\documentclass[letterpaper,twoside]{report}
\usepackage{tugbook}
\begin{document}
\title{Formatting information}
\subtitle{A beginner's introduction to typesetting with
\LaTeX{}}
\author{Peter Flynn\\[1em]{\fontseries{m}\selectfont Silmaril Consultants\\
\textit{Textual Therapy Division}}}
\date{v.3.4 November 2003}
\maketitle
\clearpage
\subsubsection*{Acknowledgments}
Thanks to all the people who sent me corrections and
suggestions for improvement or additions to earlier versions.
As usual, the problem has been what to leave out, not what to
include.\par
Some of the suggestions were well-intentioned but would
have turned the book into a higher-level mathematics treatise.
One of my objectives was to omit all maths except for a short
example, as all the other books on \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} already
cover mathematical typesetting in finer and better detail than
I am capable�of.\par
Some of the suggestions would have taken me down
pathways I prefer not to tread. Large software corporations
are full of well-meaning, hard-working individuals who
genuinely believe that their products make life easier for
users. Unfortunately, experience shows that this is often only
true in the first hot flush of using a new program: in the
long run the winners are those whose data is secure,
accessible, and reusable; whose documents can be reformatted
at any time, on any platform, without penalty, financial or
otherwise.\par
I make no apology for recommending Unix-like systems
running \LaTeX{} as the platform of choice for
document-processing applications\mdash{}if you have a
choice\mdash{}and I'm happy to be able to include the
Apple Macintosh in that family. Unfortunately, there are those
whose circumstances at home or work require them to use
something else, and I am pleased that \LaTeX{} can help them by
being available on their platform as well.\par
I have incorporated all the remaining suggestions
except where it would materially distort the objective of
being a \emph{beginner's} booklet. A
special thank-you goes to Barbara Beeton, Karl Berry, and
William Adams for their editorial corrections and
contributions, finding all kinds of mistakes from simple slips
of the finger to cultural differences to over-complicated ways
of explaining things.\par
It is very difficult for people who write technical
documentation to remember how they struggled to learn what has
now become a familiar system. So much of what we do is second
nature, and a lot of it actually has nothing to do with the
software, but more with the way in which we view and approach
information, and the general level of knowledge of computing.
If I have obscured something by making unreasonable
assumptions about \emph{your} knowledge, please
let me know so that I can correct�it.\par
\par\vspace*{2pc}\noindent\ignorespaces
Peter Flynn is author of \titleof{htmlbook} and \titleof{sgmltools}, and editor of
\titleof{xmlfaq}.
\par\vfill
\subsubsection*{Technical~note}
The text for the March 2003 online edition was edited
into a customized version of DocBook from the original private
format (Read The Fine Markup
Language�(RTFML)\index{RTFML@RTFML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTFML@RTFML|textbf}). All subsequent work has been done in
DocBook with a customization layer for typographics. XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} was used to generate HTML\index{HTML@HTML} (for the Web and plain-text versions) and
\LaTeX{} (for PDF\index{PDF@PDF} and
PostScript\index{PostScript}). The November 2003 edition
was published in \titlecite{tugboat}.\par\vfill
{\footnotesize\noindent\ignorespaces
This document is Copyright � 1999, 2000, 2001,
2002, 2003 by Silmaril Consultants under the terms of what is
now the GNU Free Documentation License (copyleft).
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify
this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled \titlecite{gnufdl}.
You are allowed to distribute, reproduce, and modify it
without fee or further requirement for consent subject to the
conditions in \S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}. The author has
asserted his right to be identified as the author of this
document. If you make useful modifications you are asked to
inform the author so that the master copy can be updated. See
the full text of the License in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.
\par}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Contents}
\tableofcontents
\listofexercises
\prelim{Introduction}\label{intro}
This booklet originally accompanied a 2-day course on
using the \LaTeX{} typesetting system. It has been extensively
revised and updated and can now be used for self-study or in the
classroom. It is aimed at users of Linux or Microsoft Windows
but it can be used with \LaTeX{} systems on any platform,
including other Unix workstations, Apple Macs, and
mainframes.
\subsection*{Who needs this booklet?}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Who needs this booklet?}
The audience for the original training course was assumed
to be computer-literate and composed of professional,
business, academic, technical, or administrative computer
users. The readers of the booklet (you) are mostly assumed to
be in a similar position, but may also come from many other
backgrounds. You are expected to have one or more of the
following or similar objectives:
\begin{itemize}
\item
production of typesetter-quality formatting;
\item
formatting of long, complex, highly-structured,
repetitive, or generated documents;\footnote{\LaTeX{} can easily be used for once-off or short
and simple documents as well, but its real strength
lies in consistency and automation.}
\item
save time and effort by automating common
tasks;
\item
independence from specific makes or models of
proprietary hardware, software, or file formats
(portability);
\item
use of Open Source software (free of restrictions,
sometimes also free of charge).
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Skills needed}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Skills needed}
\LaTeX{} is a very easy system to learn, and requires no
specialist knowledge, although some familiarity with the
publishing process is useful. It is, however, assumed that you
are completely fluent and familiar with using your computer
before you start. Specifically, effective use of this document
requires that you already know and understand the following
thoroughly:
\begin{itemize}
\item
how to run and use a good plain-text editor
(\emph{not} a wordprocessor and not a toy
like \product{Notepad});
\item
where all 94 of the printable ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters are on your keyboard
and what they mean (and how to type accents and symbols,
if you use them);
\item
how to create, open, save, close, rename, and delete
files and folders (directories);
\item
how to use a Web browser or File
Transfer Protocol�(FTP)\index{FTP@FTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FTP@FTP|textbf} program to download and save
files from the Internet;
\item
how to uncompress and unwrap (unzip) downloaded
files.
\end{itemize}
If you don't know how to do these things yet,
it's probably best to go and learn them first. Trying to
become familiar with the fundamentals of using a computer
\emph{at the same time} as learning \LaTeX{} is
not likely to be as effective as doing them in order.
\subsection*{Objectives of this booklet}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Objectives of this booklet}
By the end of this booklet, you should be able to
undertake the following tasks:
\begin{itemize}
\item
use a plain-text editor to create and maintain your
\LaTeX{} documents;
\item
add \LaTeX{} markup to achieve your formatting
requirements;
\item
typeset \LaTeX{} documents, correct simple formatting
errors, and display or print the results;
\item
identify, install, and use additional formatting
packages (using CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} for
downloading where necessary);
\item
recognise the limitations of procedural markup systems
and choose appropriate generic markup where
appropriate.
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Synopsis}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Synopsis}
The original course covered the following topics as
separate sessions, now represented in the booklet as
chapters:
\begin{enumerate}\item
Where to get and how to install \LaTeX{} (te\TeX{} and
fp\TeX{} from \TeX{} Live);\index{fptex@fp\TeX{}}\index{tetex@te\TeX{}}\index{texlive@\TeX{} Live}
\item
How to type \LaTeX{} documents: using an editor to
create files (\product{WinShell},
\product{WinEdt} or
\product{Emacs});
\item
Basic structures (the Document Class Declaration and
its layout options; the document environment with sections
and paragraphs);
\item
Typesetting, viewing, and printing;
\item
The use of packages and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} to adapt formatting using standard
tools;
\item
Other document structures (lists, tables, figures,
images, and verbatim text);
\item
Textual tools (footnotes, marginal notes,
cross-references, indexes and glossaries, and
bibliographic citations);
\item
Typographic considerations (white-space and typefaces;
inline markup and font changes; extra font installation
and automation);
\item
Programmability and automation (macros and modifying
\LaTeX{}'s behaviour);
\item
Conversion and compatibility with other systems (XML\index{XML@XML},
\product{Word}, etc.).\index{xml@\textsc{xml}}
\end{enumerate}
A few changes have been made in the transition to printed
and online form, but the basic structure is the same, and the
document functions as a workbook for the course as well as a
standalone self-teaching guide. It is important to note that
the document \emph{does not cover} mathematical
typesetting, complex tabular material, the design of
large-scale macros and document classes, or the finer points
of typography or typographic design, although it does refer to
these topics in passing on a few occasions.
\index{mathematics}
There are several other guides, introductions, and
`get-started' documents on the Web and
on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. Among the more popular
are:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\titlecite{begin}, where all
beginners should start;
\item
\titlecite{lshort} is a good
beginner's tutorial;
\item
\titlecite{gentle} is a classic
tutorial on Plain \TeX{};
\item
\titlecite{imported} shows you how
to do (almost) anything with graphics: side-by-side,
rotated, etc.;
\item
\titlecite{mathguide} gets you
started with the American Math Society's powerful
packages;
\item
\titlecite{symbol-list} shows over
2,500 symbols available in \LaTeX{}.
\end{itemize}
(Taken from the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search
page.)
\subsection*{Production note}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Production note}\label{prodnote}
This document is written and maintained in XML\index{XML@XML}, using a customized version of the
\product{DocBook}DTD\index{DTD@DTD}. Conversions were made to HTML\index{HTML@HTML} and \LaTeX{} using XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} scripts and \person{Michael Kay}'s \product{Saxon}
processor. The complete source, with all ancillary files, is
available online at \url+
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/+
but if you want to try processing it yourself you must install
\product{Java} (from Sun, IBM\index{IBM@IBM}, or a number of others) and
\product{Saxon} (from \url+
http://saxon.sourceforge.net/+), in addition to
\LaTeX{}.
This document is published under the terms and conditions
of the GNU\index{GNU@GNU} Free Documentation
License. Details are in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.
\subsubsection*{Symbols and conventions}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Symbols and conventions}\label{symbols}
The following typographic notations are used:
\begin{center}
\label{symboltable}
\begin{tabular}{lp{3.75in}}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\command{command}&Control sequences which perform an action, e.g.
\command{newpage}\\
\length{length}&Control sequences which can be set to a
dimension (measurement in units), e.g. \length{parskip}\\
\counter{counter}&Values used for counting (as opposed to
measuring in units), e.g. \counter{secnumdepth}\\
\textbf{\textit{term}}\index{term@\textbf{\textit{term}}}&Defining instance of a specialist term\\
\product{product}&program or product name\\
\env{environment}&Formatting environment\\
\package{package}&\LaTeX{} package (available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
{\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}\uline{mybook}} or {\ttfamily{}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}value}&Examples of things you have to supply real-life
values for\\
\key{x}&A key on your keyboard\\
\key{Ctrl}--\key{x}~&Two keys pressed together\\
\key{Esc}\thinspace{}\key{q}&Two keys pressed one after another\\
\guiicon{Submit}&On-screen button to click\\
\menuitem{Menu}{Item}&Drop-down menu with items\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Examples of longer fragments of input are shown with a
border round them. Where necessary, the formatted output is
shown immediately beneath. Warnings are shown with a shaded
background. Exercises are shown with a double border.
\subsubsection*{Availability of \sfLaTeX{} systems}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Availability of \sfLaTeX{} systems}\label{availability}
The traditional \TeX{} implementation is a Command-Line Interface�(CLI)\index{CLI@CLI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CLI@CLI|textbf}, that is, a
`console' program which you run from
a Unix or Mac shell window or an MS-DOS command window by
typing the command \verb+tex+ or
\verb+latex+ followed by the name of your
document file. In automated (unattended) systems,
this command is issued from within a Unix shell script or
MS-DOS/Windows batch file. All the popular distributions for
Unix and MS-DOS/Windows, both free and commercial, deliver
this interface as standard (te\TeX{}, fp\TeX{}, MiK\TeX{},
PC-\TeX{}, True\TeX{}, etc.).
While it is quite possible to run \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} this
way, it is more normal to use an editor as your interface to
the program as well as to your document. This allows you to
control \LaTeX{}, the typeset display, and other related
programs with a mouse-click or menu item. This is the method
assumed in this booklet. In the editors used for examples
(\product{Emacs},
\product{WinShell}, and
\product{WinEdt}) the typesetting process
is logged visibly in an adjoining text window so that you
can see the progress of pages being typeset, and any error
messages that may occur.\footnote{Some recent versions of
\product{Emacs} hide this window by
default unless errors occur in the typesetting.} This method is called an
\textbf{\textit{asynchronous}}\index{asynchronous@\textbf{\textit{asynchronous}}}
typographic display because the typeset window only updates
\emph{after} you have typed the text and
[re-]processed it, not \emph{while} you are
still typing.
\label{synchro}%
Some commercial implementations of \TeX{}
offer a \textbf{\textit{synchronous}}\index{synchronous@\textbf{\textit{synchronous}}}
typographic interface: \product{Textures}
for the Apple Macintosh from Blue Sky Research,
\product{Scientific Word} from MacKichan
Software, and \product{V\TeX{}} from
MicroPress, Inc (both for Microsoft Windows) are three
examples. At least one free version
(\LyX{}, see Figure~\ref{lyxwin} in \S\thinspace\ref{editors}) offers
the same kind of interface. In these, you type directly into
the typographic display, as with a graphical wordprocessor,
using the font controls of whatever Graphical User Interface�(GUI)\index{GUI@GUI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GUI@GUI|textbf} are
appropriate.
With a synchronous display you get your instant textual
gratification, but your level of control is restricted to
that of the graphical user interface, which almost certainly
does not provide access to everything that \LaTeX{} can do.
For complete control of the formatting you still need access
to the \LaTeX{} language. There are several methods available
free for Unix and some other systems for
close-to-synchronous updates of the typeset display
(including \person{Jonathan Fine}'s \product{Instant
Preview} and the \TeX{} daemon), and for
embedding typographic fragments from the typeset display
back into the editor window (\person{David Kastrup}'s \package{preview-latex}
package).
Whatever method you choose, \TeX{} Live and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are not the only source of
software. The following vendors offer robust commercial
implementations of \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}, and if you are in a
position where their enhanced support and additional
features are of benefit, I urge you to support them. In
most cases their companies, founders, and staff have been
good friends of the \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} communities for many
years.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{.666in}p{1in}ll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Product}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Platform}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Company}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape URI}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
PC\TeX{}&MS-Windows&Personal \TeX{}, Inc&\url+www.pctex.com/+\\
True\TeX{}&MS-Windows&True \TeX{}&\url+truetex.com/+\\
Textures&Apple Mac&Blue Sky Research&\url+www.bluesky.com/+\\
Scientific Word&MS-Windows&Mackichan Software&\url+www.mackichan.com/+\\
V\TeX{}&MS-Windows, Linux, OS/2&MicroPress, Inc&\url+www.micropress-inc.com/+\\
Y\amp Y\TeX{}&MS-Windows&Y\amp Y Software&\url+www.yandy.com/+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\prelim{Foreword}\label{foreword}
As noted in the Introduction, this document
accompanied a 2-day introductory training course (still
does) which I run in UCC and elsewhere. It became obvious from
repeated questions in class and afterwards, as well as from
general queries on \url+comp.text.tex+ that many people do not read the
FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ}s, do not buy the books and
manuals, do not download the free documentation, and instead try
to get by using the training technique known as
`sitting by Nelly', which involves
looking over a colleague's shoulder in the office, lab,
library, or classroom, and absorbing all his or her bad
habits.
In the summer of 2001 I presented a short proposal on the
marketing of \LaTeX{} to the annual conference of the \TeX{} Users
Group held at the University of Delaware, and showed an example
of a draft
brochure\footnote{\url+
http://www.silmaril.ie/documents/latex-brochure/leaflet.pdf+} designed to persuade newcomers to try \LaTeX{}
for their typesetting requirements. As a result of questions and
suggestions, it was obvious that it needed to include a pointer
to some documentation, and I agreed to make available a revised
form of this document, expanded to be used outside the
classroom, and to include those topics on which I have had most
questions from users over the years.
It turned out to mean a significant reworking of a lot of
the material, some of which appears in almost every manual on
\LaTeX{} but which is essential to the beginner and therefore
bears repetition. I took the opportunity to revise the structure
of the training course in parallel with the booklet (expanding
it from its original one day to two days), and to include a more
comprehensive index. It is by no means perfect (in both senses),
and I would be grateful for comments and bugs to be sent to me
at the address given under the credits.
I had originally hoped that the \LaTeX{} version of the
document would be processable by any freshly-installed default
\LaTeX{} system, but the need to include font samples which go
well beyond the default installation, and to use some packages
which the new user is unlikely to have installed, means that
this document itself is not really a simple piece of \LaTeX{},
however simply it may describe the process itself.
However, as the careful reader will have already noticed,
the master source of the document is not maintained in \LaTeX{}
but in XML\index{XML@XML}. A future task is therefore
to compare the packages required with those installed by
default, and flag portions of the document requiring additional
features so that an abbreviated version can be generated which
can be guaranteed to process even with a basic \LaTeX{}
installation.
\label{docs}%
If you are just starting with \LaTeX{}, at an early
opportunity you should try to get hold of a copy of \titlecite{latexbook} which is the original
author's manual. More advanced users should get the
\titlecite{companion} or one of its
successors. In the same series there are also the \titlecite{graphicscomp} and the \titlecite{webcomp}. Mathematical users might want to
read \titlecite{mathguide}.
\prelim{Preface}\label{preface}
Many people discover \LaTeX{} after years of struggling with
wordprocessors and desktop publishing systems, and are amazed to
find that \TeX{} has been around for nearly 25 years and they
hadn't heard of it. It's not a conspiracy, just
`a well-kept secret known only to a few million
people', as one anonymous user put it.
Perhaps a key to why it has remained so popular is that it
removes the need to fiddle with the formatting while you write.
Although playing around with fonts and formatting is attractive
to the computer newcomer, it is counter-productive for the
serious author or editor who wants to concentrate on
writing\mdash{}ask any journalist or professional author. In
response to a beginner's concern about `learning to
write in \LaTeX{}', here's some advice posted (in
the
\verb+comp.text.tex+
newsgroup\footnote{\url+news:comp.text.tex/
[email protected]+}):
\begin{quotation}\small\noindent
No, the harder part might be \emph{writing},
period. \TeX{}/\LaTeX{} is actually easy, once you relax and
stop worrying about appearance as a be-all-and-end-all. Many
people have become `Word Processing
Junkies' and no longer
`write' documents, they
`draw' them, almost at the same level
as a pre-literate 3-year old child might pretend to
`write' a story, but is just creating a
sequence of pictures with a pad of paper and box of
\product{Crayola}s\mdash{}this is perfectly
normal and healthy in a 3-year old child who is being
creative, but is of questionable usefulness for, say, a grad
student writing a Master's or PhD thesis or a business person
writing a white paper, etc. For this reason,
\emph{I} strongly recommend
\emph{not} using any sort of fancy GUI\index{GUI@GUI}�`crutch'.
Use a plain vanilla text editor and treat it like an
old-fashioned typewriter. Don't waste time playing with your
mouse.
Note: I am \emph{not} saying that you should
have no concerns about the appearance of your document, just
that you should \emph{write} the document
(completely) first and tweak the appearance
later\dots \emph{not} [spend time on] lots of
random editing in the bulk of the document itself.
\setlength{\parfillskip}{0pt}\hfill[\citeauthortitleyear{heller}]\end{quotation}
\label{mathtex}%
Knuth originally wrote \TeX{} to typeset
mathematics for the second edition of his master-work \titlecite{aocs}, and it remains pretty much the only
typesetting program to include fully-automated mathematical
formatting done the way mathematicians want it. Knuth generously
placed the entire system in the public domain, so for many years
there was no publicity of the commercial kind which would have
got \TeX{} noticed outside the technical field. Nowadays,
however, there are many companies selling \TeX{} software or
services, dozens of publishers accepting \LaTeX{} documents for
publication, and hundreds of thousands of users using \LaTeX{}
for millions of documents.\footnote{A guesstimate. With free software it's impossible
to tell how many people are using it, but it's a
\emph{lot}.}
There is occasionally some confusion among newcomers between
the two main products, \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\TeX{} is a typesetting program, originally written by
Prof \person{Don Knuth} (Stanford) around 1978. It implements a
macro-driven typesetters' programming language of some
300 basic operations and it has formed the core of many
other desktop publishing�(DTP)\index{DTP@DTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTP@DTP|textbf}
systems. Although it is still possible to write in the raw
\TeX{} language, you need to study it in depth, and you need
to be able to write macros (subprograms) to perform even the
simplest of repetitive tasks.
