected]>
Newsgroups: alt.folklore.herbs,alt.answers,news.answers
Subject: Medicinal herbFAQ (v.1.37d) Part 5/7
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Date: Wed, 22 Dec 1999 21:37:46 +0200
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Summary: What you have always wanted to know (and ask on a newsgroup)(more often than once a month) about medicinal herbs
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Last-modified: 1999/03/27
Version: 1.37d
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/pub/academic/medicine/alternative-healthcare/herbal-medicine/faqs/

==========
2.2 Herbs for specific things, cont'd

==========
2.2.13 Herbs for constipation
-----
Barbara Heller - [email protected]

WHAT IS CONSTIPATION
Constipation, the "difficult, incomplete, or infrequent evacuation of dry
hardened feces from the bowels" (The American Heritage Dictionary) can be
an occasional, acute, or chronic problem. It can be caused by many factors
including lack of fluids, poor diet, sedentary lifestyle, emotional state,
or as a side-effect of specific medications. Be aware of the constipating
effect of other drugs or supplements you may be taking, like iron
tablets,opiates, antidepressants, and antihistamines. Constipation is
almost always a nuisance; it can also be a sign of a more serious
condition. Chronic constipation should be evaluated in conjunction with a
healthcare professional.

NATURAL REMEDIES TO TREAT CONSTIPATION
Laxatives, even herbal laxatives, should be used with caution. Other
natural remedies should be tried first. The gentlest remedies for
constipation include increased movement and exercise, certain yoga
postures, increase of fluid intake, and dietary changes including increased
fiber and fruit. Acidophilus liquid or powder relieves chronic constipation
(says herbalist Susun Weed in her Wise Woman Ways for the Menopausal
Years). And prune juice may be the most effective and gentlest remedy for
constipation.

Dr. James Duke, a scientist who worked for the USDA, recommended in his
typical iconoclastic fashion, that Dan Rather ask the commissioner of the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) if he considered prune juice a safe and
effective laxative. "If he answered no, I suggested that Rather request
that Dr. Kessler (the commissioner) drink some and experience the results
for himself. If he answered yes, I suggested that Rather ask why FDA
labeling regulations prohibit prune juice marketers from stating that prune
juice is a safe, effective, gentle laxative." "...(It) is probably the
cheapest, least unpleasant laxative now available." (The Green Pharmacy,
p140)

Apple-pear juice is also highly recommended; and stewed fruits like prunes,
figs, or dates especially when mixed in licorice tea makes a tasty laxative
snack

SOME OTHER OPTIONS
Not a usual topic of discussion, at least here in middle-class America, is
the position in which one attempts a bowel movement. Squatting can really
help alleviate mild constipation - but may be awkward on traditional
toilets. Some families find that using a small footstool to raise and open
the legs helps to facilitate an easier evacuation. Massaging the abdomen
with essential oils with laxative properties (in a carrier oil base) like
chamomile, marjoram, or peppermint can also be helpful.

HERBAL LAXATIVES
There are three classes of herbal laxatives - bulk, mild (but not bulk) and
purgative.

Whichever category you use, remember that it takes time for laxatives to
work. The bulk herbs may need 12 to 24 hours to encourage a bowel movement,
and irritating herbs somewhat less time, perhaps 6 to 12 hours. So be
patient, and do not take another dose prematurely.

BULK LAXATIVES
Bulk laxatives are the gentlest for occasional constipation. Flaxseed (also
known as linseed), psyllium, and fenugreek are three well-known herbal bulk
laxatives. In The Family Herbal, the authors recommend flaxseed as a
"laxative without side effects". You can take one tablespoon of whole seeds
two to three times a day, followed by two cups of liquid. To help bulk
laxatives do their job properly, one must drink a lot of water, otherwise
gastrointestinal obstructions can occur.

Psyllium, another bulk laxative, is more well-known to most consumers as
the main ingredient in Metamucil. A combination of psyllium seeds and a
large glass of water can help lubricate the bowels and ease the passage of
dry stools. In addition, this seed may also help cut cholesterol. It is
quite popular in Germany to take 3 to 10 tablespoons a day for chronic
constipation. The seeds swell; they also need plenty of water to motivate
their transit through the digestive tract. Caution - asthmatics shouldn't
take this herb; if you generally have allergies, take only with caution.
("There have been several reports of allergic reactions to psyllium,
including a few serious asthma attacks from inhaled seed dust." - reported
by James Duke in The Green Pharmacy)

MILD (NOT BULK) HERBAL LAXATIVES
Dandelion root is a mild laxative often recommended by practicing
herbalists. Susun Weed says it is especially helpful for bed-ridden elders
and others with chronic constipation. "The root in tea will have little
effect on constipation due to nervousness, diet, fevers, and such
occasional causes, but acts reliably when it is chronic, related to age,
long-tern illness, or general intestinal blahs; a teaspoon of the root
boiled in water three or four times a day." Use dandelion leaves in salad,
or 1-2 teaspoons of dandelion vinegar or 10 - 20 drops of tincture taken
with meals.

Chickweed as a laxative is controversial but not seemingly harmful. It
would seem from the debate surrounding it that the worse that can happen
while using chickweed for constipation is - more of the same. Varro Tyler
heavily disparages its medicinal use "...there is no indication (in the
"extensive scientific literature devoted to chickweed") that any of the
plant's constituents possess pronounced therapeutic value; ... most
writings concern various methods of controlling this pesky weed." This is
in sharp comparison to how Susun Weed sings this herb/weeds virtues:

"Those with digestive system problems crave plates of chickweed salad, for
mineral-rich bulk and soothing, cooling energies to nourish their weak
stomachs and bowels. Chickweed eases and helps those with yeast overgrowth,
constipation, hard stools, hemorrhoids,stomach ulcers, intestinal ulcers,
colitis, internal inflammation, stomach cancer, and those healing after
treatment for appendicitis, peritonitis, or the like." (Healing Wise, p
121).

Both Susun Weed and Deb Soule also recommend yellow dock root tincture as a
remedy for constipation.

CONSTIPATION AS A MENOPAUSAL SYMPTOM
In Wise Women's Ways for the Menopausal Years, herbalist Susun Weed
explains that "Menopausal constipation and indigestion are generally due to
the slowing of the gastrointestinal tract (estrogen is a gastrointestinal
stimulant) and heavy demands on the liver." Again yellow dock root, as
vinegar or tincture, and dandelion are highly recommended. "Menopausal
women will want to avoid the use of bran as a laxative in deference to
building strong bones." Instead try prunes, figs, or rhubarb with maple
syrup. Daily doses of 1 teaspoonful vinegar or 5 - 10 drops tincture of
yellow dock eliminate constipation, indigestion, and gas. "Yellow dock is
especially recommended for the woman who finds her early menopausal menses
getting heavier."

PURGATIVE OR CATHARTIC LAXATIVES
Purgative laxatives is the category most utilized; and purgative herbs are
used in healthfood store formulations and in many commercial
over-the-counter laxatives. This group includes aloe, buckthorn, cascara
sagrada, rhubarb, and senna. All the herbs in this category contain
anthraquinones, strong and irritating chemical compounds that force the
bowels to evacuate. They should be used only as a last resort.

Pregnant or nursing mothers should not use these irritants, nor should
people with gastrointestinal problems including ulcers, ulcerative colitis,
irritable bowel syndrome, and hemorrhoids.

