array: Math arrays.
center: Centred lines.
description: Labelled lists.
enumerate: Numbered lists.
eqnarray: Sequences of aligned equations.
equation: Displayed equation.
figure: Floating figures.
flushleft: Flushed left lines.
flushright: Flushed right lines.
itemize: Bulleted lists.
letter: Letters.
list: Generic list environment.
minipage: Miniature page.
picture: Picture with text, arrows, lines and
circles.
quotation: Indented environment with paragraph
indentation.
quote: Indented environment with no paragraph
indentation.
tabbing: Align text arbitrarily.
table: Floating tables.
tabular: Align text in columns.
thebibliography: Bibliography or reference list.
theorem: Theorems, lemmas, etc.
titlepage: For hand crafted title pages.
verbatim: Simulating typed input.
verse: For poetry and other things.
Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has
a single mandatory argument describing the number of columns
and the alignment within them. Each column, coln, is specified
by a single letter that tells how items in that row should
be formatted.
c -- for centred
l -- for flush left
r -- for flush right
Column entries must be separated by an &. Column entries may
include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be
terminated with the string \\.
Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode,
so normally it is used inside an equation environment.
############################################################
center ::center::
############################################################
\begin{center}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{center}
The center environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are centred within the left and
right margins on the current page. Each line must be
terminated with the string \\.
\centering: The declaration form of the center environment.
############################################################
\centering ::centering::
############################################################
This declaration corresponds to the center environment. This
declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote
or in a parbox. The text of a figure or table can be centred
on the page by putting a \centering command at the beginning
of the figure or table environment.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does
not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format,
the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or
\end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the
paragraph unit.
############################################################
description ::discription::
############################################################
\begin{description}
\item [label] First item
\item [label] Second item
.
.
.
\end{description}
The description environment is used to make labelled lists.
The label is bold face and flushed right.
############################################################
enumerate ::enumerate::
############################################################
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{enumerate}
The enumerate environment produces a numbered list.
Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep. They can also be nested within other
paragraph-making environments.
Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command.
There must be at least one \item command within the environment.
The enumerate environment uses the enumi through enumiv
counters (see section Counters). The type of numbering can be
changed by redefining \theenumi etc.
############################################################
eqnarray ::eqnarray::
############################################################
\begin{eqnarray}
math formula 1 \\
math formula 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{eqnarray}
The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of
equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column
array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ and
consecutive items within a row separated by an &.
An equation number is placed on every line unless that line
has a \nonumber command.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas
across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush
left in a box of zero width.
############################################################
equation ::equation::
############################################################
\begin{equation}
math formula
\end{equation}
The equation environment centres your equation on the page
and places the equation number in the right margin.
############################################################
figure ::figure::
############################################################
\begin{figure}[placement]
body of the figure
\caption{figure title}
\end{figure}
Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and
are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of
a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will
try to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX
can possibly put a float:
h (Here) - at the position in the text where the
figure environment appears.
t (Top) - at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.
p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which
is a page containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default
placement tbp.
The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX
commands, etc. you wish. The \caption command allows you to
title your figure.
############################################################
flushleft ::flushleft::
############################################################
\begin{flushleft}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushleft}
The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand
margin. Each line must be terminated
with the string \\.
\raggedright: The declaration form of the flushleft
environment.
############################################################
\raggedright ::raggedright::
############################################################
This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment.
This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
quote or in a parbox.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format,
the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or
\end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the
paragraph unit.
############################################################
flushright ::flushright::
############################################################
\begin{flushright}
Text on line 1 \\
Text on line 2 \\
.
.
.
\end{flushright}
The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand
margin. Each line must be terminated with the string \\.
\raggedleft: The declaration form of the flushright environment.
############################################################
\raggedleft ::raggedleft::
############################################################
This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment.
This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
quote or in a parbox.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command
does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format,
the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or
\end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the
paragraph unit.
############################################################
itemize ::itemize::
############################################################
\begin{itemize}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{itemize}
The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list.
Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four
levels deep. They can also be nested within other
paragraph-making environments. Each item of an itemized list
begins with an \item command. There must be at least one
\item command within the environment. The itemize environment
uses the itemi through itemiv counters (see section Counters).
The type of numbering can be changed by redefining \theitemi
etc.