\item
\LaTeX{} is a user interface for \TeX{}, designed by
\person{Leslie Lamport} (Digital Equipment
Corporation�(DEC)\index{DEC@DEC|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DEC@DEC|textbf}) in 1985 to automate all the common
tasks of document preparation. It provides a simple way for
authors and typesetters to use the power of \TeX{} without
having to learn the entire language. \LaTeX{} is the
recommended system for all users except professional
typographic programmers and computer scientists who want to
study the internals of \TeX{}.
\end{itemize}
\begin{sidebar}\label{myths}
\subsection*{Debunking the mythology}
Naturally, over all the years, a few myths have grown up
around \LaTeX{}, often propagated by people who should know
better. So, just to clear up any potential
misunderstandings\dots
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} has only got one
font']
Most \LaTeX{} systems can use any OpenType, TrueType,
Adobe (PostScript\index{PostScript}) Type1 or
Type3, or \mf{} font, among others. This is more
than most other known typesetting systems.
\LaTeX{}'s default font is Computer Modern (based on
Monotype Series�8: see
Table~\ref{fontable}), not Times Roman, and some
people get upset because it `looks
different'. Typefaces differ: that's what
they're for.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} is a Unix
system']
People are also heard saying: `\LaTeX{} is a
Windows system', `\LaTeX{} is a
Mac system', etc., etc.�\emph{ad
nauseam}. \TeX{} systems run on almost
every computer in use, from some of the biggest
supercomputers down to handhelds (Personal Digital Assistant�(PDA)\index{PDA@PDA|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDA@PDA|textbf}s like the Sharp
\product{Zaurus}). That includes
Windows and Linux PCs, Macs, and all Unix systems. If
you're using something \TeX{} doesn't run on,
it must be either incredibly new, incredibly old, or
unbelievably obscure.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} is obsolete']
Quite the opposite: it's under constant
development, with new features being added almost
weekly. Check the \url+comp.text.tex+ for messages about recent
uploads to CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. It's
arguably more up-to-date than most other systems:
\LaTeX{} had the Euro (\EUR{}) before anyone else, it had
Inuktitut typesetting before the Inuit got their own
province in Canada, and it still produces better
mathematics than anything else.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} isn't WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG}']
Simply not true. The DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} preview is better
WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} than any wordprocessor
and most DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems.
What critics mean is that \LaTeX{}'s
typographic display is asynchronous with the edit
window. This is only true for the default CLI\index{CLI@CLI} implementations. See the Introduction for
details of synchronous versions.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} is ``too
difficult''\thinspace']
This has been heard from physicists who can split atoms;
from mathematicians who can explain why \(\pi\) exists; from business people who can
read a balance sheet; from historians who can grasp
Byzantine politics; from librarians who can understand
LoC and MARC; and from linguists who can decode Linear
`B'. Most people grasp \LaTeX{} in 20
minutes or so. It's not rocket science (or if it is, I
know any number of unemployed rocket scientists who will
teach it to you).
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\sfLaTeX{} is ``only for
scientists and
mathematicians''\thinspace']
Not at all. Although it grew up in the
mathematical and computer science fields, two of its biggest
growth areas are in the humanities and business,
especially since the rise of XML\index{XML@XML} brought new demands for
automated typesetting.
\end{description}
\end{sidebar}\chapter{Installing \TeX{}}
\label{get}
\index{tetex@te\TeX{}}\index{fptex@fp\TeX{}}\index{miktex@MiK\TeX{}}\index{Linux}\index{Unix}\index{Microsoft Windows}\index{Mac OS X}\index{Apple Mac}\index{OS X}
This course is based on using \person{Thomas Esser}'s te\TeX{} (for Linux and other Unix-like
systems, including Mac OS\thinspace{}X) and
\person{Fran�ois Popineau}'s fp\TeX{} (for Microsoft Windows), both from
\TeX{} Live
(fp\TeX{} is an implementation of te\TeX{}). Many other
implementations of \TeX{}, including \person{Christian Schenk}'s Mik\TeX{} for
Microsoft Windows, and \person{Tom Kiffe}'s CMac\TeX{} for the Apple Macintosh, can be
downloaded from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. \LaTeX{} is
included with all distributions of \TeX{}.
\TeX{} Live is issued annually as a joint effort by virtually
all the local \TeX{} user groups around the world (see \url+
http://www.tug.org/lugs.html+ for addresses).
There are many other distributions of \LaTeX{} both free and
commercial, as described in the Introduction: they all process
\LaTeX{} identically, but there are some differences in size,
speed, packaging, and (in the case of commercial distributions)
support.
\section{Editing and display}
Before you start using \LaTeX{} you will need to decide on
which plain-text editor you want to use to create and maintain
your documents. There is a wide range available, and probably
no other piece of software causes more flame-wars in Internet
and other discussions than your choice of editor. It's a
highly personal choice, so feel free to pick the one you like.
My personal biases are revealed below.
If you are intending to produce
PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} (Adobe Acrobat) files, you will need a
viewer to display them. \product{GSview}
displays both PostScript\index{PostScript} and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files; \product{xpdf}
and Adobe's own \product{Acrobat Reader}
just display PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files.
\begin{warning}
\label{pdfurl}
\subsubsection*{Additional downloads}
For licensing reasons, the
\product{GSview}, and \product{Acrobat
Reader} viewers and the
\product{WinEdt} editor cannot be
distributed on the \TeX{} Live media. You have to download
and install them separately. This is a restriction imposed
by their authors or vendors, not by the \TeX{} Live
team.
\begin{itemize}
\item
\product{GSview} is available for
all platforms from \url+
http://www.ghostscript.com/gsview/index.htm+
(on Unix and VMS systems it's also available as
\product{GhostView} and
\product{gv}: see \url+
http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/+)
\item
\product{Acrobat Reader} (all
platforms) can be downloaded from \url+
http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html+
\item
\product{Xpdf} (X Window systems
only) can be downloaded from \url+
http://www.foolabs.com/xpdf/+
\item
\product{WinEdt} (Microsoft Windows
only) comes from \url+
http://www.winedt.com+
\end{itemize}
\end{warning}
\begin{center}
\label{editchoice}
\begin{tabular}{lp{4in}}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Editor}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Comments}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\product{Emacs}&Large and powerful. Needs learning (a life-skill
like \LaTeX{}) but well worth it. Multi-platform, it
opens and edits anything and everything, with special
features for \LaTeX{} etc., and good productivity
tools for writers. Open Source.\\
\product{WinShell}&Simple but effective beginner's tool for
MS-Windows. Runs \LaTeX{} etc.�with toolbar buttons.
Very easy to use, small footprint. Strongly
recommended. Free.\\
\product{WinEdt}&Comprehensive editor aimed at heavy \LaTeX{}
usage, with toolbar, productivity features, and good
support. Configurable for almost any distribution of
\TeX{} (with some effort). Free trial, licensable after
1�month, MS-Windows only.\\
\product{PFE}&Popular general-purpose editor for MS-Windows: no
special \LaTeX{} features but a very configurable
launcher and command-line controller. Free but no
longer developed.\\
\product{BBedit}&Plain-text editor for Apple Macs,
heavily used for text applications. Some \TeX{}
distributions for the Mac come with their own editor,
but this is a popular and useful tool. 30-day demo.\\
\product{vi}&Standard editor on Unix systems. Dual-mode editor
(separate text-entry and command modes), now showing
its age. Adored by devotees, detested by others, just
like \product{Emacs}�\smiley{}.
Free.\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\section{Installation for Linux and Unix}
\label{lininst}
Make sure your system libraries and utilities are up to
date. If you are using Red Hat Linux, use the
\product{up2date} program to download and
install updates. For Debian and other distributions, use
\product{apt-get} or similar utilities. On
Red Hat systems, remove (or don't install) the RPM version of
te\TeX{} and associated utilities to avoid version
conflicts.
If you are installing \TeX{} Live to a new partition, or if
you have the opportunity to reformat the partition before use,
use \product{mkfs} with a granularity as
small as it will go (usually 1024 bytes). This avoids the
partition running out of inodes because \TeX{} uses very large
numbers of very small files.
Plan the installation carefully if you are installing for
multiple users (a shared machine): read \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst} for some comments on where to put additional
files downloaded later, and see the FAQ on the same topic at
\url+
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=wherefiles+
Above all, Read The Fine
Manual�(RTFM)\index{RTFM@RTFM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTFM@RTFM|textbf}. The documentation is in
\url+readme.html+, and there's a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} copy for printing.
The installer runs in a shell window, so it can be done
even from systems with no X Window installation, but it does
need to be installed as root if you want to stick with the
default directory locations.
Type the command \verb+sh install-tl.sh+
to run it: the options are mostly self-explanatory, and
beginners should pick the Recommended scheme and leave all
other settings at their defaults.
\section{Installation for Apple Mac}
\label{macinst}
This is exactly the same interface as for the Linux/Unix
installation. The documentation does point out that
`most front ends (\product{\TeX{}Shop},
\product{I\TeX{}Mac},\dots )�use the te\TeX{}
default location which is
\url+/usr/local/teTeX+, so, Mac users could
find interest in installing \TeX{} Live in
\url+/usr/local/teTeX+ rather than in
\url+/usr/TeX+.'
\section{Installation for Microsoft Windows}
\label{wininst}
Before you install \TeX{} Live, make sure you have enough
disk space: the default installation takes about 350Mb on a
modern filesystem. The installation assumes you have a fully
updated version of Windows, so visit the Microsoft Web site
first (\url+
http://www.microsoft.com/+) and
click on \product{Windows Update}. Select and
install all the relevant updates for your operating system
(Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, NT, or XP). You should be doing
this regularly anyway, to keep your system healthy. You may
want to run \product{ScanDisk} and give your
hard disks a full surface check. \TeX{} consists of a very
large number of quite small files, so it's important that
your disk is in good shape. When you insert the \TeX{} Live
disk, it should start the setup program automatically. If you
have auto-run turned off, open \product{My
Computer}, double-click on the relevant drive,
and then double-click \product{Autorun} to
start the setup program. Some versions of Microsoft Windows
are broken and won't start the program correctly this
way. If this happens, use \product{My
Computer} to go to the
\url+bin\win32+ subfolder of the \TeX{} Live
disk and double-click
\url+TeXLive.exe+\thinspace{}.
\par\smallskip\noindent\textbf{Once the \TeX{} Live program is running:}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{\LaTeX{}}\\
Install \LaTeX{} itself from the
\menuitem{TeXLive Software}{Install on
Hard Disk} menu. If you're new to
\LaTeX{}, pick Quick Install on the following screen. This
gives you everything you need to get started, and
doesn't ask any questions, it just installs it all
straight away.
If you're installing under Windows NT, 2000, or
XP, you may want to click on the option to install for all
users if you have other users on your system.
If you want to use \product{Emacs} as
your editor, click the option for XemTeX
Support.\footnote{Note this is nothing to do with \person{Eberhard Matthes}' DOS implementation of \TeX{} called
em\TeX{}\mdash{}the `Xem' is short for
\product{Xemacs}.}
\item \textbf{Emacs}\\
After installation, right-click and drag
\url+Xemacs.exe+ from the
\url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\bin\win32+
folder out onto your desktop and let go, then pick
`Create Shortcut'. This places
\product{Emacs} on your desktop for easy
access.
\item \textbf{WinShell and WinEdt}\\
If you want to install
\product{WinShell}, run the installer
program in the \url+support/winshell+
directory. For \product{WinEdt} you must
go to their Web site (\url+
http://www.winedt.com/+) for a
downloadable version.
You don't have to install just one editor: if
you've got the space, install them all so you can try
them out. You can always uninstall the ones you don't
want afterwards.
\item \textbf{GSView}\\
Ghostscript is installed automatically, but for
\product{GSView} you need to go to \url+
http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/gsview/+,
and download the most recent version.
If you use \product{GSView}, please
register your copy with Ghostgum, Pty.�(\url+
http://www.ghostgum.com.au/+).
\end{enumerate}
Newcomers should note that the downloadable
\product{WinEdt} comes preconfigured for a
different distribution of \TeX{} (MIK\TeX{}) and needs some
careful reconfiguration to work with \TeX{} Live. I recommend
that beginners use \product{WinShell} to
start with and graduate to \product{Emacs}
when they become more expert. Many other people will doubtless
tell you different\dots
\begin{warning}
Please read the \TeX{} Live update pages at \url+
http://www.tug.org/texlive/bugs.html+ for
details of any changes since the disks were released, and
download and install any additional software
required.
\end{warning}
\chapter[Using your editor to create documents]{Using your editor \\to create documents}
\label{plaintext}
\LaTeX{} documents are all \textbf{\textit{plain-text}}\index{plain-text@\textbf{\textit{plain-text}}} files.\footnote{`Plain-Text' originally meant just
the 94 printable characters of the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange�(ASCII)\index{ASCII@ASCII|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ASCII@ASCII|textbf} but now more commonly includes both
these \emph{and} the relevant 8-bit
characters from \emph{one} (only) character
set such as ISO-8859-1 (Western Latin\ndash{}1) or
ISO-8859-15 (Western Latin plus the Euro sign). These are
international standards which work everywhere: try to avoid
using manufacturers' proprietary character sets like
Microsoft Windows\ndash{}1252 or Apple Macintosh
Roman\ndash{}8, because they are unusable on some other
systems.} You can edit them with any editor, and transfer
them to any other computer system running \LaTeX{} and they will
format exactly the same. Because they are plain text they cannot
corrupt your system, and they cannot be used for virus
infections as wordprocessor files can. Everything you can see
is in the file and everything in the file is displayed to you:
there is nothing hidden or secret and no proprietary
manufacturers' `gotchas' like
suddenly going out of date with a new version.
In a \LaTeX{} document, you type your text along with
\textbf{\textit{markup}}\index{markup@\textbf{\textit{markup}}} which identifies the
important parts of your document by name, for example
`title', `section',
`figure', etc. \LaTeX{} does all the formatting for
you automatically, using the markup to guide its internal rules
and external stylesheets for typesetting.
\begin{warning}
You will usually hear this markup referred to as
`commands' or sometimes `control
sequences' (which is the proper \TeX{}nical term for
them). For all practical purposes these terms all mean the
same thing.
\end{warning}
You do not need to format any of your text by hand
\emph{in your editor}, because \LaTeX{} does it all
by itself when it typesets. You can of course regularise or
neaten its appearance \emph{in your editor} for
ease of editing (for example, keeping each item in a list on a
separate line), but this is not required.
This course assumes that users have either
\product{WinEdt} (Windows only) or
\product{Emacs} (any platform) installed. Both
are discussed briefly in \S\thinspace\ref{editors} and the menus and toolbars for running
\LaTeX{} are explained in \chaptername~\ref{process}.
\section{Quick start for the impatient}
\label{quickstart}
If you already know all this stuff about editors and
plain-text files and running programs, or you know your system
is already correctly installed (including your editor),
you'd probably like to type something in and see \LaTeX{}
do its job. If you don't, then skip forward to \S\thinspace\ref{commands} and read a bit more about \LaTeX{}
first.
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Install the software}\\
Make sure you have a properly-installed \LaTeX{} system
and a copy of a suitable editor
(\product{Emacs} or
\product{WinEdt} are recommended).
\item \textbf{Create a demonstration document}\\\label{demodoc}%
Open your editor and type in the following text
\emph{exactly} as given. Do
\emph{not} make any changes or miss anything
out or add anything different:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{palatino,url}
\begin{document}
\section*{My first document}
This is a short example of a \LaTeX\ document I wrote on
\today. It shows a few simple features of automated
typesetting, including
\begin{itemize}
\item setting the default font size to 12pt;
\item specifying `article' type formatting;
\item using the Palatino typeface;
\item adding special formatting for URIs;
\item formatting a heading in `section' style;
\item using the \LaTeX\ logo;
\item generating today's date;
\item formatting a list of items;
\item centering and italicizing;
\item autonumbering the pages.
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{More information}
This example was taken from `Formatting Information',
which you can download from
\url{
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/}
and use as a teach-yourself guide.
\begin{center}
\textit{Have a nice day!}
\end{center}
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item \textbf{Save the document}\\
Save the document as
\url+demo.tex+\thinspace{}.
\item \textbf{Run \LaTeX{}}\\
Click on the \guiicon{\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon
or the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
File} menu item; or type \verb+latex demo+ in a
command window.
\item \textbf{Preview the typesetting}\\
Click on the \guiicon{DVI} toolbar icon or
the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
View} menu item; or type \verb+dviview demo+
(Microsoft Windows) or \verb+xdvi demo &+
(Unix and Linux).
(Note that there may be a pause the first time some
fonts are used, while bitmaps are created.)
\item \textbf{Print it}\\
Click on the \guiicon{Print} toolbar icon
within the previewer (Microsoft Windows) or type
\verb+dvips demo+ (Unix and Linux).
\end{enumerate}
If you encounter any errors, it means you
\emph{do} need to study this chapter after
all!
\section{Editors}
\label{editors}
\index{editors}
All the text of your documents can be typed into your
\LaTeX{} document from a standard keyboard using any decent
plain-text editor. However, it is more convenient to use an
editor with special features to make using \LaTeX{} easier. Two
of the most popular are \product{WinEdt}
(Windows only) and \product{Emacs} (all
platforms). The \LyX{} document editor is a special case, as it
uses the What You See Is What You
Mean�(WYSIWYM)\index{WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf} model of synchronous typographic editing as
opposed to WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG}, and many users
prefer this interface (but see the reservations in the Introduction).
\begin{figure}
\caption{The \LyX{} document editor}
\label{lyxwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=1\textwidth]{lyx}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsection{WinEdt}
\product{WinEdt} is a plain-text editor
for Microsoft Windows (all versions). It lets you create and
maintain files of plain text (\emph{not}
wordprocessing files) for any application, but it has a host
of special functions and shortcuts for \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}.
Download it from \url+
http://www.winedt.com+\mdash{}there's a
1-month free trial, then it nags you to buy it.
\product{WinEdt} has a built-in toolbar
of configurable buttons, preset for use with \LaTeX{}, and it
provides automatic syntactic colourising of \LaTeX{} commands
in files you edit.
\begin{figure}
\caption{The \product{WinEdt} editor}
\label{winedt}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{winedt}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
Apart from standard features like the
\menu{File} and \menu{Edit} menus,
searching, etc., \product{WinEdt} has
default buttons on its toolbar for one-click typesetting,
previewing, and PostScript\index{PostScript} or
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} generation from \LaTeX{}
documents.
\product{WinEdt} comes configured for
the Mik\TeX{} distribution of \LaTeX{}, rather than fp\TeX{},
so some editing of the menus is required (explained in the
local installation document) after finishing the fp\TeX{}
installation. Alternatively, you could install Mik\TeX{}
instead.
\subsection{GNU Emacs}
\product{Emacs} is a product of
the GNU\index{GNU}
Project.\footnote{`GNU's Not
Unix�(GNU)\index{GNU@GNU|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GNU@GNU|textbf}' is a project to make a
computer operating environment completely free of
restrictions.} Versions are available for all makes and models
of computer, and it has a \LaTeX{}-mode which provides
syntactic colouring
(`fontification' in
\product{Emacs}-speak) and mouseclick
processing from a menu or toolbar.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Emacs editing \LaTeX{}}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{emacs}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\product{Emacs} is a very large and
powerful editor, with modes to handle almost everything you
do on a computer. Many users run
\product{Emacs} once on logging in, and
never leave it for the rest of the day\mdash{}or month. As well as edit, you
can use it to read your mail, browse the Web, read Usenet
news, do wordprocessing and spreadsheets, compile programs,
help you write in any computer language\mdash{}including
XML\index{XML@XML} and \LaTeX{}\mdash{}and it
provides a few games as well.