Avoid the prolonged use of purgative laxatives. The continual use can cause
lazy bowel syndrome. When this negative cycle develops the result is a
sluggish digestive system unable to evacuate without the use of more
laxatives. Studies also show that chronic over-use of constipation
relieving drugs can lead to disturbances of the bodies electrolyte
equilibrium. In turn this can result in potassium deficiency and a
concomitant problem for those who are taking heart medications. ("In
Germany, the law requires that the labels on all anthraquinone preparations
must bear the warning that possible potassium deficiency can intensify the
effect of chemical heart drugs -cardiac glycosides"; The Family Herbal,
p.188)

The gentlest of this class of cathartic laxative herbs is cascara sagrada,
known as "sacred bark" from a native American tree (Rhamnus purshiana).
Michael Castleman says cascara sagrada is the "World's most popular
laxative". Many herbalists claim that in addition to its laxative quality
it also tones the intestinal tract and colon. It can be purchased in over-
the-counter preparations or taken as a tincture (1/2 teaspoon at bed).
Although a decoction (tea) is sometimes recommended, it is very bitter. It
should never be used for more than 2 weeks, and a reputable source is
important because unless the cascara is prepared correctly it can have
negative side-effects. (Fresh bark cannot be used; the bark needs to be
dried and stored for at least a year).

Dr. Weil, the well-known physician/author and lecturer, says "If you must
use an irritant laxative, try rhubarb root (Rheum officinale). It is one of
the safest and least violent, but it should be reserved for occasional use
only. You can get preparations of rhubarb root in health food stores.
(Natural Health, Natural Medicine, p 274)

Senna (Cassia acutifolia) is a bit stronger and also quite popular. It,
too, is a main ingredient of many over-the-counter laxatives. Kathi Keville
states that it is the most often purchased laxative herb in North America.
And my perusal of over-the-counter laxatives supports this. In fact, the
company that manufactures Ex-Lax recently updated its formula. Senna has
replaced the key ingredient, the chemical phenolphthalein, which proved to
have carcinogenic tendencies. Again, taste is a reason that herbalists
might not recommend this remedy in its natural state. "The taste of senna
is nauseating... herbalists generally discourage using the plant material
and instead recommend over-the- counter products containing it."

Some herbalists recommend blends that pair the strongly bitter herbs with
others that are better tasting and more easily tolerated. Kathi Kevilles
approach is to combine the irritant herbs with tasty ones like peppermint,
ginger, and fennel, that also relax the intestines and prevent cramping.

A commercial example of such a mixture is the blend Smooth Move sold by
Traditional Medicinals. The main ingredient is senna, combined with
licorice, and cinnamon, ginger, orange peel, fennel and coriander seed.

Another herb in this category, aloe, is even more problematic. Its
popularity has recently increased and it is a wonderful herb to use
externally for skin care. But because of its use, its name is becoming more
known, and some people assume that because it is safe for one purpose, that
it is ok to try for another reason. But this is not so!

A recent magazine article suggested drinking aloe vera juice on a daily
basis. But many western herbalists do not recommend aloe as a laxative
because it is too strong, although it has a history of use in Ayurvedic
medicine. Michael Castleman in his popular book The Healing Herbs, has a
headline under aloe, "Never a laxative". He says it is the "most drastic"
of the cathartics and that it is least recommended "because it often causes
severe intestinal cramps and diarrhea."

AYURVEDIC HERB MIXTURE
Dr. Andrew Weil suggests using Triphala, an herbal mixture from the
Ayurvedic tradition. He says this mixture of three herbs is a "superior
bowel regulator rather than a laxative,...take it regularly, it's benefits
accumulate the longeryou stay on it." Available in health food-stores in
capsule form, follow the directions on the label.

RECIPES FOR RELIEVING CONSTIPATION, compiled from some popular herbal
guides

Constipation tea/tincture (Deb Soule, The Roots of Healing, p92)
Dandelion root 2 parts
Yellow dock root 1 part
Angelica root 2 parts
Burdock root 1 part
Ginger root 1 part
Licorice root 1/2 part
Place 7 to 8 tablespoons of herbs in 1 quart of water and simmer, covered
for 30 minutes. Drink warm as needed. As a tincture, take 25-50 drops as
needed. For chronic constipation, take 3x a week for 1 to 3 weeks.

Laxative Tea (Michael Moore, Herb Formulas for Clinic and Home)
3 parts Psyllium seed
3 parts Licorice root
2 parts Rhubarb root (Rheum officinale)
2 parts Senna pods, crushed
2 parts Angelica root
Drink as a simple tea/infusion in the evening.

Herbal Laxative Syrup - for adults (Kathi Keville, Herbs for Health and
Healing, p 84)
1 teaspoon honey (or barley syrup or some other natural liquid sweetener)
2 teaspoons cascara sagrada bark tincture
1 teaspoon licorice root tincture
1/2 teaspoon tincture of fennel, ginger, or peppermint
Warm honey enough to make it liquid. Combine it with the remaining
ingredients and stir well. Take 1 teaspoon.

CHILDREN'S CONSTIPATION - Keville suggests tea (recipe below); elderberry
jam; catnip enema; ground psyllium seed in juice; and slippery elm gruel.
For children's constipation, Susun Weed suggests violet flower syrup.

Slippery Elm gruel - for children (Kathi Keville, Herbs for Health and
Healing, p 221)
1 tablespoon slippery elm powder
3/4 cup water
1 teaspoon lemon juice (optional)
Combine powder and water in saucepan and heat until warm, stirring the
mixture to prevent clumping. Add optional lemon juice for flavor. Can also
sweeten the gruel with child's favorite herbal or fruit based sweetener.
Child can drink entire amount (for every 50 lbs of body weight). Drink
before it cools - as gruel cools down, it thickens and the thicker it gets,
the more likely your child will push it away.

Constipation Tea - for children (Kathi Keville, Herbs for Health and
Healing, p.220)
1 cup boiling water
1/2 teaspoon licorice root
1/4 teaspoon ginger root (or fennel seeds)
1/4 cup apple juice (optional)
1/4 cup prune juice (optional)
Steep first 3 ingredients; strain; add juices. Recommended - 50 lb child,
1/4 cup every 2 hours "until a change for the better becomes apparent".

==========

2.3 Processing herbs

==========
2.3.1 Distilling oil
-----
This info is copyright by the Australasian College of Herbal Studies,
Aromatherapy Certificate Home Study Course. Posted with permission.

>I would really be interested in finding out how to make essential oils.

From Dorene Petersen <[email protected]>:

The most important production method for Essential oils is distillation.
The basic principle of distillation is the same but it is carried out in
different ways depending on the botanical material and the condition of the
material.

Three types of distillation are used:

 1. Water
 2. Water and steam
 3. Direct steam

Distillation is basically, producing steam. The steam is passed through the
herbal material. The steam carries the Essential oil from the plant in
suspension which means the droplets of Essential oils are not dissolved in
the steam but remain separate as droplets of oil. When the steam is cooled
it reverts to the liquid state which is water and in most cases the oil
floats on the surface of the water. The oil is then separated from the
water by dripping or pouring.