############################################################
letter ::letter::
############################################################
This environment is used for creating letters. See section
Letters.
############################################################
list ::list::item::
############################################################
The list environment is a generic environment which is used
for defining many of the more specific environments. It is
seldom used in documents, but often in macros.
\begin{list}{label}{spacing}
\item First item
\item Second item
.
.
.
\end{list}
The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled.
This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box
to form the label. This argument can and usually does contain
other LaTeX commands.
The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing
parameters for the list. This argument will most often be
null, i.e., {}. This will select all default spacing which
should suffice for most cases.
############################################################
minipage ::minipage::
############################################################
\begin{minipage}[position]{width}
text
\end{minipage}
The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. It
takes the same optional position argument and mandatory width
argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments
inside a minipage. Footnotes in a minipage environment are
handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting
footnotes in figures or tables. A \footnote or \footnotetext
command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage
instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the
mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary footnote counter
See section Counters.
NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong
minipage.
############################################################
picture ::picture::
############################################################
\begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
.
.
picture commands
.
.
\end{picture}
The picture environment allows you to create just about any
kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and
circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture
by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number
that may have a decimal point and a minus sign -- a number
like 5, 2.3 or -3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in
multiples of the unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength
has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a
length of 2.54 centimetres. You can change the value of
\unitlength anywhere you want, using the \setlength command,
but strange things will happen if you try changing it inside
the picture environment.
A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5),
specifying the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5.
Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to
an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the
picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it
is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit
the argument.
The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is
a position. It specifies the size of the picture. The
environment produces a rectangular box with width and height
determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates.
The picture environment also has an optional position argument,
following the size argument, that can change the origin.
(Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength has
been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200
millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and
whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When
you first draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument,
leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to
modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the
appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory
argument determines the nominal size of the picture.
This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is;
LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture,
or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX
in determining how much room to leave for it.
Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command.
The command
\put (11.3,-.3){...}
puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its reference
point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various
objects will be described below. The \put command creates an LR box.
You can put anything in the text argument of the \put command that
you'd put into the argument of an \mbox and related commands. When
you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of
the box.
Picture commands:
\circle: Draw a circle.
\dashbox: Draw a dashed box.
\frame: Draw a frame around an object.
\framebox (picture): Draw a box with a frame around it.
\line: Draw a straight line.
\linethickness: Set the line thickness.
\makebox (picture): Draw a box of the specified size.
\multiput: Draw multiple instances of an object.
\oval: Draw an ellipse.
\put: Place an object at a specified place.
\shortstack: Make a pile of objects.
\vector: Draw a line with an arrow.
############################################################
\circle ::circle::
############################################################
\circle[*]{diameter}
The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as
close to the specified one as possible. If the *-form of the
command is used, LaTeX draws a solid circle.
Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.
############################################################
\dashbox ::dashbox::
############################################################
Draws a box with a dashed line.
\dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...}
The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width
of each dash. A dashed box looks best when the width and
height are multiples of the dash_length.
############################################################
\frame ::frame::
############################################################
\frame{...}
The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object
specified in the argument. The reference point is the bottom
left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the
frame and the object.
############################################################
\framebox ::framebox::
############################################################
\framebox(width,height)[position]{...}
The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox
command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of
the box that it creates.
The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule,
and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents
of the box.
############################################################
\line ::line::
############################################################
\line(x slope,y slope){length}
The \line command draws a line of the specified length and
slope.
Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where
x and y have integer values from -6 through 6.
############################################################
\linethickness ::linethickness::
############################################################
\linethickness{dimension}
Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a
picture environment to be dimension, which must be a positive
length. It does not affect the thickness of slanted lines and
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval to form the
corners of an oval.
############################################################
\makebox ::makebox::
############################################################
\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}
The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar
to the normal \makebox command except that you must specify
a width and height in multiples of \unitlength.
The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant
that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the
following:
t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle
b - Moves the item to the bottom
l - Moves the item to the left
r - Moves the item to the right
See section \makebox.
############################################################
\multiput ::multiput::
############################################################
\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}
The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the
same object in a regular pattern across a picture.
############################################################
\oval ::oval::
############################################################
\oval(width,height)[portion]
The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.