\product{Emacs}, like
\product{WinEdt}, knows about \LaTeX{} and
how to process it, so there is a menu full of \LaTeX{}
operations to click on. If you are editing more complex
documents, especially with mathematics, there is an add-on
package (`mode' in
\product{Emacs}-speak) called
\product{AUC\TeX{}} which has even more
functionality.
Because \product{Emacs} runs on
Microsoft Windows,
Macs,\index{Macintosh}
Linux, VMS,\index{VMS} and
most other platforms, many \LaTeX{} users who have multiple
machines prefer it to other editors because it provides the
same environment regardless of which platform they are
using.
\section{\sfLaTeX{} commands}
\label{commands}
\LaTeX{} commands all begin with a
\textbf{\textit{backslash}}\index{backslash@\textbf{\textit{backslash}}}
(\verb+\+) and are usually made up of lowercase
letters only, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\clearpage
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Do not confuse the backslash (\verb+\+) with
the forward slash (\verb+/+). They are two
separate characters.
The \command{clearpage} command is an instruction
to the typesetter to start a new page. It's actually
quite rare\mdash{}page-breaking is automatic in
\LaTeX{}\mdash{}but it makes a good example of a simple
command.
\subsection{Simple commands}
\label{simplecmd}
\label{swallow}%
Simple one-word commands like
\command{clearpage} which end with a letter must be
separated from any following text with white-space (a
newline [linebreak], tab character, or an ordinary space).
For example either of these two forms will be fine:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\clearpage The importance of poetic form must not be ignored
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\clearpage
The importance of poetic form must not be ignored
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
However, if you omit the white-space, as in the
following example, \LaTeX{} will try to read it as a command
called \verb+\clearpageThe+, which doesn't
exist, and it will complain at you.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\clearpageThe importance of poetic form must not be ignored
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\LaTeX{} swallows any white-space which follows a command
ending in a letter. It does this automatically, so you
won't get unwanted extra space in your typeset output,
but it does mean that any simple command which ends in a
letter and has no arguments (see below) must be followed by
white-space before normal text starts again, simply to keep
the command separate from the text.
\subsection{Commands with arguments}
\label{cmdargs}
Many \LaTeX{} commands are followed by one or more
\textbf{\textit{arguments}}\index{arguments@\textbf{\textit{arguments}}} (a term from
the field of Computer Science, meaning information to act
upon), for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter{Poetic Form}
\label{pform}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Such arguments always go in
\verb+{+\textbf{\textit{curly
braces}}\index{curly
braces@\textbf{\textit{curly
braces}}}\verb+}+ like
those\index{braces|see{curly braces}} shown above. Be careful not to confuse the
curly braces on your keyboard with round parentheses
\verb+(�)+, square brackets
\verb+[�]+, or angle brackets
\verb+<�>+. They are all
different.
With commands like this (with arguments) you do
\emph{not} need to use extra white-space after
the command name, because there is an argument following it
which will keep it separate from any normal text with
follows after that.
\subsection{White-space in \sfLaTeX{}}
\label{white-space}
\index{white-space}
In \LaTeX{} documents, all \emph{multiple}
spaces, newlines (linebreaks), and TAB characters are
treated as if they were a \emph{single} space
or newline during typesetting. \LaTeX{} does its own spacing
and alignment using the instructions you give it, so you
have extremely precise control. You are therefore free to
use extra white-space in your editor for optical ease and
convenience when editing.
The following is therefore exactly equivalent to the example
in the preceding section:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter {Poetic Form}\label
{pform}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
That is, it will get typeset exactly the same. In
general, just leave a blank line between paragraphs and a
single space between words and sentences. \LaTeX{} will take
care of the formatting.
\section{Special characters}
\label{specials}
\index{special characters}
There are ten keyboard characters which have special
meaning to \LaTeX{}, and cannot be used on their own except for
these purposes:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clcc}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Key}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\centering}}b{1.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape \emph{If you need
the actual character itself, type
this:}}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Character}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\key{$\backslash$}&The command character&\texttt{\$}\command{backslash}\texttt{\$}&$\backslash$\\
\key{\$}&Math typesetting delimiter&\command{\$}&\$\\
\key{\%}&The comment character&\command{\%}&\%\\
\key{{\char'136}}&Math superscript character&\command{{\char'136}}&{\char'136}\\
\key{\amp }&Tabular column separator&\command{\amp }&\amp \\
\key{{\char'137}}&Math subscript character&\command{{\char'137}}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}{\char'137}}\\
\key{{\char'176}}&Non-breaking space&\command{{\char'176}}&{\char'176}\\
\key{\#}&Macro parameter symbol&\command{\#}&\#\\
\key{{\char'173}}&Argument start delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\char'173}}\texttt{\$}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}{\char'173}}\\
\key{{\char'175}}&Argument end delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\char'175}}\texttt{\$}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}{\char'175}}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
These were deliberately chosen because they are rare in
normal text, with the exception of \$, \#, \amp ,
and \%, some of whose meanings were already established
as \textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}\index{metacharacters@\textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}}
(characters standing as symbols for something else) by the
time \TeX{} was written.
\subsection{Using the special characters}
\index{Euro symbol}
Because of the special meaning \LaTeX{} uses for the
dollar-sign on its own, if you want to print \$35.99
you type \verb+\$35.99+.
(An unusual but interesting serif-font Euro\index{euro@\euro{}} sign {\rmfamily{}\selectfont{}\euro{}}
is got with the \command{texteuro} command from the
\package{textcomp} package. {\sffamily{}\selectfont{}The standard sans-serif \EUR{} needs the
\package{marvosym} package and is done with
the \command{EUR} command.}\footnote{The European Commission has specified that everyone
use the sans-serif design, even in serif text, but this
is amazingly ugly and most designers rightly ignore
it.})
If you want to print AT\amp T you need to type
\verb+AT\&T+; if you want to print 45\%
you need to type \verb+45\%+; and if
you want a \textbf{\textit{hash mark}}\index{hash mark@\textbf{\textit{hash mark}}} (the
\textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}\index{octothorpe@\textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}} or
American number or `pound' [weight] sign
`\#') you type
\verb+\#+. For a pound
(sterling)\index{pound@�}
sign �, now nearly obsolete except in the UK and some
of its former dependencies, use your \key{�} key
or type \command{textsterling}.
\label{comment}%
The \textbf{\textit{comment
character}}\index{comment
character@\textbf{\textit{comment
character}}} (\verb+%+) makes \LaTeX{}
ignore the remainder of the line in your document, so you
can see it in your editor, but it will never get typeset,
for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Today's price per Kg is �22.70 % get Mike to update this
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\section{Quotation marks}
\label{quotes}
\index{quotation marks}
Do \emph{not} use the unidirectional
typewriter keyboard \key{"} key for quotation
marks. Correct typographic quotes are got with the \ttkey{`} key and the \ttkey{'} key, doubled if you want double
quotes:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, ``I'm just going out.''
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}He said,
``I'm just going out.''}\end{quote}\end{example}
This ensures you get real left-hand and right-hand
(opening and closing) quotes (usually shaped like tiny
\textsuperscript{66}�and�\textsuperscript{99}
or as similarly symmetrically-balanced strokes). If you are
using \product{Emacs} as your editor, the
\key{"} key (usually Shift�2) is
specially programmed in \LaTeX{}-mode to think for itself and
produce correct \verb+``+ and
\verb+''+ characters (so this is one occasion when
you \emph{can} use the \key{"}
key).
\begin{warning}
If you are reading this in a browser, or if you have
reprocessed the file using different fonts, it may not show
you real quotes (some of the browser fonts are defective)
and the \command{thinspace} below may be too wide.
Download the typeset (PDF\index{PDF@PDF}) version
of this document to see the real effect.
\end{warning}
\label{thinspace}%
When typing one quotation inside another,
there is a special command \command{thinspace} which
provides just enough separation between double and single
quotes (a normal space is too much and could allow an
unwanted linebreak):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, `Her answer was ``never''\thinspace', and...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
He said, `Her answer was
``never''\thinspace{}', and\dots \end{quote}\end{example}
\section{Accents}
\label{accents}
\index{accents}
For accented letters in ISO 8859-1 (Latin\ndash{}1, Western
European), 8859-15 (same but with the Euro) or other
Latin-alphabet character sets just use the accented keys on
your keyboard (if you have them). If you don't, you need
to use your operating system's standard keyboard
\key{Ctrl} or \key{Alt} key combinations
to generate the characters (see the panel `Keystrokes for accented letters' on p.\pageref{keystrokes}).
You must also tell \LaTeX{} what input encoding you are
using. Specify this by using the
\package{inputenc} package\footnote{We
haven't covered the use of packages yet. Don't
worry, see \chaptername~\ref{ctan} if you're
curious.} in your preamble with the
relevant option. For example, to make \LaTeX{} understand the
codes for ISO Latin\ndash{}1, use:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{sidebar}\label{keystrokes}
\subsection*{Keystrokes for accented letters}
This is for users whose keyboards do not have native
accent characters on them. See your Operating System manual
for full details. Here are two common examples:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Under Linux the letter � is usually got with
\key{AltGr}--\key{;}~\thinspace{}\key{e}. Refer to the
\product{xkeycaps} utility for a table
of key codes and combinations (get it from \url+
http://www.jwz.org/xkeycaps/+).
\item
Under Microsoft Windows the letter � is got with
\key{Ctrl}--\ttkey{'}~\thinspace{}\key{e} or holding down the
\thinspace{}\key{Alt} key and typing \thinspace{}\key{0}\thinspace{}\key{1}\thinspace{}\key{3}\thinspace{}\key{0}
on the numeric keypad (\emph{not} the top
row of shifted numerals). Refer to the
\product{charmap} utility for a table
of key codes and combinations (find it in the
\url+C:\Windows+ folder).
\end{itemize}
\end{sidebar}
If you cannot generate ISO 8859-1 characters from your
keyboard at all, or you need additional accents or symbols
which are not in any of the keyboard tables, use the symbolic
notation below. In fact, this can be used to put any accent
over any letter: if you particularly want a \~g you can
have one with the command
\command{{\char'176}}\verb+g+ (and Welsh
users can get \^w with
\command{{\char'136}}\verb+w+).
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lcc}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Accent}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Characters to type}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
Acute (fada)&�&\verb+\'e+\\
Grave&�&\verb+\`e+\\
Circumflex&�&\verb+\^e+\\
Umlaut or di�resis&�&\verb+\"e+\\
Tilde&�&\verb+\~n+\\
Macron&\=o&\verb+\=o+\\
Bar-under&\b o&\verb+\b o+\\
Dot-over (s�{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}\.m{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}�)&\.m&\verb+\.m+\\
Dot-under&\d s&\verb+\d s+\\
Breve&\u u&\verb+\u u+\\
H�\v cek (caron)&\v u&\verb+\v u+\\
Long umlaut&\H o&\verb+\H o+\\
Tie-after&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}\t oo}&\verb+\t oo+\\
Cedilla&\c c&\verb+\c c+\\
O-E ligature&\oe , \OE &\verb+\oe+,
\verb+\OE+\\
A-E ligature&\ae , \AE &\verb+\ae+,
\verb+\AE+\\
A-ring&\aa , \AA &\verb+\aa+,
\verb+\AA+\\
O-slash& \o , \O &\verb+\o+,
\verb+\O+\\
Soft-l&\l{}, \L{}&\verb+\l+,
\verb+\L+\\
Ess-zet (scharfes-S)&\ss &\verb+\ss+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
If you use this symbolic method only, you do not need to
use the \package{inputenc} package. Before the
days of keyboards and screens with their own real accented
characters, the symbolic notation was the
\emph{only} way to get accents, so you may come
across a lot of older documents (and users!) using this method
all the time.
Irish and Turkish dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} is done with the
special command \command{i}, so an {\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}-fada
(which is normally typed with \key{{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}})
requires
\verb+\'\i+ if you need to type it in long format,
followed by a backslash-space or dummy pair of curly braces if
it comes at the end of a word and there is no punctuation,
because of the rule that \LaTeX{} control sequences which end
in a letter (see \S\thinspace\ref{swallow}) always absorb any
following space. So what you normally type as
{\textit\uline{R{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i} Tea\.mra\.c}} has to be
\verb+R\'\i\ Tea\.mra\.c+ when typed in full
(there are not usually any keyboard keys for the
dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} or the lenited characters). A similar rule
applies to dotless-{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\j}}.
\section{Sizes, hyphenation, justification, and breaking}
\label{handj}
\index{hyphenation}\index{justification}\index{hj@H\amp J|see{hyphenation, justification}}
\LaTeX{}'s internal measurement system is
extraordinarily accurate. The underlying \TeX{} engine conducts
all its business in units smaller than the wavelength of
visible light, so if you ask for 15mm space, that's what
you'll get.\footnote{Within the limitations of your screen or printer, of
course. Most screens cannot show dimensions of less than
\(\frac{1}{96}\)$''$ without resorting to magnification
or scaling, and even at 600dpi, fine oblique lines or
curves on a printer can still sometimes be seen to stagger
the dots.} At the same time, many dimensions in
\LaTeX{}'s preprogrammed formatting are specially set up
to be flexible: so much space, plus or minus certain limits to
allow the system to make its own adjustments to accommodate
variations like overlong lines, unevenly-sized images, and
non-uniform spacing around headings.
\TeX{} uses the most sophisticated justification algorithm
known to achieve a smooth, even texture to normal paragraph
text. The programming for this has been borrowed by a large
number of other DTP systems, and users of these are often
quite unaware that they are in fact using a significant part
of \TeX{} in their work. Occasionally, however, you will need
to hand-correct an unusual word-break or line-break, and there
are facilities for doing this on individual occasions as well
as throughout a document.
\subsection{Specifying size units}
\label{dimensions}
\index{dimension}\index{units}
Most people in printing and publishing habitually use
points and picas and ems. Some designers use cm and mm. Many
English-language speakers still use inches. You can
specify lengths in \LaTeX{} in any of these
units, and others:
\index{pt (points)}\index{points}\index{pc (picas)}\index{picas}\index{bp (big points)}\index{sp (scaled points)}\index{dd (Didot points)}\index{cc (Ciceros)}\index{em (relative measure)}\index{ex (relative measure)}\index{mm (millimeters)}\index{cm (centimeters)}\index{in (inches)}\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{4in}}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Unit}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' fixed measures\\[2pt]
pt&Anglo-American standard points (72.27 to the
inch)\\
pc&pica ems (12pt)\\
bp&Adobe `big' points (72
to the inch)\\
sp&\TeX{} `scaled' points
(65536 to the pt)\\
dd&Didot (European standard) points (67.54 to the
inch)\\
cc&Ciceros (European pica ems, 12dd)\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' relative measures\\[2pt]
em&ems of the current point size (historically the
width of a letter `M' but see
below)\\
ex&x-height of the current font (height of letter
`x')\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Other measures\\[2pt]
cm¢imeters (2.54 to the inch)\\
mm&millimeters (25.4 to the inch)\\
in&inches\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
The em can cause beginners some puzzlement because
it's based on the `point size'
of the type, which is itself misleading. The point size
refers to the depth of the metal body on which foundry type
was cast in the days of metal typesetting,
\emph{not} the height of the letters
themselves. Thus the letter-size of 10pt type in one face
can be radically different from 10pt type in another (look
at Table~\ref{fontable}, where all the examples are
10pt). An em is the height of the type in a specific size,
so 1em of 10pt type is 10pt and 1em of 24pt type is 24pt.
Another name for a 1em space is a
`quad', and \LaTeX{} has a command
\command{quad} for leaving exactly that much
horizontal space. To make the point, Figure~\ref{emsize} shows two capital Ms of 72pt and 36pt
type in different faces, surrounded by a box exactly 1em of
those sizes wide. A special name is given to the 12pt em, a
`pica' em, as it has become a fixed
measure in its own right.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Different sizes of type boxed at 1em}
\label{emsize}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rl}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Times New Roman 72pt}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Adobe Helvetica 36pt}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
{\vrule height80pt
width0pt}{\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\fbox{{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ptm}\fontsize{72}{72}\selectfont{}\hbox to1em{\hss M\emstrut\hss}}}}&{\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\fbox{{\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{phv}\fontsize{36}{36}\selectfont{}\hbox to1em{\hss M\emstrut\hss}}}}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
If you are working with other DTP users, watch out for
those who think that Adobe points (bp) are the only ones.
The difference is only .27pt per inch, but in 10$''$ of
text (a full page of A4) that's 2.7pt, which is nearly
1mm, enough to be clearly visible if you're trying to
align one sample with another.
\subsection{Hyphenation}
\label{hyph}
\LaTeX{} hyphenates automatically according to the
language you use (see \S\thinspace\ref{langs}). To specify
different breakpoints for an individual word, you can insert
soft-hyphens\index{hyphens!soft} (discretionary hyphens, done with
\command{-}) wherever you need them, for
example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
When in Mexico, we visited Popoca\-t�petl by helicopter.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
To specify hyphenation points for all occurrences of a
word, use the \command{hyphenation} command in your
preamble (see the panel `The Preamble' on p.\pageref{preamble}) with one or more
words in its argument, separated by spaces. This will even
let you break `helico-\linebreak pter' correctly. In this command
you use normal hyphens, not soft-hyphens.\index{hyphens!discretionary}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\hyphenation{helico-pter Popoca-t�petl im-mer-sion}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If you have frequent hyphenation problems with long,
unusual, or technical words, ask an expert about changing
the value of \length{spaceskip},
which controls the flexibility of the space between words.
This is not something you would normally want to do, as it
can change the appearance of your document quite
significantly.
If you are using a lot of unbreakable text (see next
section and also \S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) it may
also cause justification problems. One possible solution to
this is shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macargs}.
\subsection{Unbreakable text}
To force \LaTeX{} to treat a word as unbreakable (the
opposite of hyphenation), use the \command{mbox}
command:
\verb+\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}+.
This may have undesirable results, however, if
you change margins:
\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}\dots
To tie two words together with an unbreakable
space\index{hard space}\index{white-space!hard} (hard space), use a tilde (\verb+~+)
instead of the space. This will print as a normal space but
\LaTeX{} will never break the line at that point. You should
make this standard typing practice for things like
people's initials followed by their surname, as in
Prof. D.�E.�Knuth:
\verb+Prof.\ D.~E.~Knuth+.
\begin{warning}
Note that a full point after a lowercase letter is
treated as the end of a sentence, and creates more space
before the next word. Here, after
`Prof.', it's
\emph{not} the end of a sentence, and the
backslash-space forces \LaTeX{} to insert just an ordinary
word-space because it's OK to break the line after
`Prof.', whereas it would look
wrong to have initials separated with Prof.�D.E.�Knuth broken over a line-end.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Dashes}
For a long dash\mdash{}what printers call an
`em rule' like this\mdash{}use three
hyphens typed together, \verb+like~--- this+,
and bind them to the preceding word with a tilde to avoid
the line being broken before the dash. It's also common
to see the dash printed without spaces---like that: the
difference is purely �sthetic. \emph{Never}
use a single hyphen for this purpose.
Between digits like page ranges (35\ndash{}47), it is
normal to use the short dash (what printers call an en-rule)
which you get by typing two hyphens together, as in
\verb+35--47+. If you want a minus sign, use math
mode (\S\thinspace\ref{math}).
\subsection{Justification}
The default mode for typesetting is justified (two
parallel margins, with word-spacing adjusted automatically
for the best optical fit). In justifying, \LaTeX{} will never
add space between letters, only between words. There is a
special package called \package{so}
(`space-out') if you need special
effects like letter-spacing, but these are best left to the
expert.
There are two commands
\command{raggedright} and
\command{raggedleft} which set ragged-right (ranged
left) and ragged-left (ranged right). Use them inside a
group (see the panel `Grouping' on p.\pageref{grouping}) to confine their
action to a part of your text.
{\raggedleft
These modes also exist as
`environments' (see \S\thinspace\ref{environments}) called
\env{raggedright} and
\env{raggedleft} which are more convenient
when applying this formatting to a whole paragraph or more,
like this one.