 1. Water distillation is used when the plant material has been dried and
    will not be damaged by boiling. It is also used for powdered materials
    such as powdered almond, and flowers, such as orange and rose, that
    need to float freely as they tend to lump together when just steam is
    passed through them. The material comes into direct contact with the
    boiling water and much care needs to be taken that the water does not
    boil away and cause the plant material to burn. Another example of an
    oil prepared by this method is turpentine gum. Turpentine gum is
    collected from a species of Pine (Pinus palustris) and the gum, wood
    chips and pine needles are placed in the distilling chamber with rain
    water. This mixture is heated until the plant and oil are condensed in
    the condensing chamber. Turpentine oil is not affected by very
    excessive heat.
 2. The second method of distillation is water and steam. This is used for
    either fresh or dried plant material that would be damaged by boiling.
    The plant material is supported on a perforated grid. The water level
    is below the grid and low pressure, wet steam passes through the plant
    material. The most important aspect of this method is that the steam
    is never really hot and always at low pressure. Cinnamon and clove
    oils are prepared by this method.
 3. Direct steam distillation is similar to the second method but the
    steam is hotter and passed through the plant material at a higher
    pressure. This method is used for fresh plant material that has a high
    boiling point such as seeds, roots and wood. It is also used for fresh
    plant material such as peppermint and spearmint. The crop is cut and
    placed in a metal distilling tank on a truck. It is then taken to the
    distilling tank on the truck. Steam is forced through the fresh herbs
    and the oil droplets are carried by the steam through a vapor pipe at
    the top of the tank onto a cool condensing chamber.

Cold Pressing or Expression:
This method is mainly used to prepare citrus oils such as orange, lemon and
tangerine. One method involves puncturing the oil glands by rolling the
fruit over sharp projections that actually pierce the oil glands. The fruit
is then pressed which removes the oil from the glands. It is then washed
off with a fine spray of water.

The juice is extracted by another tube. The oil is then separated from the
water by rotating it at a very high speed. Another method involves
separating the peel from the fruits and then cold pressing them. The
Essential oil is collected along with small amounts of juice, which is
separated.

Enfleurage:
This is an old method which was used in the production of perfumes and
pomade extracts for perfumery. Flower petals such as rose or jasmine are
layered onto warm oils, cold fat or wax. This process is repeated each day
until the base is saturated with the Essential oil. The resulting waxes or
pastes contain up to 1 percent of Essential oil. The Essential oil is then
extracted from the wax with a volatile liquid such as ethyl alcohol. In the
final step the ethyl alcohol is evaporated at low temperatures and reduced
pressure so that the pure Essential oil remains as a fairly thick liquid.
Cold enfleurage has the advantage that even the most delicate components of
the flower oils are preserved. The disadvantages are that it is not very
effective and it is very expensive. Flower oils prepared with this method
do not contain terpene-hydrocarbons, which indicates that these compounds
are not present as such in the flower, but form during distillation.

Solvent Extraction
This is the most widely used modern method to prepare oils from flowers.
The petals are mixed into a volatile solvent such as petroleum, ether or
benzene, until the Essential oil is completely dissolved in the solvent.
The solution is then filtered and the solvent is evaporated at reduced
pressure. The result of solvent extraction is a concrete. The solvent is
removed from the concrete by vacuum pressure without the use of heat to
avoid any harmful effect to the oil. The concentrated essence that results
is called an absolute. Absolutes are highly concentrated flower products
without the natural waxes.

The main advantage of extraction over distillation is that uniform
temperatures are maintained throughout the process. High temperatures
during the distillation process can produce altered chemical composition of
the oil which alters the natural odor. However, this method is expensive
compared to distillation, and chemicals or solvents used in the process may
still be present after evaporation.

I know this is kind of lengthy but it is not a quick topic. Hope this
helps.

Dorene Petersen
Australasian College of Herbal Studies 1(800)48-STUDY

-----

From Rusty Taylor ([email protected]):
Quoting 'Herbal Preparations and Natural Therapies' by Debra St. Claire:
'Glycerin will extract the following - sugars, enzymes (dilute),
glucosides, bitter compounds, saponins (dilute), and tannins. Absolute
alcohol will extract the following - alkaloids (some), glycosides, volatile
oils, waxes, resins, fats, some tannins, balsam, sugars, and vitamins.' I
am very much still a student, but it seems to me that you would use the
solvent that will give you the healing properties that you need out of the
plant. And for those that don't like the alcohol taste, or bite, the
tincture can be mixed in hot water and left for a few minutes to evaporate
most of the alcohol off. It has worked well for me, and my children.

==========
2.3.2 Pointer to the How-to of Tinctures
-----
Go get the latest edition of Michael Moore's Materia Medica from his WWW
site: http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/HOMEPAGE (also see 6.1 below).

If you wish to use anonymous FTP go to metalab.unc.edu or to
sunsite.sut.ac.jp and cd to
/pub/academic/medicine/alternative-healthcare/herbal-medicine/SWSBM/

Go for the manuals.

-----
A question on the herblist in November 97:
>Hi All, when it says on a bottle of tincture that the herb to menstruum
ratio is (say) 1:5, is this by weight? volume? and then if it is (say) 60%
alcohol, 40% water, does this mean that the 5 in the ratio is made up of
60% alcohol and 40% water?
>Also, how do you personally decide how much dried herb to put in that
canning jar before you add the vodka? I've recently been thinking that I
have probably been putting too much dried herb in, since in most jars it
doesn't have an easy time sloshing around.

My reply:
A specification of 1:5 60% is most probably for dried herb. Weight the herb
- let's say it's 100 g. The menstruum is by volume; metric is easier (for
me)(1 g water = 1 ml), so to get 5 parts of menstruum you add 500 ml (= 1/2
liter) 60 % alcohol to the 100 g of herb. With dried herb you can either
macerate or percolate. Maceration is the normal 'put herb in a jar, pour
menstruum over, put lid on, leave 2-4 weeks, shake every day or two'.
Percolation is faster, and actually quite easy, but the description of it
is lengthy...

You'll want a reliable materia medica to get ratios and percentages for
different herbs - a good one is available on Michael Moore's website at
http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/HOMEPAGE (go for the Manuals, go for the
Materia Medica).

Fresh herbs are usually done at a ratio of 1:2 and 95 % alcohol - unless
you use the 'simplers' -approach, which is to jam as much shredded herb as
you can fit into a jar, top it up with alcohol to cover, close the lid,
wait a day, and top it up again. Fresh herb is usually macerated.

The simplers approach doesn't give you very consistent quality from batch
to batch, so most more professional herbalists stick to given ratios and
menstruum strengths.

==========
2.3.3 Herbal Oils
-----
From Dorene Petersen <[email protected]>:

I have made quite a lot of infused oils and the following is from the
Aromatherapy Certificate Correspondence Course offered by the Australasian
College of Herbal Studies.

It's not that technical but hope its helpful:

HOW TO PREPARE YOUR OWN INFUSED OILS AT HOME

There is nothing more satisfying than gathering a basket of fresh jasmine,
honeysuckle or rose blossoms on a warm summers day and then preparing your
own infused oil. There are three methods for preparing an infused herbal
oil. You can use fresh or dried herbs. Flowers are best fresh, although the
perfume of some flowers intensifies with drying such as gardenia, daphne
and boronia. If using fresh, double the quantity as all recipes given are
for dried herbs. If using fresh herbs for any of these methods leave the
herbs to wilt for six hours to reduce their water content which will spoil
the final product.

WATERBATH METHOD

15 gm (1/2 oz) dried or if fresh use 30 gm (1 oz) herb (this is the total
amount so if you are using a blend make sure you do not have more than
this)
1 cup of oil

Measure the herbs and oil and mix the oil to the herbs in a stainless steel
bowl. Heat over water bath (a saucepan 1/4 filled with water) also known as
a double boiler, which should be simmering. Make sure the bowl is not
sitting on the bottom of the pot but is floating in the water. Keep the lid
on the oil. Stir occasionally and simmer for 30 minutes. Watch the oil does
not get too hot. It should not smoke or bubble. It can burn easily and will
develop an acrid smell if it overheats, which is very difficult to
disguise. Strain through four layers of butter muslin or some other very
fine non-metal strainer. Strain twice if necessary as it is important to
get all herbs out of the oil to prevent the herbal oil from going rancid or
moldy. Essential oils can be added at this stage for perfume and added
therapeutic benefits.