The optional argument, [portion], allows you to select part
of the oval.
t - Selects the top portion
b - Selects the bottom portion
r - Selects the right portion
l - Selects the left portion
Note that the "corners" of the oval are made with quarter
circles with a maximum
radius of 20 pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes
with rounded corners.
############################################################
\put ::put::
############################################################
\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }
The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory
argument at the given coordinates.
############################################################
\shortstack ::shortstack::
############################################################
\shortstack[position]{... \\ ... \\ ...}
The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The
valid positions are:
r - Moves the objects to the right of the stack
l - Moves the objects to the left of the stack
c - Moves the objects to the centre of the stack
(default)
############################################################
\vector ::vector::
############################################################
\vector(x slope,y slope){length}
The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the
specified length and slope. The x and y values must lie
between -4 and +4, inclusive.
############################################################
quotation ::quotation::
############################################################
\begin{quotation}
text
\end{quotation}
The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the
left and the right.
The text is justified at both margins and there is paragraph
indentation.
Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
############################################################
quote ::quote::
############################################################
\begin{quote}
text
\end{quote}
The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left
and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving
a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.
############################################################
tabbing ::tabbing::
############################################################
\begin{tabbing}
text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
second row \> \> more \\
.
.
.
\end{tabbing}
The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in
columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them
much the way you do with an ordinary typewriter.
It is best suited for cases where the width of each column
is constant and known in advance.
This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular
environment.
The following commands can be used inside a tabbing
enviroment:
############################################################
\= ::=::
############################################################
Sets a tab stop at the current position.
############################################################
\> ::>::
############################################################
Advances to the next tab stop.
############################################################
\< ::<::
############################################################
This command allows you to put something to the left of the
local margin without changing the margin. Can only be used
at the start of the line.
############################################################
\+ ::+::
############################################################
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following
commands one tab stop to the right.
############################################################
\- ::-::
############################################################
Moves the left margin of the next and all the following
commands one tab stop to the left.
############################################################
\' ::'::
############################################################
Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current
column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\,
or \kill command, to the right of the previous column, flush
against the current column's tab stop.
############################################################
\` ::`::
############################################################
Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop,
including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right
of the last column because here's no tab stop there. The \`
command moves all the text that follows it, up to the \\ or
\end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to the right margin
of the tabbing environment. There must be no \> or \' command
between the \` and the command that ends the line.
############################################################
\kill ::kill::
############################################################
Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\
except that it throws away the current line instead of
producing output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \-
commands in that line remain in effect.
############################################################
\pushtabs ::pushtabs::
############################################################
Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily
changing tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing
environment.
############################################################
\pushtabs
############################################################
Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs.
############################################################
\a ::a::
############################################################
In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and \` do not
produce accents as normal. Instead, the commands \a=, \a'
and \a` are used.
This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional
format:
\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
\> begin \= \+ \\
\> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
else \+ \\
fact := 1; \-\- \\
end;\\
\end{tabbing}
Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and
are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of
a page. Tables will not be split between two pages.
The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will
try to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX
can possibly put a float:
h : Here - at the position in the text where the table
environment appears.
t : Top - at the top of a text page.
b : Bottom - at the bottom of a text page.
p : Page of floats - on a separate float page, which
is a page containing no text, only floats.
The standard report and article classes use the default
placement [tbp].
The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX
commands, etc., you wish. The \caption command allows you to
title your table.
############################################################
tabular ::tabular::
############################################################
These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of
rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. The mandatory
and optional arguments consist of:
width Specifies the width of the tabular* environment.
There must be rubber space between columns that
can stretch to fill out the specified width.
pos Specifies the vertical position; default is
alignment on the centre of the environment.
t - align on top row
b - align on bottom row
cols Specifies the column formatting. It consists of
a sequence of the following specifiers,
corresponding to the sequence of columns and
intercolumn material.
l - A column of left-aligned items.
r - A column of right-aligned items.
c - A column of centred items.
| - A vertical line the full height and depth of
the environment.
@{text} - This inserts text in every row. An
@-expression suppresses the intercolumn space
normally inserted between columns; any desired
space between the inserted text and the adjacent
items must be included in text. An \extracolsep{wd}
command in an @-expression causes an extra space
of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent
columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep
command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this
extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression.