\par}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{raggedleft}
These modes also exist as environments called raggedright and
raggedleft which is more convenient when applying this formatting
to a whole paragraph or more, like this one.
\end{raggedleft}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Languages}
\label{langs}
\LaTeX{} can typeset in the native manner for several
dozen languages. This affects hyphenation, word-spacing,
indentation, and the names of the parts of documents used as
headings (e.g.�Table of Contents).
Most distributions of \LaTeX{} come with US English and
one or more other languages installed by default, but it is
easy to add the \package{babel} package and
specify any of the supported languages or variants, for
example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
..
\selectlanguage{frenchb}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Changing the language with
\package{babel} automatically changes the
names of the structural units and identifiers like
`Abstract',
`Index', etc.�to their translated
version. For example, using French as above, chapters will
start with
`\emph{Chapitre}'.
\section{Mathematics}
\label{math}
\index{mathematics}
As explained in the Preface, \TeX{} was
originally written to automate the typesetting of books
containing mathematics. The careful reader will already have
noticed that mathematics is handled differently from normal
text, which is why it has to be typeset specially. This
document does not cover mathematical typesetting, which is
explained in detail in many other books and Web pages, so all
we will cover here is the existence of the math mode commands,
and some characters which have special meaning, so they
don't trip you up elsewhere.
In addition to the 10 special characters listed in \S\thinspace\ref{specials}, there are three more characters which
only have any meaning inside mathematics mode:\index{math characters}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cl}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Key}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\key{$|$}&Vertical bar\\
\ttkey{<}&Less-than\\
\ttkey{>}&Greater-than\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
If you type any of these in normal text (ie outside math
mode), you will get very weird things happening and lots of
error messages. If you need to print these characters, you
\emph{must} type them using math mode.
The hyphen also has an extra meaning in math mode: it
typesets as a minus sign, so if you want to write about
negative numbers you need to type the number in math mode so
the minus sign and the spacing come out right.
To use math mode within a paragraph, enclose your math
expression in \command{(} and \command{)}
commands. You can get the much-quoted equation
\(E=mc^{2}\) by typing
\verb+\(E=mc^2\)+, and to get a temperature like
\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}30� you need to type
\verb+\(-30\)�+.\footnote{Bear in mind that the degree symbol is a non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} character, so you must specify
what input encoding you are using if you want to type it:
see the example of the \package{inputenc}
package in \S\thinspace\ref{accents}. If you don't
want to use non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters
(or if you are using a system which cannot generate them),
you can use the command \command{textdegree} to
get the degree sign.}
To typeset a math expression as `displayed
math' (centered between paragraphs), enclose it
in the commands \command{[} and
\command{]}.\footnote{You will also see dollar signs used for math mode.
This is quite common but deprecated: it's what plain
\TeX{} used in the days before \LaTeX{}, and the habit got
ingrained in many mathematicians. It still works as a
convenient shorthand like \url+$x=y$+, as do
double-dollars for display-mode math like
\url+$$E=mc^2$$+, but they are only mentioned
here to warn readers seeing them in other authors'
work that \command{(}\dots \command{)}
and \command{[}\dots \command{]} are
the proper \LaTeX{} commands.}
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\[\bar n^*_j(s)=\frac{\left\{s\sum_{i=1}^kn_i(0)p^*
_{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}\sum_{i=1}^kp_{0i}p^*{ij}
(s)}{1-s\sum_{i=1}^kp_{0i}p^*_{i,k+1}(s)}+\sum_{i=1}
^kn_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)[j=1,2,\dots,k].\]
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
\(\bar n^*_j(s)=
\frac{\left\{s\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}
\sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*_{i,k+1}(s)}
+\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)\,\rlap{[j=1,2,\dots,k]}\)
\end{quote}\end{example}
Displayed equations can be auto-numbered by using the
\env{equation} environment instead of the
\command{[} and \command{]} commands.
\chapter{Basic document structures}
\label{basic}
\index{sections}
\LaTeX{}'s approach to formatting is to aim for
consistency. This means that as long as you identify each
\textbf{\textit{element}}\index{element@\textbf{\textit{element}}} of your document correctly, it
will be typeset in the same way as all the other elements like
it, so that you achieve a professional finish with minimum
effort.
Elements are the component parts of a document. The popular
structure of parts, chapters, sections, subsections,
subsubsections, paragraphs, lists, tables, figures, and so on is
familiar to everyone from reading books, newspapers, magazines,
reports, articles, and other classes of documents.
To achieve this consistency, every \LaTeX{} document must
start by declaring what \textbf{\textit{document class}}\index{document class@\textbf{\textit{document class}}} it
belongs to.
\section{The Document Class Declaration}
\label{docdecl}
\index{document class}
To tell \LaTeX{} what class of document you are going to
create, you type a special first line into your file which
identifies it.\footnote{Readers familiar with SGML\index{SGML@SGML}, HTML\index{HTML@HTML}, or XML\index{XML@XML} will recognize the concept
as similar to the Document Type
Declaration.} To start a report, for
example, you would type the \command{documentclass}
command like this:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass{report}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
There are four default classes provided, and many others
are available online:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{report}]
for business, technical, legal, academic, or
scientific reports;
\item[\sffamily \package{article}]
for magazine or journal articles, reviews,
conference papers, or research notes;
\item[\sffamily \package{book}]
for books and theses;
\item[\sffamily \package{letter}]
for letters.\footnote{The default \package{letter}
class is rather idiosyncratic: there are much better
ones you can download and install yourself, such as
the \package{memoir} and
\package{komascript} packages.}
\end{description}
The \package{article} class in particular
can be used (some would say `abused') for almost
any short piece of typesetting by simply omitting the titling
and layout (see below).
The default classes are normally only used for
compatibility when exchanging documents with other \LaTeX{}
users, as they come with every copy of \LaTeX{} and are
therefore guaranteed to format identically everywhere. For
most purposes, especially for publication, you can download
replacements or extensions of these classes:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The \package{memoir} and
\package{komascript} packages contain
sophisticated replacements for all the default
classes;
\item
Many academic and scientific publishers provide their
own special class files for articles and books (often on
their Web sites for download);
\item
Conference organisers may also provide class files for
authors to write papers for presentation;
\item
Many universities provide their own thesis document
class files in order to ensure exact fulfillment of their
formatting requirements;
\item
Businesses and other organizations can provide their
users with corporate stylesheets on a central server and
configure \LaTeX{} installations to look there first for
class files and packages.
\end{itemize}
It is worth noting that some of the default document
classes are intended for final printing on different sizes of
paper than A4 or Letter. Books and journals are not usually
printed on office-size paper, so printing them on standard
office stationery makes them look odd: the margins are too
wide, or the positioning is unusual, or the font size is too
small. These default classes are adequate for drafts or for
sending to another \LaTeX{} user (because you know their system
will understand them) but they are not really sufficient for
professional publishing purposes. For this you need a style
file designed by the publisher to fit their series of
publications (quite often based on the default classes, but
looking very different). As noted earlier, the
\package{memoir} and
\package{komascript} packages provide good
facilities for helping design these.
\subsection{Document class options}
\label{doclayout}
\index{paper sizes}
The default layouts are designed for US
`Letter' size paper.\footnote{Letter size is 8�$''$$\times$11$''$, which is the
trimmed size of the old Demi Quarto, still in use in
North America. The other common US office size is
`Legal', which is
8�$''$$\times$14$''$, a bastard cutting, but close to
the old Foolscap (8�$''$$\times$13�$''$). ISO
standard paper sizes are still virtually unknown in
North America.} To create documents with the correct proportions
for standard A4 paper, you need to specify the paper size in
an optional argument in square brackets before the document
class name, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[a4paper]{report}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
The other default settings are for: \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item 10pt type (all document classes); \item two-sided printing (books and reports) or
one-sided (articles and letters); and \item separate title page (books and reports
only)\end{inparaenum}. These can be modified with the following
document class options which you can add in the same set of
square brackets, separated by commas:
\index{fonts!sizes}\begin{description}
\label{docfontsize}
\item[\sffamily \opt{11pt}]
to specify 11pt type (headings, footnotes, etc.�get
scaled up or down in proportion);
\item[\sffamily \opt{12pt}]
to specify 12pt type (again, headings scale);
\item[\sffamily \opt{oneside}]
to format one-sided printing for books and
reports;
\item[\sffamily \opt{twoside}]
to format articles for two-sided printing;
\item[\sffamily \opt{titlepage}]
to force articles to have a separate title
page;
\item[\sffamily \opt{draft}]
makes \LaTeX{} indicate hyphenation and
justification problems with a small square in the
right-hand margin of the problem line so they can be
located quickly by a human.
\end{description}
There are extra preset options for other type sizes
which can be downloaded separately (10pt, 11pt, and 12pt
between them cover probably 95\% of all document
typesetting). In addition there are hundreds of add-in
packages which can automate other layout and formatting
variants without you having to program anything by hand or
even change your text.
\begin{exercise}
\label{firstline}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{1}Create a new document}
\subsubsection*{Create a new document}\begin{enumerate}\item
Use your editor to create a new document.
\item
Type in the Document Class Declaration as shown
above.
\item
Add a font size option if you wish.
\item
In North America, omit the
\opt{a4paper} option or change it to
\opt{letterpaper}.
\item
Save the file (make up a name) ensuring the name
ends with \url+.tex+.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{The document environment}
\label{docenv}
After the Document Class Declaration, the text of your
document is enclosed between two commands which identify the
beginning and end of the actual document:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\begin{document}
..
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
(You would put your text where the dots are.) The reason
for marking off the beginning of your text is that \LaTeX{}
allows you to insert extra setup specifications before it
(where the blank line is in the example above: we'll be
using this soon). The reason for marking off the end of your
text is to provide a place for \LaTeX{} to be programmed to do
extra stuff automatically at the end of the document.
We're not going to do either of those yet,
though.
A useful side-effect of marking the end of the document
text is that you can store comments or temporary text
underneath the \verb+\end{document}+ in the
knowledge that
\LaTeX{} will never try to typeset them.
\label{environments}%
This
\command{begin}\thinspace{}\dots \command{end}
pair is an example of a common \LaTeX{} structure called an
\textbf{\textit{environment}}\index{environment@\textbf{\textit{environment}}}.
Environments enclose text which is to be handled in a specific
way. All environments start with
\verb+\begin{...}+ and end with
\verb+\end{...}+ (putting the name of the
environment in the curly braces).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{2}Add a document environment}
\subsubsection*{Add a document environment}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add the \env{document} environment to
your file.
\item
Leave a blank line between the Document Class
Declaration and the \verb+\begin{document}+
(you'll see why later).
\item
Save the file.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{Titling}
\label{titling}
\index{titles}
The first thing you put in the
\env{document} environment is almost
always your document title, the author's name, and the
date (except in letters, which have a special set of commands
for addressing which we'll look at later).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\begin{document}
\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
The \command{title}, \command{author},
and \command{date} commands should be
self-explanatory. The double backslash (\verb+\\+)
means a forced linebreak. You always finish the title block with the
\command{maketitle} command, otherwise the titling
will never be typeset. The \command{maketitle}
command is reprogrammable so you can alter the appearance of
titles on a consistent basis.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{3}Adding the title block}
\subsubsection*{Adding the title block}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add a \command{title},
\command{author}, \command{date}, and
\command{maketitle} command to your file.
\item
Use your own name, make up a title, and give a
date.
\item
Add two backslashes after your name and add your
organisation or department name.
\item
The order of the first three commands is not
important, but the \command{maketitle} command
must come last.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
When this file is typeset, you get something like this
(I've cheated and done it in
colour (\S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) for fun\mdash{}yours will be in black and white
for the moment):
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{title}}
\end{center}
However, before we see how to get this displayed or
printed, there are a few more elements to cover: abstracts,
sectioning, the Table of Contents, and paragraphs. If
you're really impatient, though, refer to \chaptername~\ref{process} to see how to typeset and display
it.
\section{Abstracts and summaries}
\label{abstracts}
\index{abstracts}\index{summaries}
In reports and articles it is normal for the author (you)
to provide an Abstract or Summary, in which you describe
briefly what you have written about and explain its
importance. Abstracts in articles are usually only a
few paragraphs long; Summaries in reports can run to several
pages, depending on the length and complexity of the report
itself.
In both cases the Abstract or Summary is theoretically
optional (that is, \LaTeX{} doesn't force you to have one),
but almost always included. In practice, of course, you go
back and type the Abstract or Summary
\emph{after} having written the rest of the
document, but for the sake of the example we'll jump the
gun and type it now.
Immediately after the \command{maketitle} you can
use the \env{abstract} environment, in which
you simply type your Abstract or Summary, leaving a blank line
between paragraphs (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs} for this
convention).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Summary}
\begin{document}
\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
This document presents the basic concepts of typesetting in a
form usable by non-specialists. It is aimed at those who find
themselves (willingly or unwillingly) asked to undertake work
previously sent out to a professional printer, and who are
concerned that the quality of work (and thus their corporate
image) does not suffer unduly.
The topics cover layout, the need for accuracy, the choice of
typeface, arrangement of the document, adherence to
specifications, and the production process. No foreknowledge
of printing or publishing is needed, but an eye for detail,
a feeling for �sthetics, and some fluency with a computer is
expected.
\end{abstract}
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
In business and technical documents, the Abstract is often
called a Management Summary, or Executive Summary, or Business
Preview, or some similar phrase. \LaTeX{} lets you change the
name associated with the \env{abstract}
environment to any kind of title you want, using the
\command{renewcommand} command to give the
\command{abstractname} a new value:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Executive Summary}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Notice how the name of the command you are renewing
(\command{abstractname}) goes in the first set of
curly braces, and the new value you want it to have goes in
the second set of curly braces. The environment you use is
still called \env{abstract} (that is, you still
type
\verb+\begin{abstract}+\dots \verb+\end{abstract}+):
what the \command{abstractname} does is change the
name that gets displayed and printed, not the name of the
environment you store the text in.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{4}Using an Abstract or Summary}
\subsubsection*{Using an Abstract or Summary}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add the \command{renewcommand} line given
above to your Preamble.
The Preamble is at the start of the document, in
that gap \emph{after} the
\command{documentclass} line but
\emph{before} the
\verb+\begin{document}+ (remember I said we'd
see what we left it blank for: see the panel `The Preamble' on p.\pageref{preamble}).
\item
Add an \env{abstract} environment
after the \command{maketitle} and type in a
couple of short paragraphs of text.
\item
Save the file (no, I'm not paranoid, just careful).
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
If you look carefully at the example Abstract above,
you'll see I added an extra command to the Preamble
(\verb+\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}+). We'll
see later what this means (Brownie points for guessing it,
though, if you read \S\thinspace\ref{accents}).
\begin{sidebar}\label{preamble}
\subsection*{The Preamble}
Modifications which you want to affect a whole document
go at the very start of your \LaTeX{} file, immediately after
the \command{documentclass} line and before the
\verb+\begin{document}+ line:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Sneak Preview}
\begin{document}
..
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This position, between the Document Class Declaration
and the beginning of the \env{document}
environment, is called the \textbf{\textit{preamble}}\index{preamble@\textbf{\textit{preamble}}},
and it is used for small or temporary modifications to the style
and behaviour of the document. Major or permanent
modifications should go in a \url+.sty+ file
and be invoked with a \command{usepackage} command.
\end{sidebar}\section{Sections}
\label{sections}
\index{sections}
In the body of your document, \LaTeX{} provides seven
levels of division or sectioning for you to use in structuring
your text. They are all optional: it is perfectly possible to
write a document consisting solely of paragraphs of
unstructured text. Even novels are normally
divided into chapters, although short stories are often made
up solely of paragraphs.
Two of these divisions, Parts and Chapters, are only
available in the \package{book} and
\package{report} document classes, because they
don't have any meaning in articles and
letters.\footnote{It is arguable that chapters also have no place in
reports, either, as these are conventionally divided into
sections as the top-level division. \LaTeX{}, however,
assumes your reports have chapters, but this is only the
default, and can be changed very simply (see
\chaptername~\ref{macros}).\label{repchap}}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Depth}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Division}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Command}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Notes}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\(\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1\)&Part&\command{part}&Only in books and reports\\
0&Chapter&\command{chapter}&Only in books and reports\\
1&Section&\command{section}&Not in letters\\
2&Subsection&\command{subsection}&Not in letters\\
3&Subsubsection&\command{subsubsection}&Not in letters\\
4&Titled paragraph&\command{paragraph}&Not in letters\\
5&Titled subparagraph&\command{subparagraph}&Not in letters\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
In each case the title of the part, chapter, section, etc.
goes in curly braces after the command. \LaTeX{} automatically
calculates the correct numbering and prints the title in bold.
You can turn section numbering off at a specific depth:
details in \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New recruitment policies}
..
\subsection{Effect on staff turnover}
..
\chapter{Business plan 2004--2006}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
There are packages\footnote{Details of how to use \LaTeX{} packages are in \S\thinspace\ref{packages}.} to let you control the typeface, style, spacing,
and appearance of section headings: it's much easier to
use them than to try and reprogram the headings manually. Two
of the most popular are the \package{ssection}
and \package{sectsty} packages.
Headings also get put automatically into the Table of
Contents, if you specify one (it's optional, and we
haven't done that yet: see \S\thinspace\ref{toc}). But if you make manual styling changes to
your heading, for example a very long title, or some special
line-breaks or unusual font-play, this would appear in the
Table of Contents as well, which you almost certainly
don't want. \LaTeX{} allows you to give an optional extra
version of the heading text which only gets used in the Table
of Contents and any running heads, if they are in effect
(\S\thinspace\ref{runningheads}). This goes in [square
brackets] before the curly braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section[Effect on staff turnover]{The effect of the revised
recruitment policies on staff turnover at divisional
headquarters}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{5}Start your document text}
\subsubsection*{Start your document text}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add a \command{chapter} command after
your Abstract or Summary, giving the title of your
first chapter.
\item
If you're planning ahead, add a few more for
chapters 2, 3, etc. Leave a few blank lines between
them to make it easier to add paragraphs of text
later.
\item
I shouldn't need to tell you what to do after
making significant changes to your document
file.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Section numbering}
\label{secnum}
\index{section numbering}
All document divisions get numbered by default. Parts
get Roman numerals (Part�I, Part�II, etc.);
chapters and sections get decimal numbering, and Appendixes
(which are just a special case of chapters, and share the
same structure) are lettered (A, B, C, etc.).
You can change the depth to which section numbering
occurs, so you can turn it off selectively. In this document
it is set
to�{\arabic{secnumdepth}}.
If you only want parts, chapters, and sections numbered, not
subsections or subsubsections etc., you can change the
value of the \counter{secnumdepth}
counter using the the \command{setcounter} command,
giving the depth value from the table in \S\thinspace\ref{sections}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{1}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
A related counter is \counter{tocdepth}, which specifies what
depth to take the Table of Contents to. It can be reset in
exactly the same way as \counter{secnumdepth}. The current setting
for this document is�{\arabic{tocdepth}}.
To get an \emph{unnumbered} section
heading which does \emph{not} go into the
Table of Contents, follow the command name with an asterisk
before the opening curly brace:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Shopping List}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
All the divisional commands from \command{part*}
to \command{subparagraph*} have this
`starred' version which can be used
on special occasions for an unnumbered heading when the
setting of \counter{secnumdepth} would normally
mean it would be numbered.
\section{Ordinary paragraphs}
\label{paragraphs}
After section headings comes your text. Just type it and
leave a blank line between paragraphs. That's all \LaTeX{}
needs.
The blank line means `start a new paragraph
here': it does \emph{not} (repeat:
\emph{\textbf{not}}) mean you get a blank
line in the typeset output. Now read this paragraph again.
The spacing between paragraphs is a separately definable quantity, a
\textbf{\textit{dimension}}\index{dimension@\textbf{\textit{dimension}}} or \textbf{\textit{length}}\index{length@\textbf{\textit{length}}} called \length{parskip}. This is normally zero
(no space between paragraphs, because that's how books
are normally typeset), but you can easily set it to any size
you want with the \command{setlength} command in the
Preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\label{paraspace}%
This will set the space between paragraphs
to 1cm. See \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions} for details of the
various size units \LaTeX{} can use. \emph{Leaving multiple
blank lines between paragraphs in your source document
achieves nothing}: all extra blank lines get
ignored by \LaTeX{} because the space between paragraphs is
controlled only by the value of \length{parskip}. To change the space
between paragraphs, specify it with the command as shown
above.