SOLAR METHOD

Use the same quantities of herbs and oil as for the waterbath method or
approximately 3 tablespoons of finely cut herbs to 300ml (10 oz) of oil.
The quantity of herb can be increased to produce a stronger oil. Put the
herbs in a jar with a tight fitting lid and pour over the oil. Make sure
the herbs are completely covered with oil. Add one tablespoon of apple
cider vinegar or white wine to help break down the plant material. Leave
the jar to sit in the sun all day and in a warm cupboard at night for two
weeks. Strain through four layers of muslin. This process can be repeated
two to three times to give a stronger oil. The final product should be
strong enough to leave an aroma when massaged on the skin. Always test
infused oils on the skin. Don't rely on just your nose.

CROCKPOT METHOD

Use the same quantities of herbs and oil as for Waterbath method. Place the
herbs and oil in a crockpot and leave on a low heat for two hours. Follow
the recipe above for straining.

TO PRESERVE OILS

This is only necessary if you are preparing large quantities that you
intend to store.

 1. Add 1/4 tsp. simple tincture of Benzoin to 1 cup vegetable oil.
    Tincture of Benzoin is prepared from the gum of an Indonesian tree,
    Styrax Benzoin. Make sure it is simple tincture of Benzoin. Compound
    tincture of Benzoin, also known as Friars Balsam, is not suitable.
 2. Add 500 I.U. of natural mixed Tocopherols or Vitamin E to 1 cup of
    vegetable oil.

Dorene Petersen <[email protected]>

==========
2.3.4 Balms and liniments
-----
> >Hi,I just wonder if anyone has any info about how to make your own balms
and liniments.

From: Shannon Brophy <[email protected]>:

To make a liniment:
First infuse the plant in oil. Do this by baking at low heat (120-170
degrees) in a glass pan with herb and oil together, stir occasionally.
Then strain with cheesecloth and a funnel to separate plant material from
the oil. Squeeze out the cheesecloth. Then grate beeswax and add to hot
oil, maybe heating again over a double boiler on the stove. Pour the
viscous green stuff into jars and allow to cool. Can keep in the fridge for
a longer shelf life. Also, adding vitamin E oil to the mixture helps
preserve it.

Shannon Brophy, Midwife
visit the Roots & Wings Website at http://www.yoga.com

-----
From: Andy & Sharon <[email protected]>:

One of the most popular liniments for muscle-, head- and backache is
Tigerbalm.
Tradition will have it that the Mongolian Horsemen from Genghis Khan,
roaming the plains of central Europe, had a very effective ointment against
saddle and back ache. Part of this ointment came from the Siberian Birch
Tree. A mixture was made out of lard, camphor and birch tree oil. For ages
this ointment was in use and got quite famous.

At the end of the last century many products were replaced by synthetic
components. The useful part of the birch oil (methyl salicylate) and the
camphor oil (the crystals) were available in synthetic form. This made the
ointment cheap and within reach for everyone.

A Chinese merchant composed a mixture of methyl salicylate, camphor
crystals and petroleum jelly, which he called Tigerbalm. It became famous
throughout the Orient and parts of Europe under this name.
How to make it: First you have to blend the oils. You can use the mix pure
or add it to petroleum jelly (vaseline) later on to make a balm.

Tigerbalm Oil - Natural - Recipe 1

Wintergreen oil  45 ml
Camphor oil      15 ml
Eucalyptus oil    7 ml
Lavender oil      5 ml
Peppermint oil    8 ml
Almond oil       20 ml

Tigerbalm Oil - Natural - Recipe 2

Peppermint oil   25 ml
Camphor oil      15 ml
Wintergreen oil  20 ml
Lavender oil     15 ml
Eucalyptus oil   15 ml
Jojoba oil       10 ml

Tigerbalm Oil - Partly natural

Methyl salicylate   25 ml
Menthol crystals     5 g
Camphor crystals    10 g
Eucalyptus oil      10 ml
Lavender oil         5 g
Paraffin oil       45 ml

Tigerbalm
To make tigerbalm take 100 gram petroleum jelly (vaseline) (acid-free) and
melt this by placing, for instance, a glass with vaseline in a pan of hot
water. The vaseline will melt quickly.
Once melted place the glass in a pan of cold water, and as soon as the
vaseline hardens again on the side of the glass, add 20 ml of your
Tigerbalm oil mix. Stir until cool. If you prefer the balm to have a
colour, add a drop of chlorophyll.

Apply a little bit to the forehead for headaches, or use it for muscle
pains and insect bites.

-----
>I find tiger balm/vaseline, to be too greasy for me. I created a simple
rub for my lower back pain (due to herniated disk) that provides some
relief. It consists of essential oil of Wintergreen and oil of St. John's
Wort, added to a base of Aloe Vera gel.
>The Aloe Vera gel is non-greasy and absorbs completely (to the touch).
This mixture also feels like it absorbs completely, and no staining of my
clothes as of yet.
>Can I make the above "Tigerbalm", but use the aloe vera gel? As well, my
herb book indicated that oil of wintergreen is good for pain and
inflammation. Could you also post what the other herbs are targeted for?

From: [email protected] to above:
I cannot see any reason why you should not use your gel; the vaseline is
used to hold the oils together.
Here are some ways the oils react with your skin; as you can see lavender
detoxifies, while eucalyptus vitalizes, peppermint refreshes etc.

Essential oils and how they affect your skin

1. GREASY SKIN

Sage      : relaxes, improves blood circulation
Peppermint: refreshes, cools
Valerian  : calms
Clove     : disinfects
Camphor   : Disinfects, sedating
Cypress   : Refreshing, relaxing

2. UNCLEAN SKIN

Cajeput    :  Improves perspiration
Rosemary   :  Improves blood circulation
Valerian   :  Calming
Camphor    :  Disinfects, sedates

3. THICK, PALE AND WEAK SKIN

Oregano   : Widens the blood vessels
Melissa   : Refreshes, tonic
Geranium  : Refreshing
Linden blossom : Soothing

4. INFECTED SKIN

Juniper   : Disinfects
Lavender  : Healing
Cajeput   : Improves perspiration
Fir       : Refreshes, regulates

5. SENSITIVE, THIN, QUICKLY IRRITATED SKIN

Cypress    : Relaxes, refreshes
Pine       : Balances, refreshes
Melissa    : Against cramps
Chamomile  : Sedating
Therebinth : Softening

6. TIRED SKIN

Lavender    : Detoxifying
Eucalyptus  : Vitalizing
Cajeput     : Improves perspiration
Verbena     : Calming
Lemongrass  : Improves blood circulation

7. BODY CARE (GENERAL)

Oregano   :  Strengthening
Thyme     :  Disinfecting
Mint      :  Tonic
Geranium  :  Refreshing

==========

2.4 Pointers to related documents

-----
I appreciate updates on below WWW / ftp addresses. Drop me a note if you
notice changes: [email protected]. Thanks.

==========
2.4.1 Tinnitus FAQ pointer
-----
The tinnitus FAQ is found at http://www.cccd.edu/faq/tinnitus.html.