An \extracolsep command can be used only in an
@-expression in the cols argument.
p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in
a parbox of width wd, as if it were the argument
of a \parbox[t]{wd} command. However, a \\ may not
appear in the item, except in the following
situations:
1. inside an environment like minipage,
array, or tabular.
2. inside an explicit \parbox.
3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright,
or \raggedleft
declaration. The latter declarations must appear
inside braces or an environment when used in a
p-column element.
*{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where
num is any positive integer and cols is any list of
column-specifiers, which may contain another
*-expression.
These commands can be used inside a tabular environment:
\cline: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
\hline: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.
\multicolumn: Make an item spanning several columns.
\vline: Draw a vertical line.
############################################################
\cline ::cline::
############################################################
\cline{i-j}
The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns
specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j,
which are identified in the mandatory argument.
############################################################
\hline ::hline::
############################################################
The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of
the table. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top,
bottom, and between the rows of the table.
############################################################
\multicolumn ::multicolumn::
############################################################
\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}
The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several
columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the
number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos,
specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centred, l for
flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument,
text, specifies what text is to make up the entry.
############################################################
\vline ::vline::
############################################################
The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the
full height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be
used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also
be used in an @-expression.
############################################################
thebibliography ::thebibliography::
############################################################
\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
.
.
.
\end{thebibliography}
The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or
reference list. In the article class, this reference list is
labelled "References"; in the report class, it is labelled
"Bibliography".
widest-label: Text that, when printed, is
approximately as wide as the widest item
label produces by the \bibitem commands.
\bibitem: Specify a bibliography item.
\cite: Refer to a bibliography item.
\nocite: Include an item in the bibliography.
Using BibTeX: Automatic generation of bibliographies.
############################################################
\bibitem ::bibitem::
############################################################
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label.
If the label argument is missing, a number is generated as
the label, using the enumi counter. The cite_key is any
sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not
containing a comma. This command writes an entry on the `.aux'
file containing cite_key and the item's label. When this
`.aux' file is read by the \begin{document} command, the
item's label is associated with cite_key, causing the
reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the
associated label.
############################################################
\cite ::cite::
############################################################
\cite[text]{key_list}
The key_list argument is a list of citation keys. This command
generates an in-text citation to the references associated
with the keys in key_list by entries on the `.aux' file read
by the \begin{document} command. The optional text argument
will appear after the citation, i.e. \cite[p. 2]{knuth} might
produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'.
############################################################
\nocite ::nocite::
############################################################
\nocite{key_list}
The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list,
which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux'
file.
############################################################
Using BibTeX
############################################################
If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly
recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple
of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the
thebibliography environment. Instead, you include the lines
where style refers to a file style.bst, which defines how
your citations will look. The standard styles distributed
with BibTeX are:
alpha Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed
from name of author and year of publication.
plain Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.
unsrt Like plain, but entries are in order of
citation.
abbrv Like plain, but more compact labels.
In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored
to the demands of various publications.
The argument to \bibliography refers to the file bibfile.bib,
which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the
entries referred to via \cite and \nocite will be listed in
the bibliography.
############################################################
theorem ::theorem::
############################################################
\begin{theorem}
theorem text
\end{theorem}
The theorem environment produces "Theorem x" in boldface
followed by your theorem text.
############################################################
titlepage ::titlepage::
############################################################
\begin{titlepage}
text
\end{titlepage}
The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e. a page
with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the
following page to be numbered page one.
Formatting the title page is left to you. The \today command
comes in handy for title pages.
Note that you can use the \maketitle (see section \maketitle)
command to produce a standard title page.
############################################################
verbatim ::verbatim::
############################################################
\begin{verbatim}
text
\end{verbatim}
The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment
that gets LaTeX to print exactly what you type in. It turns
LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks
having the same effect that they would on a typewriter.
\verb: The macro form of the verbatim environment.
############################################################
\verb ::verb::
############################################################
\verb char literal_text char
\verb*char literal_text char
Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special
characters and spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style.
There may be no space between \verb or \verb* and char
(space is shown here only for clarity). The *-form differs
only in that spaces are printed as `\verb*| |'.
############################################################
verse ::verse::
############################################################
\begin{verse}
text
\end{verse}
The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may
find other uses for it.
The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate
the lines of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank
lines to separate the stanzas.