White-space in \LaTeX{} can also be made flexible (what
\titlecite{latexbook} calls
`rubber' lengths). This means that
values such as \length{parskip} can
have a default dimension plus an amount of expansion minus an
amount of contraction. This is useful on pages in complex
documents where not every page will be an exact number of
fixed-height lines long, so some give-and-take in vertical
space is useful. You specify this in a
\command{setlength} command like this:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm plus4mm minus3mm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Paragraph indentation can also be set with the
\command{setlength} command, although you would
always make it a fixed size, never a flexible one, otherwise
you would have very ragged-looking paragraphs.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{6mm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
By default, the first paragraph after a heading follows
the standard Anglo-American publishers' practice of
\emph{no} indentation. Subsequent paragraphs are
indented by the value of \length{parindent} (default
18pt).\footnote{Paragraph spacing and indentation are cultural
settings. If you are typesetting in a language other than
English, you should use the \package{babel}
package, which alters many things, including the spacing
and the naming of sections, to conform with the standards
of different countries and languages.} You can change this in the same way as any other
length.
In the printed copy of this document, the paragraph
indentation is set to {\the\parindent} and the space
between paragraphs is set to {\the\parskip}. These values do not
apply in the Web (HTML) version because not all browsers are
capable of that fine a level of control, and because users can
apply their own stylesheets regardless of what this document
proposes.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{6}Start typing!}
\subsubsection*{Start typing!}\begin{enumerate}\item
Type some paragraphs of text. Leave a blank line
between each. Don't bother about line-wrapping or
formatting\mdash{}\LaTeX{} will take care of all that.
\item
If you're feeling adventurous, add a
\command{section} command with the title of a
section within your first chapter, and continue typing
paragraphs of text below that.
\item
Add one or more \command{setlength}
commands to your Preamble if you want to experiment with
changing paragraph spacing and indentation.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
To turn off indentation completely, set it to zero (but
you still have to provide units: it's still a
measure!).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{0in}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If you do this, though, and leave
\length{parskip} set to zero, your readers
won't be able to tell easily where each paragraph begins!
If you want to use the style of having no indentation with a
space between paragraphs, use the
\package{parskip} package, which does it for
you (and makes adjustments to the spacing of lists and other
structures which use paragraph spacing, so they don't get too
far apart).
\section{Table of contents}
\label{toc}
\index{table of contents!automated entries}
All auto-numbered headings get entered in the Table of
Contents (ToC) automatically. You don't have to print a
ToC, but if you want to, just add the command
\command{tableofcontents} at the point where you want
it printed (usually after the \command{maketitle}
command and before the Abstract or Summary.
Entries for the ToC are recorded each time you process
your document, and reproduced the \emph{next}
time you process it, so you need to re-run \LaTeX{} one extra
time to ensure that all ToC page-number references are
correctly calculated.
We've already seen in \S\thinspace\ref{sections} how
to use the optional argument to the sectioning commands to add
text to the ToC which is slightly different from the one
printed in the body of the document. It is also possible to
add extra lines to the ToC, to force extra or unnumbered
section headings to be included.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{7}Inserting the table of contents}
\subsubsection*{Inserting the table of contents}\begin{enumerate}\item
Go back and add a \command{tableofcontents}
command after the \command{maketitle} command
in your document.
\item
You guessed.
\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
The commands \command{listoffigures} and
\command{listoftables} work in exactly the same way
as \command{tableofcontents} to automatically list
all your tables and figures. If you use them, they normally go
after the \command{tableofcontents} command.
The \command{tableofcontents} command normally
shows only numbered section headings, and only down to the
level defined by the \counter{tocdepth} counter (see \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}), but you can add extra entries with the
\command{addcontentsline} command. For
example if you use an unnumbered section heading command to
start a preliminary piece of text like a Foreword or
Preface, you can write:\index{table of contents!adding manual entry}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Preface}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Preface}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This will format an unnumbered ToC entry for
`Preface' in the
`subsection' font style. You can use
the same mechanism to add lines to the List of Figures or List
of Tables by substituting \url+lof+ or
\url+lot+ for \url+toc+.
\chapter{Typesetting, viewing and printing}
\label{process}
\index{typesetting}\index{viewing}\index{printing}
We've now got far enough to typeset what you've entered. I'm
assuming at this stage that you have typed some sample text in
the format specified in the previous chapter, and you've saved
it in a plain-text file with a filetype of
\verb+.tex+ and a name of your own
choosing.
\index{filenames}\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{8}Saving your file}
\subsubsection*{Saving your file}
If you haven't already saved your file, do so now (some editors
and interfaces let you typeset the document without saving it!).
Pick a sensible filename in a sensible directory. Names
should be short enough to display and search for, but
descriptive enough to make sense. See the panel `Picking suitable filenames' on p.\pageref{filenames} for more details.
\end{exercise}
\section{Typesetting}
\label{setting}
Typesetting your document is usually done with by clicking
on a button in a toolbar or an entry in a menu. Which one you
click on depends on what output you want.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The standard (default) \LaTeX{} program produces a
device-independent�(DVI)\index{DVI@DVI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DVI@DVI|textbf} file which
can be used with any \TeX{} viewer or printer driver on any
make or model of computer (there are dozens of these
available: at least one of each (viewer and printer
driver) should have been installed with your distribution
of \TeX{}).
\item
The \product{pdflatex} program
produces an Adobe Acrobat Portable
Document Format�(PDF)\index{PDF@PDF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDF@PDF|textbf} file which can be used with
any suitable viewer, such as
\product{GSview},
\product{PDFview}, the
\product{Opera} browser, or Adobe's
own \product{Acrobat Reader}.
\end{itemize}
Depending on which one you choose, you may have to
[re]configure your editor so that it runs the right program.
They can all do all of them, but they don't always come
pre-set with buttons or menus for every possible option,
because they can't guess which one you want.
\subsection{Standard \sfLaTeX{}}
There are two ways of running \LaTeX{}: from the toolbar
or menu, or from the command line. Toolbars and menus are
most common in graphical systems, and are the normal way to
run \LaTeX{}. Command lines are used in non-graphical systems
and in automated processes where \LaTeX{} is run unattended
(so-called `batch' or
`scripted' processing).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{9}Running \LaTeX{} from the toolbar or menu}
\subsubsection*{Running \LaTeX{} from the toolbar or menu}
Run \LaTeX{} on your file according to which system
you're using:
\begin{itemize}
\item
In \product{WinEdt}, click the
\guiicon{\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon;
\item
In \product{Emacs}, click the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
File} menu item.
\end{itemize}
Your editor may suggest you save your file if you
haven't already done so. Do it.
\end{exercise}
Whichever way you run \LaTeX{}, it will process your file
and display a log or record of what it's doing (see the
example in Exercise~\ref{terminal}: it looks the same no
matter what system you use). This is to let you see where
(if!) there are any errors or problems.
\emph{Don't panic if you see errors}:
it's very common for learners to mistype or mis-spell
commands, forget curly braces, type a forward slash instead
of a backslash, or use a special character by mistake.
Errors are easily spotted (lines in the log window beginning
with an exclamation mark) and easily corrected in your
editor, and you can run \LaTeX{} again to check you have
fixed everything. \S\thinspace\ref{errmsg} describes some of
the most common mistakes and suggests how to fix
them.
When \LaTeX{} finds an error (a real one, not just a
warning), it displays an error message and pauses. You must
type one of the following letters to continue:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cp{4in}}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Key}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\key{x}&Stop immediately and
e{\textit\uline{x}}it the program.\\
\key{q}&Carry on {\textit\uline{q}}uietly as best
you can and don't bother me with any more error
messages.\\
\key{e}&Stop the program but re-position the text in my
{\textit\uline{e}}ditor at the point where you
found the error.\\
\key{h}&Try to give me more {\textit\uline{h}}elp.\\
\key{i}&(followed by a correction)
{\textit\uline{i}}nput the correction in place
of the error and carry on.\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
The log will also tell you if there were problems with
overlong or underrun lines (unusual hyphenations, for
example), pages running short or long, and other
typographical niceties (most of which you can ignore until
later).
Unlike other systems, which try to hide unevennesses in
the text\mdash{}usually unsuccessfully\mdash{}by interfering
with the letter-spacing, \LaTeX{} takes the view that the
author or editor should be able to contribute. While it is
certainly possible to set \LaTeX{}'s parameters so that
the spacing is sufficiently sloppy that you will almost
never get a warning about badly-fitting lines or pages, you
will almost certainly just be delaying matters until you
start to get complaints from your readers or
publishers.
In \product{WinEdt} the log appears in
a separate window and you have to press the
\key{Enter} key to dismiss it after checking it.
In \product{Emacs}, the log appears in the
bottom half of the edit window and can be dismissed with the
\menuitem{Files}{One
Window} menu or by pressing
\key{Ctrl}--\key{X}~\thinspace{}\key{1}.
If there were no errors, your
file is ready for displaying or printing.
\begin{sidebar}\label{filenames}
\subsection*{Picking suitable filenames}
Never, ever use directories (folders) or file names which
contain spaces. Although your operating system probably
supports them, some don't, and they will only cause grief
and tears with \TeX{}.
Make filenames as short or as long as you wish, but
strictly avoid spaces. Stick to upper- and lower-case letters
without accents (A\ndash{}Z and a\ndash{}z), the digits
0\ndash{}9, the hyphen (\verb+-+), and the full
point or period (\verb+.+), (similar to the
conventions for a Web URI\index{URI@URI}): it will let you refer to \TeX{}
files over the Web more easily and make your files more
portable.
\end{sidebar}\subsection{pdf\sfLaTeX{}}
If you have configured your editor to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files, by using the
\product{pdflatex} program instead of
standard \LaTeX{}, then you click the
\guiicon{pdf\LaTeX{}} icon in
\product{WinEdt} or type the
\verb+pdflatex+ command in a terminal (console) window
(exactly the same method as shown above for standard
\LaTeX{}). \product{Emacs} does not have a
default menu configured for
\product{pdflatex}.
\subsection{Running \sfLaTeX{} from a command window}
\label{cmdwin}
This is worth practising even if you normally use a
graphical access system, so that you understand what it does.
\begin{exercise}
\label{terminal}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{10}Running \sfLaTeX{} in a terminal or console window}
\subsubsection*{Running \sfLaTeX{} in a terminal or console window}\begin{itemize}
\item
If you are using a non-graphical system, then by
definition you are already using a command-line terminal
or console.
\item
Under Linux or Unix (X Window systems such as KDE,
Gnome, OpenWindows, CDE, etc.) you open a command (shell)
window by clicking on the shell or screen icon in the
control panel at the bottom of your screen.
\item
Under Microsoft Windows you open a command window
by clicking on the
\menuitem{Start}{Programs}[MS-DOS]
or
\menuitem{Start}{Command Prompt}
menu item.
\end{itemize}
When the command window appears, type
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small,commandchars=\\\{\}]
cd {\textit\uline{documents}}
latex {\textit\uline{mybook}}\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Substitute the name of your document directory
(folder) for \url+documents+ in the
\verb+cd+ command, and your document filename
for \url+mybook+ in the
\verb+latex+ command. Remember to press the
\key{Enter} key at the end of each line.
You can run \product{pdflatex} in the
same way by typing \verb+pdflatex+ instead of
\verb+latex+.
\end{exercise}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{terminal}
\end{center}
\section{Error messages}
\label{errmsg}
Most error messages are self-explanatory, but because some
errors can only be righted by humans who can read and
understand what it's supposed to mean, they don't
get spotted by \LaTeX{} until much later, leading to several
messages in a row.
Only a few common error messages are given here: those
most likely to be encountered by beginners. If you find
another error message, and it's not clear what you should
do, ask for help.
Fortunately it's usually easy to find \LaTeX{} errors,
as the layout of an error message is always the same.
Error messages begin with an exclamation mark at the start of
the line in the log, and give a description of the error,
followed by a line starting with the line number in your
document file where the error was spotted.
Newcomers should remember to check the list of special
characters in (\S\thinspace\ref{specials}): a very large
number of errors when you are learning \LaTeX{} are due to
accidentally typing a special character when you didn't mean
to. This disappears after a few days as you get used to
them.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Too many }'s.
l.6 \date December 2004}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
In the example above, the reason \LaTeX{} thinks there
are too many
\verb+}+'s is that the opening curly brace
after \command{date} and before the word
\verb+December+ is missing, so the closing curly
brace is seen as one too many (which it is!).\footnote{In fact, there are other things which can follow the
\command{date} command apart from a date in curly
braces, so \LaTeX{} cannot possibly guess that you've
missed out the opening curly brace\mdash{}until it finds a
closing one!}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Undefined control sequence.
l.6 \dtae
{December 2004}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
In this second example, \LaTeX{} is complaining that it
has no such command (`control sequence') as
\verb+\dtae+ (it's been mistyped, but only a
human can detect that fact: all \LaTeX{} knows is that
it's undefined).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Runaway argument?
{December 2004 \maketitle
! Paragraph ended before \date was complete.
<to be read again>
\par
l.8
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
In this final example of an error, the closing curly
brace has been omitted from the date, resulting in
\command{maketitle} trying to format the title page
while \LaTeX{} is still expecting more text for the date! As
\command{maketitle} creates new paragraphs on the
title page, this is detected and \LaTeX{} complains that the
previous paragraph has ended but \command{date} is
not yet finished.
I'll repeat the advice from earlier: if you find an
error message you can't understand, ask for help. See
the section on online help (\S\thinspace\ref{help}) for details.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Underfull \hbox (badness 1394) in paragraph at lines 28--30
[][]\LY1/brm/b/n/10 Bull, RJ: \LY1/brm/m/n/10 Ac-count-ing in Busi-
[94]
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
In this example of a warning, \LaTeX{} cannot stretch the
line wide enough without making the spacing bigger than its
currently permitted maximum. The badness (0\ndash{}10,000)
indicates how severe this is (here you can probably ignore it).
It says what lines of your file it was typesetting when it found
this, and the number in square brackets is the number of the
page onto which the offending line was printed.
The codes separated by slashes are the typeface and font
style and size used in the line. Ignore them for the moment:
details are in step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
[101]
Overfull \hbox (9.11617pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 860--861
[]\LY1/brm/m/n/10 Windows, \LY1/brm/m/it/10 see \LY1/brm/m/n/10 X Win-
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Last of all, the opposite warning: this line is too long
by a shade over 9pt. The chosen hyphenation point which
minimises the error is shown at the end of the line
(\emph{Win-}). Line numbers and page numbers are
given as before. In this case, 9pt is too much to ignore, and
a manual correction needs making, or the flexibility settings
need changing (outside the scope of this booklet).
\section{Screen preview}
\label{dvi}
\index{preview}
Once the file has been processed without errors (or even
if there are still errors, but you want to see what it's
doing with them), standard \LaTeX{} will have created a
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file with the same name as your
document but the filetype
\verb+.dvi+. If you're using
\product{pdflatex}, a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file will have been created, and you
can skip to
\S\thinspace\ref{pdfview}.
\subsection{Previewing DVI output}
\label{dviview}
To see the typeset output, click on the
\menuitem{TeX}{TeX View}
menu item in \product{Emacs} or the
\guiicon{dvi} Preview toolbar icon in
\product{WinEdt}. A What You See Is What You Get�(WYSIWYG)\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}
preview window will appear with your typeset display.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{xdvi}
\end{center}
Most previewers have a wide range of scaling, zooming,
and measuring functions, but remember this is a
\emph{picture} of your output: you cannot edit
the image. To change it, you always edit your source text and
reprocess.
With \product{xdvi} and its derivatives
like \product{dviview}, you can leave the
display window open, and after you've reprocessed your
document through \LaTeX{}, moving your mouse back into the
window will make the display update automatically (click
your mouse if you have your windowing system set to need a
click to focus).
\begin{sidebar}
The very first time you display your DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output with a new installation of
\TeX{}, there may be a short pause if the previewer needs
to create the special bitmaps used for screen previews of
some fonts. These give greater accuracy on low-resolution
devices like screens. As you continue to work with \LaTeX{}
and your system accumulates these font files, the pause
for generating them will disappear.
\end{sidebar}\subsection{Previewing with PDF}
\label{pdfview}
If you have configured your system to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of
DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
files, just open the \url+.pdf+ file using
any PDF\index{PDF@PDF} viewer or
browser.
It is possible to configure
\product{WinEdt} to display a toolbar icon
which will pop up \product{Acrobat Reader}
or some other browser with the current PDF\index{PDF@PDF} output file.
Adobe's \product{Acrobat Reader}
cannot automatically update the view if you reprocess your
document through \product{pdflatex}. You
have to close the display with \key{Ctrl}--\key{W}~ and reload the file with \key{Alt}--\key{1}~.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Bitmap fonts}
Acrobat Reader is extremely poor at rendering Type3
bitmap fonts. If you are using these (mostly old \LaTeX{}
installations who have not upgraded to Type1), you will
see very fuzzy display at low magnifications. It will
print perfectly, but Acrobat Reader's display is
disappointing. The solution is to use a better viewer or
to install and upgrade to the Type1 versions of the CM
fonts (see \S\thinspace\ref{type1cm}), or both, but there
remain a few useful fonts which are still only available
in Type3 format. If you need to use them, you probably
need to warn your readers to expect a fuzzy display from
Acrobat Reader (but good printout), and to change to a
better reader if they can.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Previewing with PostScript}
\label{makeps}
PostScript\index{PostScript} is a page description
language invented by Adobe and used in laser printers and
high-end typesetters. It's been the universal standard
for electronically-formatted print files for over a decade,
and all printers and publishers are accustomed to using
them. PDF\index{PDF@PDF}, a descendant of
PostScript, is rapidly taking over, but
PostScript\index{PostScript} itself is still extremely
common, largely because it is very robust, and is usually an
ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} file, which makes it very
portable and easy to generate. The drawback is the large
size of PostScript\index{PostScript} files, especially
if they contain bitmapped graphics.
The \product{dvips} program which comes
with all \TeX{} systems is used to generate
PostScript\index{PostScript} files directly from your
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output. These
\url+.ps+ files can be viewed, printed, or
sent to a platemaker or filmsetter.
An alternative to viewing the DVI file direct is
therefore to generate a PostScript\index{PostScript} file, especially if
you're going to have to do this for your publisher
anyway, and many editors can be configured to do this by
default. Look for a \guiicon{dvips} toolbar icon or
menu entry and click on it.
It's very simple to do manually anyway: let's
assume your \LaTeX{} file was called
\url+mydoc.tex+, so processing it has created
\url+mydoc.dvi+. Just type:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvips -o mydoc.ps mydoc
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\noindent in a command window (see Exercise~\ref{terminal} on
p.\thinspace\pageref{terminal} for how to get one)
and \product{dvips} will create
\url+mydoc.ps+ which can be used both for
previewing and printing.
To view a PostScript\index{PostScript} file, you
need a PostScript\index{PostScript} previewer like
\product{GSview}, which works with the
PostScript\index{PostScript} interpreter
\product{Ghostscript}, which should have
been installed along with your whole \TeX{} system (if not,
install both now: \product{GSview} is
separately licensed and cannot be included in the \TeX{} Live
distribution, so you have to download it yourself).
\product{GSview} can be set to watch
the PostScript\index{PostScript} file and automatically
update the display any time the file is changed, without you
even having to click on the window.
\section{Printer output}
\label{print}
\index{printing}
\TeX{} systems print on almost anything from the simplest
dot-matrix printers to the biggest phototypesetters, including
all the laser printers and a host of other devices in between.