==========
2.4.2 Plants by Mail FAQ pointer
-----
Here you'll find lots and lots of catalogs to get living plants, and some
seeds, too: http://pbmfaq.dvol.com

==========
2.4.3 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome WWW page pointer
-----
Take a look at the Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Home Page at
http://www.netaxs.com/~iris/cts and specifically, at
http://www.netaxs.com/~iris/cts/compfort.html

==========
2.4.4 Hint for Kombucha posters
-----
Please subscribe to the Kombucha list (see 8.4). Do not post on
alt.folklore.herbs about Kombucha.
You could go visit the Kombucha Homepage, which should answer anyone's
questions about the subject:
http://www.sease.com/kombucha

==========
2.4.5 Hint for Essiac posters
-----
You can find a wealth of info on Essiac at this web location:

http://essiac-info.org/

==========
2.4.6 Thinking of growing herbs for sale?
-----
Visit this site first: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/

It's the Gateway to the NewCrop Resource Online Program at the Indiana
Center for New Crops and Plant Products at Purdue University; it has lots
of information about different plants.

Next go for Richters' FAQ pages: http://www.richters.com/QandA.html

Then go get the 'herb-growing.faq' at metalab (see 7.1 below).

==========
2.4.7 Saw Palmetto and Prostate Problems: Newsgroup/FAQ pointer
-----
Try news:alt.support.prostate.prostatitis, where they also have an
excellent FAQ posted periodically.

==========
2.4.8 Natural High FAQ pointer
-----
Go get it by ftp from the alt.drugs archive at hyperreal.com /drugs/faqs/ -
and take the other interesting stuff as well while you're there.

==========
2.4.9 Natural vision FAQ pointer
-----
This interesting document can be found here:
http://www.cia.com.au/vic/faq.html

==========
2.4.10 Smoking herbs document pointer
-----
THE document on herbal smokes, which also tells you how to stop smoking, is
Howie Brounstein's Herbal Smoking Mixtures -booklet. You'll find it here::
http://www.teleport.com/~howieb/howie.html

It's about 47 kB.

==========
2.4.11 Pointer to herbal-medical glossary
-----
I got email 'yes but what does MAO inhibitor and adrenergenics and
cholinergics mean?' ... so here's a pointer to Michael Moore's medicinese -
English dictionary:
http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/ManualsMM/MedHerbGloss2.txt

you get there from Michael Moore's Clinical Herb Manuals page:
http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/ManualsMM/MansMM.html

==========
2.4.12 Menopausal discomforts
-----
A very good place to start is the alt.support.menopause unofficial web
site, found here: http://members.tripod.com/~tishy_asm/asm.html

Also see the entry on wild yam cream, here: ch.2.1.13.1

==========

2.5 Other topics that are frequently discussed

==========
2.5.1 Melatonin
-----
from Paul Bergner ([email protected]), Editor, Medical Herbalism
(http://medherb.com):

I'm not surprised that melatonin is gone in Canada, and I predict that it
will go the way of DHEA here in the U.S. -- meaning that it will be a
prescription-only controlled item, treated like opiates.

I've just researched and written a lengthy article about melatonin, and
frankly I am shocked that natural healers would use this substance casually
like a sleeping pill. Melatonin is a powerful hormone that affects the
entire metabolic cycle, not just the sleep- wake cycle. We rail against
hormone-replacement therapy with estrogen- progresterone, and then casually
offer patients enough melatonin to raise blood levels 10-20 times their
normal levels. This is bound to be a Devil's bargain, and it is only a
matter of time till regulatory agencies throughout the world discover this
and rightfully take measures to protect the public.

For instance: melatonin production by the pineal gland appears to be an
important part of the aging clock. The pineal glands of young mice,
transplanted to old mice, make the old mice "younger" and they live about
1/3 longer. On the other hand, the pineal glands of older mice,
transplanted into younger mice, immediately makes them "older" and they
live about 1/3 shorter lives.

So what happens when some guy named Joe in Iowa takes ten mg of melatonin
(about twenty times what you need to achieve normal blood level peaks) to
sleep most nights for three years (this is actually happening all over the
place today) and then can't get the melatonin? Will his pineal have lost
its ability to produce the same levels as previously? Most hormones have a
negative feedback loop of one sort or another -- would levels that high
reduce endogenous production over time? Will poor Joe then age ten years
over the next few months?

I think melatonin has a proper place in natural medicine, in the treatment
or palliation of cancer, used for brief periods for jet lag, and possible
for the elderly, and may be a few more uses. But IMO over-the-counter
status is inviting health disaster.

==========

3 General Info

==========

3.1 Introduction to side effects, safety and toxicity of medicinal herbs

-----
by Jonathan Treasure ([email protected])

This introduction concerns WESTERN medical herbs and their clinical use.
Some herbal agents are common to different traditions but the indications
and methods of use may vary between e.g. TCM, Ayurvedic and Western
practices.

The purpose of these notes is to provide a general understanding of the
actions of herbal medicines, and hence a background for understanding
questions of safety and toxicity - NOT to provide a list of problematic
herbs. A brief bibliography gives sources of reliable information on the
safety of herbal medicine and further reading.

-----
Conventional medicine considers that if a drug is to be effective, it will
inevitably have side effects. The medical establishment considers herbal
medicines as drugs, and as such, they must either have side effects - or
ergo be ineffective.

Paradoxically tens of thousands of people every year turn to herbal
medicine because they regard plant remedies as being free from undesirable
side effects. Herbal medicines are considered to be generally safe AND
effective agents.

Although there is a spectrum of viewpoints in western herbal medicine, most
herbalists reject the view that plant medicines are naturally occurring
analogues of the pharmaceuticals used in orthodox clinical medicine i.e.
drugs.

This is ultimately a rejection of the dominant paradigm of orthodox
clinical science. It is necessary to outline the elements of the
alternative paradigm shared by most herbalists, before questions of
toxicity and safety can be discussed in context of clinical herbal
therapeutics, rather than of orthodox medical science

==========
3.1.1 Medicinal plant actions cannot be reduced to the effects of their
isolated 'active constituents'
-----
There ARE a few plants that are almost "drug like" and whose action
approaches that of pharmaceuticals. Digitalis is the classic example.
Herbalists use these plants in near allopathic treatment strategies if at
all, and in some countries e.g. UK, their availability is restricted by
law. The number of herbs in this category is relatively few.

The vast majority of medicinal herbs contain dozens of different compounds,
often of great complexity, mucilages, tannins, polysaccharides etc. that
buffer, modulate and modify the effects of any "active principles". Study
after study has shown that effects produced by extracts of whole plants
cannot be mimicked by administering isolated purified constituents of the
plant.

(It is ironic this proposition even has to be asserted given that
biological sciences have for some time used a systems theory model in which
the whole being greater than the sum of the parts is axiomatic - this
simply reflects the inherent conservatism of the medical establishment.
However for most herbalists the view of the whole being greater than the
parts is derived from vitalism, not systems theory!)

==========
3.1.2 Medicinal herbs act 'multi-systemically'
-----
Pharmaceutical drugs are designed to elicit very specific reactions. Their
associated "side effects" are undesired actions, usually traded as a "risk"
against the "benefit" of the primary effect. Herbs tend to have several
broad actions on a number of whole physiological systems at the same time.
These actions are usually oriented in the same general therapeutic
direction, and are usually complementary or synergistic, often
non-specific, and very rarely adverse. Herb actions cannot be adequately
described using the vocabulary of "drug" action terms, e.g. diuretic etc. -
they are too complex. The clearest example of this is the coining of the
term "adaptogenic " used to describe the multiple non-specific effects of
herbs such as Ginseng.