\emph{How} you do it varies slightly according
to how you do your typesetting and previewing:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily If you are using PDF]
you can print directly from your PDF\index{PDF@PDF} viewer
(e.g.�\product{PDFview},
\product{Acrobat Reader}, etc.). Be
careful never to click on the `Fit to page'
option in your viewer, as it will change the size of
your document so all your measurements become
wrong.
\item[\sffamily If you are using DVI]
and you have a previewer which has a
\textbf{print} function configured for your
printer, you can use that. If not, create a PostScript\index{PostScript}
file and use that (see below).
\item[\sffamily If you are using PostScript\index{PostScript}]
use the \textbf{print} function in
\product{GSview}.
\item[\sffamily If you have a real PostScript\index{PostScript}
printer]
or you are using a system with built-in
PostScript\index{PostScript} printing support (such
as Linux), you can create and send
PostScript\index{PostScript} output directly from
\product{dvips} to the printer without
the need to open it in a previewer first. In
\product{Emacs}, for example, this is
what happens when you use the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
Print} menu item.
\item[\sffamily Non-PostScript\index{PostScript} printers]
You can create a PostScript\index{PostScript}
file with \product{dvips} (see \S\thinspace\ref{makeps}) and use
\product{GSview} to print it
(\product{GSview} can print
PostScript\index{PostScript} files to almost any
make or model of non-PostScript\index{PostScript}
printer);
\item[\sffamily Or, if you want a
non-PostScript\index{PostScript}/Ghostscript
solution]
install or configure a \TeX{} print driver for your
printer (as supplied with your \TeX{} installation, and
there are dozens on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}: their names all start
with \url+dvi+ and are followed by an
abbreviation for the printer make or model like
\product{dvieps} for Epson,
\product{dvihp} for Hewlett-Packard,
\product{dvialw} for Apple
LaserWriters, etc.). Configure the
driver to print directly to the print queue, or pipe it
to the print queue manually. On Linux with an HP printer,
for example, this would be
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc | lpr
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Microsoft Windows has no easy way to bypass the
print spool, but you can do it from an MS-DOS command window
with
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc -o mydoc.hp
print /b mydoc.hp
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Read the documentation for the driver, as the
options and defaults vary.
\end{description}
Both the \product{dvips} program and all
the previewers that print tend to have facilities for printing
selected pages, printing in reverse, scaling the page size,
\index{page size!scaling}\index{printing!reverse order}\index{printing!selected pages} and printing only odd or even pages for two-sided
work. If you are using PostScript\index{PostScript} there
are programs for manipulating the output, for example to
perform page imposition to get 4, 8, or 16 pages to a sheet
for making booklets.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{11}Print it!}
\subsubsection*{Print it!}
Show that you have understood the process of
typesetting, previewing, and printing, by displaying your
document and printing it.
\end{exercise}
\chapter[CTAN, packages, and online help]{CTAN, packages, and \\online help}
\label{ctan}
The Comprehensive \TeX{} Archive
Network�(CTAN)\index{CTAN@CTAN|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CTAN@CTAN|textbf} is a repository or collection of Web and
FTP\index{FTP@FTP}
servers worldwide which contain copies of almost every free
piece of software related to \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}. CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} is rooted at \url+
http://www.ctan.org/+ and there are several
online indexes. There are complete \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} systems for
all platforms, utilities for text and graphics processing,
conversion programs into and out of \LaTeX{}, extra typefaces,
and (possibly the most important) the \LaTeX{}
\textbf{\textit{packages}}\index{packages@\textbf{\textit{packages}}}.
\begin{sidebar}
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} should
\emph{always} be your first port of call when
looking for a software update or a feature you want to use.
Please don't ask the network help
resources (\S\thinspace\ref{help}) until you have checked CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} and FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} first.
\end{sidebar}\section{Packages}
\label{packages}
\index{packages!using}
Add-on features for \LaTeX{} are known as
`packages'. Dozens of these are
pre-installed with \LaTeX{} and can be used in your documents
immediately. To find out what packages are available, you
should use the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search page\footnote{\url+
http://www.ctan.org/search+} which includes a
link to Graham Williams' comprehensive package
catalogue.
When you try to typeset a document which requires a
package which is not installed on your system, \LaTeX{} will
warn you with an error message and you can then download the
package and install it using the instructions in \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}. You can also download updates to
packages you already have (ones that were installed along with
your version of \LaTeX{} as well as ones you added).
There is no theoretical limit to the number of packages
you can have installed (apart from the size of your disk), but
there is probably a physical limit to the number that can be
used inside any one \LaTeX{} document at the same time,
although it depends on how big each package is. In practice
there is no problem in having even a couple of dozen packages
active.
\subsection{Using an existing package}
\label{colorpkg}
To use a package already installed on your system,
insert a \command{usepackage} command in your
document preamble with the package name in curly braces.
For example, to use the \package{color}
package, which lets you typeset in colours (I warned you
this was coming!):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{color}
\begin{document}
\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
You can include several package names in one
\command{usepackage} command by separating the
names with commas, and you can have more than one
\command{usepackage} command. However, if a
package needs optional settings in square brackets, you
\emph{have} to give it its own
\command{usepackage} command, like
\package{geometry} shown here.
\begin{sourcecode}\label{oldtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{pslatex,palatino,avant,graphicx,color}
\usepackage[margin=2cm]{geometry}
\begin{document}
\title{\color{red}Practical Typesetting}
\author{\color{blue}Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{\color{green}December 2004}
\maketitle
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This is a simple way to do colours in titling on a
once-off basis: if it's for a repeatable style
we'll see in \chaptername~\ref{macros} how it can be
automated and kept out of the author's way.
Many packages can have additional formatting
specifications in optional arguments in square brackets, in
the same way as the \command{documentclass} command
does. Read the documentation for the package concerned to
find out what can be done.
\begin{exercise}
\label{geoex}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{12}Add colour}
\subsubsection*{Add colour}
Use the \package{color} package to add
some colour to your document. Use the
\package{geometry} package to change the
margins.
Print your document if you have a colour printer
(monochrome printers should print it in shades of
grey).
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Package documentation}
\label{packagedoc}
\index{packages!documentation}
To find out what commands a package provides (and thus
how to use it), you need to read the documentation. In the
\url+texmf/doc+ subdirectory of your
installation there should be directories full of
\url+.dvi+ files, one for every package
installed. These can be previewed or printed like any other
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file (see
\S\thinspace\ref{dviview}). If your installation procedure
has not installed the documentation, it can all be
downloaded from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
anyway.
Before using a package, you should read the
documentation carefully, especially the subsection usually
called `User Interface', which
describes the commands the package makes available. You
cannot just guess and hope it will work: you have to read it
and find out.
See the next section for details of how to create the
documentation \url+.dvi+ file for additional
packages you install yourself.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{13}Read all about it}
\subsubsection*{Read all about it}
Find and view (or print) the documentation on the
\package{geometry} package you used in
Exercise~\ref{geoex}.
Investigate one of the other package documentation
files in the directory.
\end{exercise}
\section{Downloading and installing packages}
\label{pkginst}
\index{packages!downloading}\index{packages!installing}
Once you have identified a package you need and
haven't already got (or you have got it and need to
update it), use the indexes on any CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} server to find the directory
where the package lives.
What you need to look for is always \emph{two
files}, one ending in \url+.dtx+
and the other in \url+.ins+. The first is a
DOC\TeX{} file, which combines the package code and its
documentation in a single file. The second is the installation
routine (much smaller). You \emph{must always}
download \emph{both} files.
If the two files are not there, it means the package is
part of a much larger bundle which you don't normally
update unless you change version of \LaTeX{}. For example,
there is no \url+color.dtx+ and
\url+color.ins+ for the
\package{color} package because it forms part
of the \package{graphics} bundle. Such packages
change very rarely, as they form part of the core of \LaTeX{}
and are very stable. In general you should not try to update
these packages in isolation.
Some rare or unusual packages are still supplied as a
single \url+.sty+ file intended for the now
obsolete \LaTeX{}\thinspace{}2.09. You can try to use these if you
wish but they are not guaranteed to work, and have now almost
all been replaced by \LaTeXe{} versions. Always look for the
\url+.dtx+ and \url+.ins+ pair
of files first.
\label{packinst}%
Download both files to a
\textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}\index{temporary directory@\textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}}. Keep
something like \url+C:\tmp+ for this in
Windows; Linux systems already have a
\url+/tmp+ directory. There are four steps to
installing a \LaTeX{} package:
\index{packages!installing}\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Extract the files}\\\label{extract}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.ins+ file.
That is, open the file in your editor and process it as if
it were a \LaTeX{} document, or if you prefer, type
\verb+latex+ followed by the
\url+.ins+ filename in a command window in
the temporary directory.
This will extract all the files needed from the
\url+.dtx+ file (which is why you must have
both of them present in the temporary directory). Note
down or print the names of the files created if there are
a lot of them (read the log file if you want to see their
names again).
\item \textbf{Create the documentation}\\\label{dtxdoc}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.dtx+ file
twice. This will create a \url+.dvi+ file
of documentation explaining what the package is for and
how to use it. Two passes through \LaTeX{} are needed in
order to resolve any internal crossreferences in the text
(a feature we'll come onto later). If you prefer to
create PDF\index{PDF@PDF} then run
\product{pdflatex} instead. View or print
this file in the usual manner (see \S\thinspace\ref{dvi}�\emph{et
seq}.).
\item \textbf{Install the files}\\
While the documentation is printing, move or copy the
files created in step~\ref{extract}
from your temporary directory to the correct place[s] in
your \TeX{} installation directory tree. In an installation
that conforms to the \TeX{} Directory
Structure�(TDS)\index{TDS@TDS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TDS@TDS|textbf}, this would be suitably-named
subdirectories of
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/+. See the panel `Replicating the TDS' on p.\pageref{rightplace} for how to create a parallel
structure in your local directory, and the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{where} for where `the right place'
is.
Often there is just a \url+.sty+
file to move but in the case of complex packages there may
be more, and they may belong in different locations. For
example, new BIB\TeX{} packages or font packages will
typically have several files to install.
\begin{center}
\label{where}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}\footnotesize}p{1.5in}}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Type}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Directory (under
\url+texmf-local/+)}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Comments}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\url+.cls+&tex/latex/base&Document class file\\
\url+.sty+&tex/latex/{\textit\uline{packagename}}&Style file: the normal package
content\\
\url+.bst+&bibtex/bst&BIB\TeX{} style\\
\url+.mf+&fonts/source/public/{\textit\uline{fontname}}&\mf{} font outline\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/mfnfss&Font Definition files for \mf{} fonts
only\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/psnfss&Font Definition files for PostScript
Type�1 fonts only\\
\url+.pfb+&/fonts/type1/{\textit\uline{foundry}}/{\textit\uline{fontname}}&PostScript Type�1 font outline\\
\url+.afm+&/fonts/afm/{\textit\uline{foundry}}/{\textit\uline{fontname}}&Adobe font metrics for PostScript Type�1
fonts\\
\url+.tfm+&/fonts/tfm/{\textit\uline{foundry}}/{\textit\uline{fontname}}&\TeX{} font metrics for \mf{} and
PostScript Type�1 fonts\\
\url+.vf+&/fonts/vf/{\textit\uline{foundry}}/{\textit\uline{fontname}}&\TeX{} virtual fonts\\
\url+.pdf+,
\url+.dvi+&/doc&package documentation\\
others&tex/latex/{\textit\uline{packagename}}&other types of file unless instructed
otherwise\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
For BIB\TeX{} styles, the \LaTeX{}
\url+.sty+ files belong in
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/...+ (called
after the package) but the \url+.bst+ file
belongs in
\url+texmf-local/bibtex/bst+.
Don't forget to move the \url+.dvi+
or \url+.pdf+ file of documentation into
\url+texmf-local/doc+.
If there are configuration or other files, read the
documentation to find out if there is a special or
preferred location to move them to.
\item \textbf{Update your index}\\\label{texindex}%\index{packages!indexing}
Finally, run your \TeX{} indexer program to update the
package database. This program comes with every modern
version of \TeX{} and is variously called
\product{texhash},
\product{mktexlsr}, or even
\product{configure}, or it might just be a
mouse click on a button or menu in your editor. Read the
documentation that came with your installation to find out
which it is.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{warning}
This last step is \emph{utterly essential},
otherwise nothing will work.
\end{warning}
The reason this process has not been automated widely is
that there are still thousands of installations which do not
conform to the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}, such as old
shared Unix systems or very old, small-scale PC systems, so there
is no way for an installation program to guess where to put
the files: \emph{you} have to know this. There
are many more systems where the owner, user, or installer has
chosen \emph{not} to follow the recommended
TDS\index{TDS@TDS} directory structure, or is
unable to do so for security reasons (such as a shared system
where she cannot write to a protected directory).
The reason for having the \url+texmf-local+
directory (called \url+texmf.local+ on some
systems) is to provide a place for local modifications or
personal updates if you are a user on a shared system (Unix,
Linux, VMS, Windows NT/2000/XP, etc.) where you do not have
write-access to the main \TeX{} installation directory tree.
You can also have a personal \url+texmf+
subdirectory in your own login directory. Your installation
must be configured to look in these directories first,
however, so that any updates to standard packages will be
found there \emph{before} the superseded copies
in the main \url+texmf+ tree. All modern \TeX{}
installations should do this anyway, but if not, you can edit
\url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+ yourself. There is
an example in Appendix~\ref{cnf}.
\begin{exercise}
\label{insttest}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{14}Install a package}
\subsubsection*{Install a package}
Download and install the
\package{paralist} package (which implements
inline lists).
\end{exercise}
\begin{sidebar}\label{rightplace}
\subsection*{Replicating the TDS}
I find it useful to make the directory structure of
\url+texmf-local+ the same as that of
\url+texmf+. Examine the subdirectories of
\url+texmf/tex/latex/+ for examples. For
updates of packages which came with your \LaTeX{}
distribution (as distinct from new ones you are adding
yourself), you can then use the same subdirectory name and
position in \url+texmf-local/...+ as the
original used in \url+texmf/...+.
If you want to create the entire subdirectory structure
ready for use, you can do it under Unix with the following
command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cd /usr/TeX/texmf; find . -type d -exec mkdir -p \
/usr/TeX/texmf-local/{} \;
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If you are using Microsoft Windows, you can download
\product{Cygwin}, which provides
you with the standard Unix tools in a shell window. The
above command should also work on a Mac running OS\thinspace{}X. In all
cases, if your installation directory is not
\url+/usr/TeX+, you need to substitute the
actual paths to your \url+texmf+ and
\url+texmf-local+ directories.
\end{sidebar}\section{Online help}
\label{help}
\index{help}
The indexes and documentation files on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are the primary online resource
for self-help and you should read these carefully before
asking questions. You should most especially read the
Frequently-Asked
Questions�(FAQ)\index{FAQ@FAQ|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FAQ@FAQ|textbf} document so that you avoid wasting online time
asking about things for which there is already an
easily-accessible answer. The FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} is at \url+
http://www.tex.ac.uk/faq/+\thinspace{}.
The Usenet newsgroup \url+comp.text.tex+ is the principal forum for questions
and answers about \LaTeX{}. Feel free to ask questions, but
please do not ask FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ}s: read the
documentation instead. People who answer the questions do so
voluntarily, unpaid, and in their own time, so don't treat
this as a commercial support service. To access Usenet news,
type the following URI\index{URI@URI} into your browser's
`Location' or
`Address' window:
\verb+news:comp.text.tex+ (if your browser
doesn't support Usenet news properly, change it for one that
does, like \product{Mozilla}\footnote{\url+
http://www.mozilla.org/+}).
Another support resource is the mailing list \
[email protected]+. Again, feel free to ask
questions, but again, try to answer the question yourself
first (and say what you've tried in your message).
The \TeX{} Users Group, as well as most local user groups,
maintains a web site (\url+
http://tug.org+)
with lots of information about various aspects of the \TeX{}
system. See Appendix~\ref{tugform}
for information on joining TUG.
If you need commercial levels of support, such as
24-hour phone contact, or macro-writing services, you
can buy one of the several excellent commercial versions of
\TeX{}, or contact a consultancy which deals with \TeX{}
(details on the TUG Web site).
Remember: check the FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} first!
\chapter{Other document structures}
\label{otherdoc}
It is actually quite possible to write whole documents using
nothing but section headings and paragraphs. As mentioned in
\S\thinspace\ref{sections}, novels, for
example, usually consist just of chapters divided into
paragraphs. More commonly, however, you need other features as
well, especially if the document is technical in nature or
complex in structure.
It's worth pointing out that
`technical' doesn't necessarily mean
`computer technical' or
`engineering technical': it just means it
contains a lot of $\tau\eta\chi\nu\epsilon$~(\emph{tekne}), the
specialist material or artistry of its field. A literary
analysis such as \titlecite{macnamara} (on the
marginal notes in the manuscripts of \authorof{bovary}'s \titlecite{bovary} manuscripts) is every bit as
technical in the literary or linguistic field as the maintenance
manual for an Airbus 300D is in the aircraft engineering
field.
This chapter covers the most common features needed in
writing structured documents: lists, tables, figures (including
images), sidebars like boxes and panels, and verbatim text
(computer program listings). In \chaptername~\ref{texttools} we
will cover footnotes, cross-references, citations, and other
textual tools.
\section{A brief note on structure}
\label{briefstruct}
It's very easy to sit down at a keyboard with a
traditional wordprocessor and just start typing. If it's
a very short document, or something transient or relatively
unimportant, then you just want to type it in and make it look
`right' by highlighting with the mouse
and clicking on font styles and sizes.
In doing so, you may achieve the effect you wanted, but
your actions have left no trace behind of
\emph{why} you made these changes. As I said,
this is unimportant for trivial or short-term documents, but
if you write longer or more complex documents, or if you often
write documents to a regular pattern, then making them
consistent by manual methods becomes a nightmare.
\LaTeX{}'s facilities for automation are based on you
providing this `why' information.
If you can tick any of the features below about your
documents, then you have already started thinking about
structure.
\begin{itemize}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\Square}}
\item
The document naturally divides into sections (parts,
chapters, etc.).
\item
The document is long.
\item
There is lots of repetitive formatting in the
document.
\item
The document is complex (intellectually or
visually).
\item
There are lots of figures or tables (or examples,
exercises, panels, sidebars, etc.).
\item
Accuracy is important in formatting the
document.
\item
A master copy is needed for future reference or reprinting.
\item
This is a formal or official document needing special
care and attention.
\item
It's \emph{my} thesis, book,
leaflet, pamphlet, paper, article,
etc. \emph{That}'s why I care.
\item
The document (or part of it) may need ongoing or
occasional re-editing and republishing.
\end{itemize}
If you've got that far, you're over
half-way done. Using a structural editor\mdash{}even a simple
outliner\mdash{}can make a huge difference to the quality of your
thinking because you are consciously organising your thoughts
before setting them down. And it can make just as big a
difference to your formatting as well: more consistent, better
presented, easier for the reader to navigate through, and more
likely to be read and understood\mdash{}which is presumably why
you are writing the document in the first place.
\section{Lists}
\label{lists}
\index{lists}
Lists are useful tools for arranging thoughts in a
digestible format, usually a small piece of information at a
time. There are four basic types of list:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.4\columnwidth}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.4\columnwidth}}\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Random or arbitrary lists](sometimes called
`itemized' or
`bulleted' lists) where the
order of items is irrelevant or unimportant. The
items are often prefixed with a bullet or other
symbol for clarity or decoration, but are
sometimes simply left blank, looking like
miniature paragraphs (when they are known as
`simple' or
`trivial' lists).\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Enumerated or sequential lists]where the order of items is critical, such as
sequences of instructions or rankings of
importance. The enumeration can be numeric (Arabic
or Roman), or lettered (uppercase or lowercase),
and can even be programmed to be
hierarchical (1.a.viii, 2.3.6, etc.).\end{description}\\
\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Descriptive or labelled lists](sometimes called
`discussion' lists), which
are composed of subheadings or topic labels
(usually unnumbered but typographically distinct),
each followed by one or more indented paragraphs
of discussion or explanation.\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Inline lists]which are sequential in nature, just like
enumerated lists, but are
\begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted \emph{within}
their paragraph; and \item usually labelled with letters,\end{inparaenum}�like this example. The items are
often Boolean, with the final item prefixed by
`and' or
`or'.\end{description}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
There are actually two other types, segmented lists and
reference lists, but these are much rarer.
\index{environment}
The structure of lists in \LaTeX{} is identical for each
type, but with a different environment name. Lists are another
example of this \LaTeX{} technique
(environments),
where a pair of matched commands surrounds some text which
needs special treatment.
Within a list environment, list items are always
identified by the command \command{item} (followed by
an item label in [square brackets] in the case of labelled
lists). You don't type the bullet or the number or the
formatting, it's all automated.
\subsection{Itemized lists}
\index{lists!itemized}\index{lists!bulleted}
To create an itemized list, use the the
\env{itemize} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{itemize}
\item Itemized lists usually have a bullet;
\item Long items use `hanging indentation', whereby the
text is wrapped with a margin which brings it clear of
the bullet used in the first line of each item;
\item The bullet can be changed for any other symbol, for
example from the \textsf{bbding} or \textsf{pifont} package.
\end{itemize}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{itemize}
\label{labelitem}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}}
\item
Itemized lists usually have a bullet;
\item
Long items use `hanging
indentation', whereby the text is
wrapped with a margin which brings it clear of the
bullet used in the first line of each item;
\item
The bullet can be changed for any other symbol,
for example from the \package{bbding}
or \package{pifont} package.
\end{itemize}
\end{example}
See \S\thinspace\ref{bullets} for details of how to
change the settings for list item bullets.
\subsection{Enumerated lists}
\index{lists!numbered}\index{lists!enumerated}
To create an enumerated list, use the
\env{enumerate} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{enumerate}
\item Enumerated lists use numbering on each item;
\item Long items use `hanging indentation' just the same
as for itemized lists;
\item The numbering system can be changed for any level.
\end{enumerate}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{enumerate}\item
Enumerated lists use numbering on each
item;
\item
Long items use `hanging
indentation', just the same as for
itemized lists;
\item
The numbering system can be changed for any
level.
\end{enumerate}
\end{example}
See \S\thinspace\ref{numberschemes} for details of how
to change the numbering schemes for each level.
\subsection{Description lists}
\label{desc}
\index{lists!description}\index{lists!discussion}
To create a description list, use the
\env{description} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{description}
\item[Identification:] description lists require a topic
for each item given in square brackets;
\item[Hanging indentation:] Long items use this in the
same way as all other lists;
\item[Reformatting:] Long topics can be reprogrammed to
fold onto multiple lines.
\end{description}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Identification:]
description lists require a topic for each item
given in square brackets;
\item[\sffamily Hanging indentation:]
Long items use this in the same way as all
other lists;
\item[\sffamily Reformatting:]
Long topics can be reprogrammed to fold onto
multiple lines.
\end{description}
\end{example}
\subsection{Inline lists}
\label{inlinelists}
\index{lists!inline}
Inline lists are a special case as they require the use
of the \package{paralist} package and the
\env{inparaenum} environment (with an
optional formatting specification in square
brackets):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{paralist}
..
\textbf{\itshape Inline lists}, which are sequential in
nature, just like enumerated lists, but are
\begin{inparaenum}[{\itshape a})]
\item formatted within their paragraph
\item usually labelled with letters\end{inparaenum},
like this example. The items are often Boolean, with
the final item prefixed by `and' or `or'.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}\index{Inline lists@\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}},
which are sequential in nature, just like enumerated
lists, but are \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted within their paragraph; and \item usually labelled with letters\end{inparaenum}, like this example. The items are often
Boolean, with the final item prefixed by
`and' or
`or'.\end{quote}\end{example}
See \chaptername~\ref{typo} for details of font-changing commands.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{15}List practice}
\subsubsection*{List practice}
Add some lists to your document. Pick any two of the
ones described here to practise with.
If you successfully installed
\package{paralist} in Exercise~\ref{insttest} then you can use inline lists as
described in \S\thinspace\ref{inlinelists}.
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Reference lists and segmented lists}
Reference lists are visually indistinguishable from
numbered or lettered lists, but the numbering or lettering
does \emph{not} imply a sequence. The numbers
or letters are just used as labels so that the items can be
referred to from elsewhere in the text (as in `see
item 501(c)3'). In this sense they are really a
kind of sub-sectional division, and \LaTeX{}'s
\command{paragraph} or
\command{subparagraph} commands (with appropriate
renumbering) would probably be a far better solution than
using a list. Label them and refer to them with
\command{label} and \command{ref} as for
any other cross-reference (see \S\thinspace\ref{xrefs}).
Segmented lists are a highly specialised structure and
outside the scope of this document. For details of their
usage, see the the chapter `Segmentation and
Alignment' in \titlecite{teiguide}.
\subsection{Lists within lists}
\label{numberschemes}
You can start a new list environment within the item of
an existing list, so you can embed one list inside another
up to four deep. The lists can be of any type, so you can
have a description list containing an item in which there is
a numbered sub-list, within which there is an item
containing a bulleted sub-sub-list.
Multiple embedded lists automatically change the bullet
or numbering scheme so that the levels don't get
confused, and the spacing between levels is adjusted to
become fractionally tighter for more deeply nested levels:
\begin{enumerate}\item
by default an outer enumerated list is numbered in
Arabic numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item
an embedded enumerated list is lettered in
lowercase;
\begin{enumerate}\item
a third level is numbered in lowercase Roman
numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item
the fourth level uses uppercase
alphabetic letters.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
But these are only defaults and can easily be changed by
redefining the relevant set of values. You could also add a
fifth and further levels, although I suspect that would mean
your document structure needed some careful analysis, as
lists embedded five deep will probably confuse your
readers.
The values for lists come in pairs:\footnote{In fact, any time you define a counter in \LaTeX{},
you automatically get a command to reproduce its value.
So if you defined a new counter
\counter{example} to use in a teaching book, by
saying \url+\newcounter{example}+, that
automatically makes available the command
\url+\theexample+ for use when you want to
display the current value of
\counter{example}.} for each level there is a counter to count the
items and a command to produce the label:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rcll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Level}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Default}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Counter}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Label command}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
1&digit.&\counter{enumi}&\command{theenumi}\\
2&(letter)&\counter{enumii}&\command{theenumii}\\
3&roman.&\counter{enumiii}&\command{theenumiii}\\
4&LETTER.&\counter{enumiv}&\command{theenumiv}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Note that each counter and command ends with the Roman
numeral value of its level (this is to overcome the rule
that \LaTeX{} commands can only be made of letters). To
change the format of a numbered list item counter, just renew
the meaning of its label:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}}
\renewcommand{\theenumii}{\roman{enumii}}
\renewcommand{\theenumiii}{\arabic{enumiii}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\noindent \label{thecounter}%
This would make the
outermost list use uppercase letters, the second level use
lowercase roman, and the third level use ordinary Arabic
numerals. The fourth level would remain unaffected.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Lists: a caution to the unwary}
Treat lists with care: people sometimes use tables for
labelled information which is really a list and would be
better handled as such. They often do this because their
wordprocessor has no way to do what they want (usually to
place the item label level with the description or
explanation) \emph{except} by using a table,
hence they are misled into believing that their text is
really a table when it's actually not.
\end{warning}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{16}Nesting}
\subsubsection*{Nesting}
Extend your use of lists by nesting one type inside a
different one.
\end{exercise}
\section{Tables}
\label{tables}
\index{tables}
Tabular typesetting is the most complex and time-consuming
of all textual features to get right. This holds true whether
you are typing in plain-text form, using a wordprocessor, using
\LaTeX{}, using HTML or XML, using a DTP system, or some other
text-handling package. Fortunately, \LaTeX{} provides a table
model with a mixture of defaults and configurability to let it
produce very high quality tables with a minimum of
effort.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Terminology}
\LaTeX{}, in common with standard typesetters' practice,
uses the word `Table' to mean a
formal textual feature, numbered and with a caption,
referred to from the text (as in `See
Table�5'). Sometimes you can get
`informal' tables, which simply occur
between two paragraphs, without caption or number.
The arrangement of information in rows and columns
\emph{within} either of these structures is
called a `tabulation' or
`tabular matter'.
It is important to keep this distinction firmly in mind
for this section.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Floats}
\label{floats}
\index{floats}
Tables and Figures are what printers refer to as
`floats'. This means they are not
part of the normal stream of text, but separate entities,
positioned in a part of the page to themselves (top, middle,
bottom, left, right, or wherever the designer specifies).
They always have a caption describing them and they are
always numbered so they can be referred to from elsewhere in
the text.
\LaTeX{} automatically floats Tables and Figures,
depending on how much space is left on the page at the point
that they are processed. If there is not enough room on the
current page, the float is moved to the top of the next
page. This can be changed by moving the Table or Figure
definition to an earlier or later point in the text, or by
adjusting some of the parameters which control automatic
floating.
Authors sometimes have too many floats occurring too
soon after one another, without any thought for how they are
supposed to fit on the page and still leave room for text.
In this case, \LaTeX{} stacks them all up and prints them
together if possible, or leaves them to the end of the
chapter in protest. The skill is to space them out within
your text so that they intrude neither on the thread of your
argument or discussion, nor on the visual balance of the
typeset pages. But this is a skill few authors have, and
it's one point at which professional typographic advice
may be needed.
There is a \env{float} package which lets
you create new classes of floating object (perhaps Examples
or Exercises).
\subsection{Formal tables}
To create a Table, use the \env{table}
environment containing a \command{caption} command
where you type the caption, and the \command{label}
command to give the Table a label by which you can refer to
it.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2003}
\label{ye2003exp}
..
\end{table}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Numbering is automatic, but the \command{label}
command \emph{must follow} the
\command{caption} command, not precede it. The
numbering automatically includes the chapter number in
document classes where this is appropriate (but this can of
course be overridden). The \command{caption}
command has an optional argument to provide a short caption
if the full caption would be too long for the List of
Figures:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\caption[Something short]{Some very long caption that will
only look reasonable in the full figure.}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Tabular matter}
Within a Table, you can either typeset the tabular
matter using \LaTeX{}, or include a table captured as an
image from elsewhere. We will see how to include images in
the next section on Figures, where they are more
common.
To typeset tabular matter, use the
\env{tabular} environment. The
\verb+\begin{tabular}+ command must be followed
by a compulsory second argument in curly braces giving the
alignment of the columns. These are specified for each
column using one of single letters \verb+l+,
\verb+c+, and \verb+r+ for
left-aligned, centered, or right-aligned text, or the letter
\verb+p+ followed by a width argument if you
want a long entry to wrap to several lines (a miniature
paragraph as a single cell).
\TeX{}'s original tabular settings were designed for
classical numerical tabulations, where each cell contains a
single value. The \verb+p+ specification allows
a cell to be a miniature paragraph set to a specific width.
These are \emph{not} multi-row entries, they
are single cells which contain multiple lines of
typesetting: the distinction is very important.
Auto-adjusting cell sizes like you see in a Web browser (the
`Netscape' table model) are possible
with the \package{tabularx} package, but
these are often inelegant in print, however convenient they
may be in a Web browser.
The \package{array} package provides for
many other typographic variations such as left-aligned,
right-aligned, and centred multi-line columns, and other
packages provide decimal-aligned columns, the aforementioned
row-spanning, multi-page, and rotated (landscape format)
tables.
As an example, a tabular setting with three columns, the
first one centered, the second left-aligned, and the third
one right-aligned, would therefore be specified as
\verb+{clr}+, as in the example below. Note the
use of indentation to make the elements of the table clear
for editing, and note also how the typeset formatting is
unaffected by this (see Table~\ref{ye2003exp}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2003}
\label{ye2003exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clr}
&Item&Amount\\
\hline
a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
&Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
&Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
&Software&3,562\\
b)&Rent, light, heat, power, &etc;&1,500\\\cline{3-3}
&Total&64,783
\end{tabular}
\par\medskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and (b).
\end{center}
\end{table}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{table}\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2003}
\label{ye2003exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clr}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape }&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Item}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Amount}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
&Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
&Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
&Software&3,562\\
b)&Rent, light, heat, power, etc.&1,500\\
\cline{3-3}\vrule height1.1em width0pt \textbf{}&\textbf{Total}&\textbf{64,783}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and
(b).\end{center}
\end{table}
You do not need to format the tabular data in your
editor: \LaTeX{} does this for you when it typesets the
table, using the column specifications you provided. Extra
space is automatically added between columns, and can be
adjusted by changing the \length{tabcolsep} dimension.
\person{Takaaki Ota} provides an excellent Tables mode for
\product{Emacs} which provides a
spreadsheet-like interface and can generate \LaTeX{} table
source code (see Figure~\ref{tabmode}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Tables mode for \product{Emacs}}
\label{tabmode}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{table}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
It is conventional to centre the tabular setting within
the Table, using the \env{center}
environment (note US spelling) or the
\command{centering} command. The entries for each cell
are separated by an ampersand character
(\verb+&+) and the end of a row is shown by the
double-backslash (\verb+\\+).
The \command{hline} command draws a rule across
all columns and the \command{cline} command draws a
rule across a range of columns (here, under column three
only). If used, these commands
\emph{follow} the
\verb+\\+ of the row they apply to. There are
some extra formatting commands after the tabular material in
the example. These are explained in
\chaptername~\ref{typo}.
If there is no data for a cell, just don't type
anything\mdash{}but you still need the
\verb+&+ separating it from the next
column's data. The astute reader will already have
deduced that for a table of
\(n\) columns, there must always be
\(n\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1\) ampersands in each row. The exception to
this is when the \command{multicolumn} command is
used to create cells which span multiple columns. There is
also a package (\env{multirow}) to enable
cells to span multiple rows, but both of these techniques
are outside the scope of this document.
\subsection{Tabular techniques for alignment}
As mentioned earlier, it's also perfectly possible
to typeset tabular matter outside a formal Table, where you
want to lay out an informal tabulation between paragraphs
where a fully floating formal Table would be unnecessary
(these are usually quite short: there are several of them in
this document).
Tabular mode can also be used wherever you need to align
material side by side, such as in designing letterheads,
where you may want your company logo and address on one side
and some other information on the other.
By default, \LaTeX{} typesets
\env{tabular} environments inline to the
surrounding text, so if you want your alignment displayed by
itself, put it inside a positioning environment like
\env{center},
\env{flushright}, or
\env{flushleft}, or leave a blank line or
\command{par} before and after so it gets typeset
separately.
There is much more to tabular setting for which there is
no space here. Full details are in the manuals mentioned in
the Foreword. One final note to remind you of the
automated crossreferencing features: because the example
table is labelled, it can be referenced from anywhere in the
document as Table~\ref{ye2003exp} just by using
\verb+\ref{ye2003exp}+, regardless of how much
the surrounding document or structure is moved or edited.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{17}Create a tabulation}
\subsubsection*{Create a tabulation}
Create one of the following in your document:
\begin{itemize}
\item
a formal Table with a caption showing the number
of people in your class broken down by age and
sex;
\item
an informal tabulation showing the price for three
products;
\item
the logo {\setlength{\fboxsep}{-3pt}\setlength{\fboxrule}{.4pt}
\fbox{\begin{tabular}{cc}\tiny YEAR\\[-.8em]\tiny 2
0 0 0\vrule depth1em width0pt\end{tabular}}}
(hint: \S\thinspace\ref{fbox})
\end{itemize}
\end{exercise}
\section{Figures}
\label{figures}
\index{figures}\index{floats}
As explained in \S\thinspace\ref{floats}, Figures and
Tables float to a vacant part of the page, as they are not
part of the sequence of sentences making up your text, but
illustrative objects that you refer to.
Figures can contain text, diagrams, pictures, or any other
kind of illustration. To create a figure, use the
\env{figure} environment: like Tables, they
automatically get numbered, and must include a caption (with a
label after the caption, if needed, exactly the same as for
Tables)
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{figure}
\caption{Total variable overhead variance (after
\citeauthor[p.191]{bull}}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=.5\columnwidth]{diagram}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Total variable overhead variance (after
\citeauthoryear{bull} \textsl{p.191})}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{diagram}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
You can see that the structure is very similar to the
\env{table} environment, but in this case
we have a graphic included. Details of this command
(\command{includegraphics}) are in the next
section. Details of the bibliographic citation mechanism are
in \S\thinspace\ref{bib}
The content of the Figure could of course also be
textual, in the form of a list or a text diagram. \LaTeX{} has
a simple drawing environment called
\env{picture}, which lets you create a limited
set of lines and curves, but for a diagram of any complexity,
you should use a standard vector drawing program like
\product{tkpaint}, \product{Adobe
Illustrator}, or \product{Corel
Draw}, for reasons we shall see in the next
section.
\section{Images}
\label{images}
\index{images}\index{graphics}
Images (graphics) can be included anywhere in a \LaTeX{}
document, although in most cases of formal documents they will
occur in Figures (see preceding section). To use graphics, you
need to use the \package{graphicx} package in
your preamble:
\verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+\footnote{You may find a lot of old files which use a package
called \package{epsf}. Don't.
It's obsolete.}
This enables the command
\command{includegraphics} which is used to insert an
image in the document. The command is followed by the name of
your graphics file \emph{without the filetype},
for example:
\verb+\includegraphics{myhouse}+ (we'll see
soon why you don't include the filetype).
In most cases you should just make sure the image file is
in the same folder (directory) as the document you use it in.
This avoids a lot of messing around remembering where you put
the files. If you have images you want to use in several
different documents in different places on your disk, there is
a way to tell \LaTeX{} where to look (see \S\thinspace\ref{graphicsdir}).
For standard \LaTeX{}, graphics files
\emph{must} be in Encapsulated
PostScript�(EPS)\index{EPS@EPS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!EPS@EPS|textbf} format: this has been the publishing
industry standard for portable graphics for many years, and no
other format will work portably in standard \LaTeX{}.\footnote{Some distributions of \TeX{} systems do allow other
formats, such as Microsoft
Bitmap�(BMP)\index{BMP@BMP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!BMP@BMP|textbf} files, Hewlett-Packard's Printer Control Language�(PCL)\index{PCL@PCL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PCL@PCL|textbf} files, and
others; but you cannot send such documents to other
\LaTeX{} users and expect them to work if they don't
have the same distribution installed as you have.}
All good graphics packages can save images as EPS\index{EPS@EPS}, but be very careful because some
packages, especially on Microsoft Windows platforms, use very
poor quality drivers which create very poor quality EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files. If in doubt, check with an
expert. If you find an EPS\index{EPS@EPS} graphic
doesn't print, the chances are it's been badly made
by the graphics software.
For \product{pdflatex}, graphics files
can be in Joint Photographic
Experts�(JPG)\index{JPG@JPG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!JPG@JPG|textbf}, Portable Network
Graphic�(PNG)\index{PNG@PNG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PNG@PNG|textbf}, or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} format,
\emph{not}�EPS\index{EPS@EPS}.
This means if you want to use both standard \LaTeX{} as well as
\product{pdflatex}, you need to keep your
graphics in two formats, EPS\index{EPS@EPS} and one
of the others. This is why you don't include the filetype
in the filename you give with
\command{includegraphics}: \LaTeX{} will assume
EPS\index{EPS@EPS} and
\product{pdflatex} will look for JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG} or
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files matching the name.
It is in fact possible to tell \LaTeX{} to generate the
right format by itself, but this requires an external
command-line graphics converter, and as it gets done afresh
each time, it slows things down rather a lot.
The \command{includegraphics} command can take
optional arguments within square brackets before the filename,
e.g.
\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+ to let
you re-size the image to fit. You can change height or width
and the other dimension will change to scale. If you specify
both, the image will be distorted to fit.
For details of all the arguments, see the documentation on
the \package{graphicx} package or a copy of the
\titlecite{companion}. This package also
includes commands to {\raisebox{1ex}{\rotatebox{180}{rotate}}},
{\scalebox{-1}[1]{mirror}}, and
{\scalebox{2}[1]{scale}}
text.