==========
3.1.3 Herbs act on the healing processes in the body
-----
A pharmaceutical drug addresses symptoms caused by specific disease
mechanisms as understood by scientific pathology. Herbal medicines are
directed towards aiding the body's own healing processes. These approaches
are diametrically opposed. Herbal medicines act gently, usually attempting
to "nudge" or "support" systems and processes that have become deficient or
help remove excesses that have become preponderant. Symptom relief is only
a component of herbal therapeutic strategy.

This is a crucial difference. For example, serum arthritic conditions are
conventionally treated with steroid anti-inflammatory drugs. These have
widespread and disturbing side effects, which at sustained high doses
become intolerable and potentially dangerous if not lethal. The herbal
approach to these conditions uses dietary modification of metabolism;
facilitation of elimination via kidneys and hepatic/ biliary routes;
stimulation of circulation in the affected regions, moistening of dry
synovia, etc. Topical treatments for acute joint pain or systemic
anti-inflammatory herbs that help joint pain are used as required, but this
is not the thrust of the treatment strategy. Lay persons often make the
related mistake of seeking a "natural alternative" to a pharmaceutical they
have been prescribed rather than challenging the diagnosis and therapeutic
strategy.

==========
3.1.4 Herbs act multi-dimensionally
-----
Herbal medicine is a wholistic therapy, it integrates mental, emotional and
spiritual levels seamlessly into its understanding of both human function
and of the plant remedy, while respecting the planetary and ecological
dimensions of natural medicine provided by plants. Although subject to
differing interpretations this view is held in one form or another by most
herbalists .

Life style, mental, emotional and spiritual considerations are part of any
naturopathic approach, herbalism included. Flower essences, homeopathic
preparations and drop doses of standard herb extracts all demonstrate that
herbal agents can produce consistent and powerful effects at subtle levels
in ways quite inexplicable by the pharmacokinetic model underlying orthodox
pharmacology.

Centuries of medicinal plant usage overarch even the Graeco - Roman
heritage of medical thought, itself already forgotten by its amnesiac
infant technological medicine, extending into magical, esoteric and
religious domains of prehistory. The great Asian systems of medicine have
continued uninterrupted for thousands of years to today, integrated into
profound cosmological and philosophical systems. From any serious study of
the application of herbs to healing a perspective emerges that reveals
modern doctors to be tragicomically "like educated peasants running around
pretending to be chiefs" (Grossinger).

==========
3.1.5 Side effects vs. contraindications
-----
Many herbalists would tend toward the radical homeopathic view that the
"side effects" of orthodox medicine are in fact iatrogenic developments of
the very disease for which the pharmacological intervention was intended.
The symptoms simply change, and the real underlying dysfunction is further
obscured - or driven further into the interior to manifest in deeper and
more intractable ways.

Notwithstanding this iatrogenic view of side effects, we have seen that the
use of herbs anyway does not generally involve "drug" actions or adverse
effects. Of course, if the body processes are nudged in the wrong direction
for long enough, then imbalances can worsen rather than improve. Hence the
need for informed knowledge of the effects of herbs as well as a clinical
training to understand their appropriate medical application. Herbalists
learn about the CONTRAINDICATIONS as well as the indications for using a
herb. This term is more useful and appropriate than "side effects".

CONTRAINDICATIONS are incongruences between the metabolic/systemic
predisposition (constitution) of the individual - and the spectrum of
multi-systemic actions of a given herb agent or class of agents.
Essentially, herbalists use their in depth knowledge to devise a
mix'n'match prescription tailored precisely to fit an individuals unique
profile. This approach is most sophisticated in the tonic energetics of the
Oriental medical traditions, but is empirically applied by most herbalists.

Contraindicated remedies can account for apparently idiosyncratic "bad
reactions" to a herb. Valerian is a classic example, its powerful autonomic
effects can make it "disagree" with stressed adrenergically hyperactive
individuals, who paradoxically are often those seeking sedative treatment
for insomnia. Anyone experiencing such reactions to a herb for more than a
couple of days should stop taking it and seek further advice. However a
second and vital aspect of contraindications especially today is the
question of DRUG INTERACTIONS.

Many people seeking herbal medical treatment are already involved in
pharmaceutical therapies. Herbal remedies may act either as agonists or
potentiate some drug therapies, and an understanding of conventional drugs
is an essential prerequisite for effective herbal therapeutics. In many
cases, herbalists would not treat the primary presenting symptom undergoing
drug treatment - be it ulcers treated with Zantac or cardiac arrythmia
treated with Digoxin - but rather concentrate on supporting other systems
and functions stressed by the primary symptom. This allows the body to
recover its strength and healing potential so it can then direct these
capabilities toward repairing the presenting condition. In other cases, it
can be a priority to wean someone off drugs, e.g. steroids, in which case
supportive therapy to restore adrenal function is vital.

==========
3.1.6 Safety and toxicity of herbal medicines
-----
The definition of *toxic* is a ultimately a matter of viewpoint. Many
ordinary foods contain constituents that could be regarded as poisonous,
such as the alpha gliadin produced by gluten in wheat oats and rye, the
cyanogenic glycosides in many fruit seeds, the thiocyanates of the brassica
vegetables, alkaloids of the Solanaceae and lectins of many pulses
including soya and red kidney beans. Nonetheless these foods are generally
regarded as safe. Similarly, both water and oxygen - can kill in excessive
amounts, so quantity is often an important consideration. In practice
however, three groups of herbs can be identified from a safety point of
view.

Firstly there are a handful of herbs that contain near pharmaceutical
concentrations of poisonous constituents which should on no account be
taken internally by unqualified persons except in homeopathic potencies.
Examples are Atropa belladonna, Arnica spp, Aconitum spp, Digitalis spp. In
many countries availability of these herbs is limited by law. Regulations
vary from country to country and the appropriate regulatory authorities or
Herb Organisations can be consulted for details. Wildcrafters should be
unshakably confident in their identification of the local variants of these
species, and children warned to avoid them. Fortunately this is a
numerically tiny category.

Secondly, are herbs with powerful actions, often causing nausea or
vomiting, (that usually were traditionally prized for this action). They
are perfectly safe used under appropriate conditions. Some of these herbs
are restricted in some countries but freely available in others. Lobelia
and Eonymus spp are examples. There is some inconsistency here, for example
Ephedra is restricted, perhaps with justification, in the UK, but is freely
available in the US.

Finally, there is an idiosyncratic grouping of herbs which have been
alleged, with some scientific support, to exhibit specific kinds of
toxicity. The best known is the hepatotoxicity of
pyrrolizidine-alkaloid-containing plants such as Comfrey (Symphytum). Other
examples are Dryopteris (Male Fern), Viscum (Mistletoe) and Corynanthe
(Yohimbe). Although much of the evidence is contentious (see below), lay
users would be advised to avoid internal consumption of these herbs.

The vast majority of medical herbs are safe for consumption, but for those
without specialised knowledge, it would be prudent to follow simple but
sensible guidelines in self treatment:

  * Use only herbs recommended in respected herb books, especially in
    countries like the US where there are few restrictions on
    availability.
  * Avoid new or unproven *wonder remedies*.
  * Do not persist with a remedy if no benefit or result obtains after a
    moderate period, and if adverse reactions take place, stop the
    treatment and seek experienced advice.
  * Do not persist with a treatment that has brought improvement without
    testing to see if continued further consumption is necessary to
    maintain improvement.
  * Do not engage in self treatment for complex conditions without
    experienced advice. Drug interactions and contraindications must be
    considered on an individual basis and herbal treatment strategies are
    often involved and multifaceted.

Unfortunately, training and licensing of herbalists is not internationally
consistent. In the US the situation is especially complex - no recognised
herbal licensing exists. ND's are licensed in a few states, but their
herbal training could theoretically be less than that of an unlicensed but
experienced herbal practitioner. In the UK, the NIMH accredits herbalists
who have trained at approved courses: practitioners are recognised by MNIMH
or FNIMH qualifications.

==========
3.1.7 Pregnancy
-----
It is axiomatic that pregnancy should be a time of minimal medical
intervention, and herbalists in particular regard pregnancy as a
"contraindication" to taking herbal medicines. Nutritive "food herbs" such
as nettle, and uterine tonics such as raspberry leaf are encouraged, and
perhaps gentle treatments against typical symptoms such as constipation or
morning sickness are in order. There is NO evidence of teratogenicity in
humans arising from herbal remedies, but since such evidence would be hard
to come by, erring on the side of caution is regarded as prudent.

==========
3.1.8 Understanding toxicity research - politics and ideology
-----
Medical orthodoxy at best does not understand herbal medicine, and at
worst, sees it as a threat which it attempts to rubbish, regulate or
ridicule. Quackery has a fascinating role in the history of medicine and
its institutions, but much of the hostility towards herbal medicine comes
from its apparently greater proximity to orthodoxy than say acupuncture or
homeopathy. This is the unfortunate political context in which toxicity and
safety of herbal medicines are debated.

Additionally, both professional herbalists and regulatory authorities
exhibit differing degrees of education, organisation and aptitude in
different countries. In the United States, the situation is particularly
lamentable, with scare mongering stories regularly aired in medical,
scientific and popular press, whilst the lack of accredited professional
herbalist training means that well intentioned self-appointed spokespersons
for herbalism can cause more harm than good, and the quixotic federal
regulatory stance on herbs as foodstuffs means that the potential of lay
self-iatrogenesis with freely available OTC herbal products is a serious
possibility.

Toxicity of herbal medicines needs to be seen in context however. As Paul
Bergner, Editor of the journal Medical Herbalism and author of several
articles on herbal toxicity recently pointed out:

*Approximately 8% of all hospital admissions in the U.S. are due to adverse
reactions to synthetic drugs. That's a minimum of 2,000,000. At least
100,000 people a year die from them. That's just in the U.S., and that's a
conservative estimate. That means at least three times as many people are
killed in the U.S. by pharmaceutical drugs as are killed by drunken
drivers. Thousands die each year from supposedly "safe" over-the-counter
remedies. Deaths or hospitalizations due to herbs are so rare that they're
hard to find. The U.S. National Poison Control Centers does not even have a
category in their database for adverse reactions to herbs.*

Similar figures apply in the United Kingdom, and even hepatoxicity, where
perhaps the strongest case against some herbs lies, the statistics are
horrendously clear - over 80% of cases of fulminant hepatic failure
presenting for liver transplant (or death) over ten years in the UK were
due to poisoning by freely available OTC non-prescription NSAID's, such as
paracetomol and aspirin. Not one case was due to ingestion of medicinal
herbs.

For the lay person, analysis of so called "scientific evidence" about
toxicity is clearly problematic. Some of the most useful sources of
information are to be found in review presentations made by representatives
of the herbalist community to regulatory authorities such as the FDA or
MCA. Informative reviews of the literature in defence of Comfrey and
Mistletoe have been made in this way.

Herbalists justifiably point out that scientific studies with isolated
compounds, on non human or even non mammalian organisms, or in vitro, with
doses tens or even hundreds of times the equivalent medicinal dose, simply
have no arguable extrapolation to the clinical situation using whole herb
at appropriate medicinal doses.

Lack of herbal knowledge by some scientific investigators (let alone
journalists or self appointed defenders of the public) leads to often
ludicrously misleading results - one of the commonest mistakes being the
failure to verify the actual identity of plant material used in their
experiments, let alone the detection of contaminants!

These points beg the question of what paradigm can be used for research
into the safety and efficacy of herbal therapies. That shibboleth of
orthodoxy - the double blind placebo controlled clinical trial is open to a
range of criticisms from the paradigm employed by herbalists - but that, as
they say, is another story.

==========
3.1.9 Further reading
-----
HERBAL /MEDICAL CONTRAINDICATIONS:
Synergistic and Iatrogenic Potentials when some herbs are used concurrent
with Medical Treatment or Medical Health Care by Michael Moore, 1995, on
line at http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/HOMEPAGE

HERB INFORMATION RESOURCE:
The Information Source book of Herbal Medicine: David Hoffmann, Crossing
Press 1994.

TOXICOLOGY:
Brinker F : An Introduction to the Toxicology of Common Botanical
Medicines, NCNM 1983
AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants AMA, Chicago 1985
NAPRALERT database at UIC.

Example REVIEWS OF PROBLEMATIC HERBS:
In Defence of Comfrey: EJHM1.1 1994 11-17
The Case For Mistletoe: EJHM1.1 1994 17-22
EJHM = European Journal of Herbal Medicine (see 4.3.2 below)

HISTORY:
Planet Medicine - Richard Grossinger, North Atlantic Books 1990
The Magical Staff, Matthew Wood North Atlantic Books, Berkely 1992

GENERAL HERB BOOKS:
(as in 4.1 below):
J.A. Duke, CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs.
C. Hobbs, many booklets.
D. Hoffmann, The Herbal Handbook.
S. Mills, Out of the Earth: The Essential Book of Herbalism.
M. Moore, Medicinal Plants of the Mountain West.
M. Moore, Medicinal Plants of the Desert and Canyon West.
M. Moore, Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West.
R.F. Weiss, Herbal Medicine.

==========

3.2 Wildcrafting Ethics

-----
by Howie Brounstein ([email protected]) (posted with permission)

This are the guidelines I teach to my students. It is copyrighted material
that took me years to develop. Please respect this copyright. I ask you not
to publish it without permission. Happy Herbing.

==========
3.2.1 Wildcrafting checklist
-----

  * Do you have the permission or the permits for collecting at the site?
  * Do you have a positive identification?
  * Are there better stands nearby? Is the stand big enough?
  * Are you at the proper elevation?
  * Is the stand away from roads and trails?
  * Is the stand healthy?
  * Is there any chemical contamination?
  * Is there any natural contamination?
  * Are you in a fragile environment?
  * Are there rare, threatened, endangered, or sensitive plants growing
    nearby at any time of the year?
  * Is wildlife foraging the stand?
  * Is the stand growing, shrinking, or staying the same size?
  * Is the plant an annual or a perennial?
  * Is tending necessary and what kind?
  * How much to pick?
  * Time of day? Time of year?
  * What effect will your harvest have on the stand?
  * Do you have the proper emotional state?
  * Move around during harvesting.
  * Look around after harvesting. Any holes or cleanup needed?
  * Are you picking herbs in the proper order for a long trip?
  * Are you cleaning herbs in the field? Do you have the proper equipment
    for in-field processing?
  * Wildcrafting is stewardship

c1993hb

==========
3.2.2 How do I find out about endangered plants (in the USA)?
-----
Check your local Heritage Program Database, call the Dept. of AG or a local
Native plant society chapter to find its address. This will connect you to
experts on particular plants and current lists.

The endangered species act has many flaws, I personally believe there
should be an endangered ecosystems act instead but it's all we've got and
better than nothing.

Some listed plants are truly rare, once numerous but destroyed by loss of
habitat through man or nature.

Many listed plants are endemics, located in a specific area. These may be
geographically isolated islands of flora as are often found in the
intermountain west, or they can be found at the border of major plant
systems. Many endemics are found in southern Oregon, where the Northern
California system blends with the Pacific Northwest system, with a
spattering of Great Basin plants. This does not mean these plants are
sensitive, just unique. The threatened Penstemon peckii grows only within
twenty miles of my house, and nowhere else on earth.

It can withstand trampling, wildlife grazing, and disturbance. In fact, now
that the forest service has realized that this species thrives with
moderate disturbance (partial cuts), it has become a reason to log, i.e.
increased health of the population of this plant.

Plants become listed due to political boundaries. Gentiana newberryi grows
nearby, and is threatened in Oregon. It's northernmost sighting is within a
half hours drive. There you can see people play football on it, run horses
on it, pick its beautiful flowers only to find they wilt immediately, and
then the flowers end up on the ground.

Sometimes hundreds of them. Elk graze it heavily. It isn't a sensitive
plant, and it's population is healthy and stable in California, but the
population happens to cross over to Oregon where there isn't that many
stands. Thus it receives the same protection as the truly rare plant.
Southern Oregon has many of these kinds of listed plants.

There has to be a perceivable threat to the plant population in order for
it to be listed. Sometimes the threat is obvious, and sometimes the threat
is obscure.

What about an introduced plant that has become a pest, or a native out of
control in a system out of balance. When the St. John's Wort, Hypericum
perforatum, is down to a handful of populations, it will fit the definition
of threatened, even though humans intentionally irradicated it!!

==========
3.2.3 What plants shouldn't I pick?
-----
Some plants are not damaged easily. Blackberry (Rubus sp.), and Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale), are two that are nearly impossible to eliminate,
even if you dig their roots. If a piece of root stays in the ground, it
will grow back. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), can be cut with a lawnmower
and still flourish regularly. Nettles (Urtica dioca), when grown for fiber
can have 3-4 aboveground harvest in a growing season. Plants that fit into
this category are generally perennials. You can pick them and not threaten
their survival.

Rare, Threatened and Endangered Plants

Endangered plants are species in danger of becoming extinct in the
foreseeable future. Threatened plants are likely to become endangered in
the foreseeable future. A species can be threatened or endangered
throughout its range, which means if it goes extinct we will lose its
hidden secrets forever.

Many of these plants only grow in one special area (endemic). The Columbia
Gorge on the border of Oregon and Washington hosts many endemic species.
Peck's Penstemon, Penstemon peckii, grows only in the Ponderosa Pine Forest
in Deschutes and Jefferson Counties. A species can also receive protection
for part of its range. Newberry's Gentian, Gentiana newberryi, has stable
populations in California, but is listed as threatened in Oregon. Deschutes
County is at the end of its range, and there are less of them. Rare plants
have small, localized populations. They may not be listed as threatened or
endangered if the populations are both stable and numerous.

The US. Fish and Wildlife Service determines which plants receive federal
protection. Unfortunately, they are very slow in reviewing candidate
species.

Many have become extinct while waiting to be listed. The Department of
Agriculture and the Department of Fish and Wildlife of each state is
responsible for determining state protection. We also have the Oregon
Natural Heritage Program. This program has its own list of plants that
deserve protection, but haven't made it into the clogged federal and state
lists. They also have a list of plants to watch and monitor. A copy of
Rare, Threatened and Endangered Plants and Animals of Oregon is available
from:

The Oregon Natural Heritage Program
1025 NW 25th Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97210
(503)-229-5078

Do not pick these plants. Unfortunately, they are not always easy for an
amateur to identify. They are not always showy. There may be large amounts
of them in one spot, so that they appear plentiful.

There are some good picture books available. All folks who pick plants from
the wild should try to familiarize themselves with the local protected
plants. When in doubt, don't pick it.

Sensitive Plants

Some plants are sensitive to disturbance. Please do not pick them even if
they aren't protected. The Calypso Orchid, Calypso bulbosa, is a fragile
plant that lives partially off leaf mold. Its little root is close to the
surface, and easy prey to slugs and others. Minor disturbances can easily
dislodge the root from the mold. If someone picks its flower, it can ooze
fluid and essentially "bleed" to death. Even disturbing the area around it
during flowering could kill it. The law does not protect this plant because
it is too numerous.

It is our responsibility to help sensitive plants survive.

How can you tell if a plant is sensitive? Most plants that are not green
(contain no chlorophyll) are "no picks." These weird species are white,
brown, red, or purple and just plain eerie. Botanists call them parasites
or saprophytes. They are particularly fascinating. These include Broomrape,
Orobanche sp., Coral Roots, Corallorhiza sp., and Indian Pipe, Monotropa
uniflora. Other "no picks" include the Orchid Family (Orchidaceae) and
almost all the Lily Family (Liliaceae). The Orchid Family includes Calypso
Orchid, Calypso bulbosa, and the Rein Orchids, Habenaria sp. The Lily
Family includes Trillium, Trillium ovatum, and Mariposa Lilies, Calochortus
sp. These families are easy to recognize with a little practice. Not every
Lily and Orchid is sensitive, but it's a good place to start.

Most (but not all) of the unusual or showy plants are no picks. If you are
not sure, don't harvest it.

Howie B
Columbines and Wizardry Herbs
Eugene, Or USA

==========
3.2.4 United Plant Savers
-----
From Gregg Pond <[email protected]>:

United Plant Savers - Statement of Purpose

These are exciting times for herbalists. The current "herbal renaissance"
in American health care is accompanied by an ever growing demand by the
American public for herbs an herbal products. While positive on one hand,
this situation has endangered a unique new set of problems for the wild
plant world and for herbalists who love plants.

The pressure on our wild medicinal plant communities is growing yearly.
Vast numbers of plants have been and continue to be taken, and
indiscriminate wild harvesting has devastated many areas of former
abundance. Perhaps even more disturbing, native North American medicinal
plants are being exported to meet the demand in other countries, where wild
plant populations have already been gravely depleted.

United Plant Savers was formed in a spirit of hope, as a group of
herbalists committed to protecting and re-planting threatened species and
to raising public awareness of the plight of our wild medicinal plants. Our
membership reflects the great diversity of American herbalism and includes
wildcrafters, seed collectors, manufacturers, growers, botanists,
practitioners, medicine-makers, educators, and plant lovers from all walks
of life.

Our Goals

  * Identify and compile information on threatened medicinal plants in
    each state and/or bioregion.
  * Make this information accessible to herbal organizations, communities
    and individuals.
  * Provide resources for obtaining seeds, roots, and plants for
    replanting and restoration.
  * Secure land trusts for the preservation of diversity and seed stock
    for future propagation efforts.
  * Raise public awareness about the tragedy of over-harvesting and the
    current plight of native wild herbs.
  * Identify and disseminate information on the therapeutic alternatives
    to threatened species.
  * Encourage more widespread cultivation of endangered medicinal plants
    and greater use of cultivated plants.
  * Develop programs for school systems and communities to re-plant
    threatened plant species back into their native habitats.

For more information see this: http://www.plantsavers.org/

or snailmail to:
United Plant Savers
P.O. Box 420
East Barre, VT 05649
USA

==========
End of part 5 of 7
==========

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