\index{rotate}\index{mirror}\index{scale}
As mentioned before, always use a vector graphics package
for creating drawings and diagrams, as these packages can save
directly in EPS\index{EPS@EPS} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} format, which means the drawing can be
scaled to any size without loss of accuracy. Never, ever
(except in the direst necessity) save any
\emph{diagram} as a bitmap (JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG}, etc.) as
these become blurred and jagged when scaled. Use PNG\index{PNG@PNG} to save screenshots, to preserve the
individual coloured dots (pixels), and use JPG\index{JPG@JPG} for photographs. The Tagged Image File Format�(TIFF)\index{TIFF@TIFF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TIFF@TIFF|textbf}, popular with
graphic designers, should be avoided because far too many
companies have designed and implemented non-standard,
conflicting, proprietary extensions to the format, making it
virtually useless for transfer between computers (except in
faxes, where it's still used in a much stricter
version).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{18}Adding pictures}
\subsubsection*{Adding pictures}
Add \verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+ to the
preamble of your document, and copy or download an image you
want to include. Make sure it is a JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG}, or
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} image if you use
\product{pdflatex}, or an EPS\index{EPS@EPS} image if you use standard
\LaTeX{}.
Add \command{includegraphics} and the filename
in curly braces (without the filetype), and process the
document and preview or print it.
Make it into a figure following the example in \S\thinspace\ref{figures}.
Be aware that some DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewers
are not able to display all types of graphics, and some
cannot display colour. For best results, use PDF\index{PDF@PDF} or PostScript\index{PostScript}
preview.
\end{exercise}
\label{graphicsdir}%
I said earlier that there was a way to
tell \LaTeX{} where to look if you had stored images centrally
for use in many different documents. The answer is in a
command \command{graphicspath} which you supply with
an argument giving the name of an additional directory path
you want searched when a file uses the
\command{includegraphics} command, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\graphicspath{c:\mypict~1\camera}
\graphicspath{/var/lib/images}
\graphicspath{HardDisk:Documents:Reports:Pictures}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
I've used the `safe' (MS-DOS)
form of the Windows \url+My Pictures+ folder
because it's A Bad Idea to use directory names containing
spaces (see the panel `Picking suitable filenames' on p.\pageref{filenames}). Using
\command{graphicspath} does make your file less
portable, though, because file paths tend to be specific both
to an operating system and to your computer, like the examples
above.
\section{Verbatim text}
\label{verbatim}
\index{verbatim text}
If you are documenting computer procedures, you probably
need fixed-width type for examples of programming or data
input or output. Even if you are writing about completely
non-computer topics, you may often want to quote a URI\index{URI@URI} or
email address which needs to be typeset specially. It is
particularly important in these two examples to avoid
hyphenating them if they have to break over a line-end,
because the hyphen might be taken by the user as a part of the
address.
Standard \LaTeX{} includes two features for handling
fixed-format text, and there are many more available in
packages.
\subsection{Inline verbatim}
\label{inlineverb}
To specify a word or phrase as verbatim text in
typewriter type within a sentence, use the special command
\command{verb}, followed by your piece of text
surrounded by any suitable character which does
\emph{not} occur in the text itself. This is a
very rare exception to the rule that arguments go in curly
braces. I often use the plus sign for this, for example to
show a \LaTeX{} command, I type
\verb`\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+`
in order to display
\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+, but
sometimes I use the
\textbf{\textit{grave accent}}\index{grave accent@\textbf{\textit{grave accent}}} (\textbf{\textit{backtick}}\index{backtick@\textbf{\textit{backtick}}} or open-quote) or the
vertical bar when the phrase already has a plus sign in it,
like \verb`\verb|\(y=a+2x^2\)|` when
illustrating the \LaTeX{} equation
\verb|\(y=a+x^2\)|.
This command has the advantage that it turns off all
special characters (see \S\thinspace\ref{specials}) except
the one you use as the delimiter, so you can easily quote
sequences of characters in any computer syntax without
problems. However, \LaTeX{} will never break the argument of
\command{verb} at a line-end when formatting a
paragraph, even if it contains spaces, so if it happens to
be long, and falls towards the end of a line, it will stick
out into the margin. See \S\thinspace\ref{hyph} for
more information on line-ends and hyphenation.
The \package{url} package avoids this
by providing the command \command{url} which
works in the same way as \command{verb}, with the
argument enclosed in a pair of characters, but performs a
hyphenless break at punctuation characters, as in
\url+
http://www.ucc.ie/doc/ucc/siteowner.xml+.
It was designed for Web URI\index{URI@URI}s,\footnote{The original term Uniform Resource
Locator�(URL)\index{URL@URL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URL@URL|textbf} is strongly deprecated in the Web
community in favour of the more accurate Uniform Resource Indicator�(URI)\index{URI@URI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URI@URI|textbf}. For
details see \url+
http://www.w3.org/Addressing/+.
Unfortunately the older term still persists, especially
in \LaTeX{} and XML\index{XML@XML}
markup.} so it understands their syntax
and will never break mid-way through an unpunctuated word,
only at slashes and full points. Bear in mind, however, that
spaces are forbidden in URI\index{URI@URI}s, so using spaces in
\command{url} arguments will fail, as will using
other non-URI\index{URI@URI}-valid characters.
\subsection{Display verbatim}
For longer (multiline) chunks of fixed-format text, use
the \env{verbatim} environment:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\begin{document}
\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle
\end{document}
\end{verbatim}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Like \command{verb}, this turns off all special
characters, so you can include anything at all in the
verbatim text except the exact line
\verb+\end{verbatim}+.
For more control over formatting, however, I recommend
the use of the \package{fancyvrb} package,
which provides a \env{Verbatim} environment
(note the capital letter) which lets you draw a rule round
the verbatim text, change the font size, and even have
typographic effects inside the \env{Verbatim}
environment. It can also be used in conjunction with the
\package{fancybox} package (see below), and
it can add reference line numbers (useful for chunks of data
or programming), and it can include entire external
files.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{19}Try some fixed-format text}
\subsubsection*{Try some fixed-format text}
Add your email address and home page URI\index{URI@URI} using the
\command{verb} and \command{url}
commands. You'll need to
\verb+\usepackage{url}+ for the latter.
If you know some programming, try a few lines enclosed
in \env{verbatim} and
\env{Verbatim} environments.
\end{exercise}
\clearpage
\section{Boxes, sidebars, and panels}
\label{boxes}
\index{boxes}\index{sidebars}\index{panels}
\LaTeX{}, like most typesetting systems, works by setting
text into boxes. The default box is the width of the current
page, and works like an old compositor's galley (tray)
from the days of metal type: it accumulates typeset text until
it's a bit longer than the specified page height. At this
stage \LaTeX{} works out how much of it really will fit on a
page, snips it off and ships it out to the DVI\index{DVI@DVI} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file,
and puts the rest back into the galley to accumulate towards
the following page.
\subsection{Boxes of text}
\label{boxtext}
Because of this `box' model,
\LaTeX{} can typeset any text into a box of any width
wherever on the page you need it.
The simplest command for small amounts of text is
\command{parbox}. This command needs two arguments
in curly braces: the first is the width you want the text
set to, and the second is the text itself, for
example:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\parbox{1in}{Please make sure you send in your completed
forms by January 1st next year, or the penalty
clause 2(a) will apply}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}Please make sure you send in your completed
forms by January 1st next year, or the penalty
clause 2(a) will apply\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}
The text is typeset to the required width, and the box
is extended downwards for as long as is required to fit the
text. Note that the baseline of a \command{parbox}
is set to the midpoint of the box; that is, if you include a
\command{parbox} in mid-sentence, the centre of the
box will be lined up with the line of type currently being
set.\parbox{1cm}{
{\scriptsize{}\selectfont{}Like
this small paragraph.\par}
} You can specify that it should be the top or
bottom by adding an optional
\opt{t} or
\opt{b} in square
brackets before the width. For example,
\verb+\parbox[t]{1in}{...}+ will produce
\parbox[t]{1in}{
a box with the baseline aligned with the top line
of the text in the box.
}
Notice that when setting very narrow measures with type
that is too large, the spacing may become uneven and there
may be too much hyphenation. Either use
\command{raggedright} or reduce the type size, or
(in extreme cases) reword the text or break each line by
hand. It is rare for \LaTeX{} to need this: the example above
was deliberately chosen to be obtuse as an
illustration.
Where the contents is more extensive or more
complicated, you can use the \env{minipage}
environment. Within this you can use virtually everything
that occurs in normal text (e.g.�lists, paragraphs,
tabulations, etc.)�with the exception of floats like tables
and figures. The \env{minipage} environment
has an argument just like \command{parbox} does,
and it means the same: the width you want the text set
to.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{minipage}{3in}
Please make sure you send in your completed forms by January
1st next year, or the penalty clause 2(a) will apply.
\begin{itemize}
\item Incomplete forms will be returned to you unprocessed.
\item Forms must be accompanied by the correct fee.
\item There is no appeal. The adjudicators' decision is final.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{3in}}Please make sure you send in your
completed forms by January 1st next year, or the
penalty clause 2(a) will
apply.\begin{itemize}
\item
Incomplete forms will be returned to you
unprocessed.
\item
Forms must be accompanied by the correct
fee.
\item
There is no appeal. The adjudicators'
decision is final.
\end{itemize}
\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}
Note that in \env{minipage}s and
\command{parbox}es, the paragraph indentation is
reset to zero. If you need to change it, set it inside the
\env{minipage} or \command{parbox}
using the \command{setlength} command (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs}).
There are two other ways of typesetting text to widths
other than the normal text width: you can use a one-row,
one-cell tabulation with the \verb+p+
column type specification, and you can use the
\command{vbox} command, which is outside the scope
of this document.
\subsection{Framed boxes}
\label{fbox}
To put a frame round {\fbox{some text}}, use the
\command{fbox} command:
\verb+\fbox{some text}+. This works for a few
words in mid-line, but the framed box and its contents
won't break over the end of a line. To typeset
multiline text in a box, put it in a
\command{parbox}, or use a
\env{minipage} or
\env{tabular} environment as described above,
and enclose the whole thing in a
\command{fbox}.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}
Multiline text in a box typeset using \textsf{tabular}
\end{tabular}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{6pt}
\begin{tabular}{|p{1in}|}\hline\vrule height6pt width0pt
Multiline text in a box typeset using
\package{tabular}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}
Note the \verb+\begin{tabular}+ and
\verb+\begin{minipage}+ still need the width
specified in the normal way:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{minipage}{3in}
This multiline text is more flexible than a tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item it can contain any type of normal \LaTeX{}
typesetting;
\item it can be any specified width;
\item it can even have its own footnotes\footnote{Like this}.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{center}\setlength{\fboxrule}{1pt}
\begin{minipage}{3in}
This multiline text is more flexible than a
tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item
it can contain any type of normal \LaTeX{}
typesetting;
\item
it can be any specified width;
\item
it can even have its own footnotes.\footnote{Like this.}
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
\end{example}
The spacing between text and box is controlled by the
value of \length{fboxsep}, and
the thickness of the line by \length{fboxrule}. The following values
were used above:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1em}
\setlength{\fboxrule}{2pt}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Sidebars and panels}
\label{fancybox}
The \package{fancybox} package lets you
extend the principle of \command{fbox} with
commands to surround text in square, oval (round-cornered),
and drop-shadow boxes (e.g. \command{ovalbox},
\command{shadowbox}, etc.: see the documentation for
details).
You can create panels of any size with these borders by
using the \env{minipage} environment to
typeset the text inside a special \env{Sbox}
environment which \package{fancybox} defines.
The \env{minipage} formats the text but the
\env{Sbox}�`captures'
it, allowing you to put the frame round it as it
prints.
The printed version of this document has examples and
there is a useful one shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macenv}.
\chapter{Textual tools}
\label{texttools}
\index{tools}
Every text-handling system needs to support a repertoire of
tools for doing things with text. \LaTeX{} implements many
dozens, of which a small selection of the most frequently used
is given here:
\begin{itemize}
\item
quotations (sometimes called `block
quotes');
\item
footnotes and end-notes;
\item
marginal notes;
\item
cross-references, both normal ones and bibliographic
citations;
\item
indexes and glossaries;
\item
typesetting multiple columns.
\end{itemize}
\section{Quotations}
\label{quotations}
Direct speech and short quotes within a sentence
`like this' are done with simple
quotation marks as described in \S\thinspace\ref{quotes}. Sometimes, however, you may want longer
quotations set as a separate paragraph. Typically these are indented
from the surrounding text, and often in a different font or size.
\LaTeX{} has two environments for doing this:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quote}} environment]
is for up to a line of text each per (short)
quotation, with the whole thing indented from the
previous paragraph but with no additional indentation on
each quote;
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{quote}
Do, Ronny, Do. \textit{Nancy Reagan}
Da Do Ron Ron. \textit{The Crystals}
\end{quote}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
Do, Ronny, Do. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Nancy
Reagan}\end{quote}\begin{quote}\noindent
Da Do Ron Ron. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}The
Crystals}\end{quote}\end{example}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quotation}} environment]
is for longer passages (a paragraph or more) of a
single quotation, where not only is the block of text
indented, but each paragraph of it also has its own
extra indentation on the first line.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{quotation}\small
At the turn of the century William Davy, a Devonshire
parson, finding errors in the first edition of his
\citetitle{davy}, asked for a new edition to be
printed. His publisher refused and Davy purchased a
press, type, and paper. He harnessed his gardener to
the press and apprenticed his housemaid to the
typesetting. After twelve years' work, a new
edition of fourteen sets of twenty-six volumes was
issued---which surely indicates that, when typomania
is coupled with religious fervour, anything up to a
miracle may be achieved.\citequote[p.76]{ryder}
\end{quotation}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{quotation}\small\noindent
At the turn of the century William Davy, a
Devonshire parson, finding errors in the first edition
of his \titlecite{davy}, asked
for a new edition to be printed. His publisher refused
and Davy purchased a press, type, and paper. He
harnessed his gardener to the press and apprenticed
his housemaid to the typesetting. After twelve years'
work, a new edition of fourteen sets of twenty-six
volumes was issued---which surely indicates that, when
typomania is coupled with religious fervour, anything
up to a miracle may be achieved.
\setlength{\parfillskip}{0pt}\hfill[\citeauthortitleyear{ryder}], p.76\end{quotation}
\end{example}
\end{description}
Such quotations are often set in a smaller size of type
(although this is not the default, hence the use of the
\command{small} command in the example). The
inclusion of the bibliographic citation at the end is
optional: here it is done with a non-standard command
\command{citequote} invented for this example (there
is more about how to do things like this in \chaptername~\ref{macros}).
\section{Footnotes and end-notes}
\label{footnotes}
\index{footnotes}
The command \command{footnote}, followed by the
text of the footnote in curly braces, will produce an
auto-numbered footnote with a superior number where you put
the command, and the note automatically printed at the foot of
the page.\footnote{Like this.} The number is reset to�1 at the start of each
chapter (but you can override that and make them run
continuously throughout the document, or restart at 1 on each
page or section).
\LaTeX{} automatically creates room for the footnote, and
automatically reformats it if you change your document in such
a way that the point of attachment and the footnote would move
to the next (or preceding) page.
Because of the way \LaTeX{} reads the whole footnote before
doing anything with it, you can't use
\command{verb} (\S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) alone
in footnotes: either precede it with
\command{protect} or use [abuse?] the
\command{url} command instead, which you should be
using for Web and email addresses in any case).
Footnotes inside minipages (see \S\thinspace\ref{boxes}) produce lettered notes instead of
numbered ones, and they get printed at the bottom of the
minipage, \emph{not} the bottom of the physical
page (but this too can be changed).
There is a package to hold over your footnotes and make
them print at the end of the chapter instead
(\package{endnote}) or at the end of the whole
document, and there is a package
(\package{fnpara}) to print many short
footnotes in several columns so they take up less space. It is
also possible to have several separate series of footnotes
active simultaneously, which is useful in critical editions or
commentaries: a numbered series may be used to refer to an
original author's notes; a lettered series can be used
for notes by a commentator or authority; and a third series is
available for your own notes. It is also possible to format
footnotes within footnotes.
There are also ways to refer more than once to the same
footnote, and to defer the positioning of the footnote if it
occurs in a float like a Table or Figure, where it might
otherwise need to move to a different page.
\section{Marginal notes}
\label{marginals}
\index{marginal notes}
You can add marginal notes to your text\marginal{Like this.} instead of
(or as well as) footnotes. You need to make sure that you have
a wide-enough margin, of course: use the
\package{geometry} package (see \S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) to allocate enough space, otherwise
the notes will be too cramped. There are several packages to
help with formatting marginal notes, but the simplest way is
to define it yourself. Add this new command to your
preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\marginal}[1]{%
\leavevmode\marginpar{\tiny\raggedright#1\par}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Then you can use
\verb+\marginal{Some text}+\marginal{Some text} where you need
it. Be careful, however, because marginal notes are aligned
with the line where the command starts, so a very long one
followed too closely by another will cause \LaTeX{} to try and
adjust the position so they don't overlap.
We're jumping ahead a bit here, as we haven't
covered how to define your own commands yet. I won't even
try to explain it here, although the careful reader can
probably deduce some of it by inspection. See \chaptername~\ref{macros} for more information about making up your
own commands.
\section{Cross-references}
\label{xrefs}
\index{cross-references}
This is one of the most powerful features of \LaTeX{}. You
can label any point in a document with a name you make up, and
then refer to it by that name from anywhere else in the
document, and \LaTeX{} will always work out the cross-reference
number for you, no matter how much you edit the text or move
it around.
A similar method is used to cite documents in a
bibliography or list of references, and there are packages to
sort and format these in the correct manner for different
journals.
\subsection{Normal cross-references}
\label{normalxref}
You label a place in your document by using the command
\command{label} followed by a short name you make
up, in curly braces:\footnote{This section is labelled
`\url+normalxref+',
for example.} we've already seen this done for labelling
Figures and Tables.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New Research}
\label{newstuff}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
You can then refer to this point from anywhere in the
same document with the command \command{ref}
followed by the name you used, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
In section~\ref{newstuff} there is a list of recent projects.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If the label is in normal text, the reference will
provide the current chapter or section number or both (depending
on the current document class).\footnote{Thus I can
refer here to
\url+\ref{normalxref}+ and get the
value�\S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}.} If
the label was inside a Table or Figure, the reference
provides the Table number or Figure number prefixed by the
chapter number. A label in an enumerated list will provide a
reference to the item number. If there is no apparent
structure to this part of the document, the reference will
be null. Labels must be unique (that is, each value must
occur only \emph{once} as a label within a
single document), but you can have as many references to
them as you like.
Note the use of the unbreakable space
(\verb+~+) between the \command{ref}
and
the word before it. This prints a space but prevents the
line ever breaking at that point, should it fall close to
the end of a line.
The command \command{pageref} followed by any
of your label values will provide the page number where the
label occurred, regardless of the document structure. This
makes it possible to refer to something by
page number as well as its
\command{ref} number, which is useful to
readers in very long documents.
Unresolved references are printed as three question
marks, and also cause a warning message at the end of the
log file. There's never any harm in having
\command{label}s you don't refer to, but using
\command{ref} when you don't have a matching
\command{label} is an error.
\subsection{Bibliographic references}
\label{bib}
\index{bibliographies}\index{references}
The mechanism used for references to reading lists and
bibliographies is almost identical to that used for normal
cross-references. Although it is possible to type the
details of each citation manually, there is a companion
program to \LaTeX{} called BIB\TeX{}, which manages
bibliographic references automatically, reduces the time
needed to maintain and format them, and dramatically
improves accuracy. Using BIB\TeX{} means you only ever have
to type the bibliographic details of a work once. You can
then cite it in any document you write, and it will get
reformatted automatically to the style you specify.
\subsubsection{Citing references}
\label{citation}
BIB\TeX{} works exactly the same way as many other
bibliographic databases: you keep details of every
document you want to refer to in a separate file, using
BIB\TeX{}'s own format (see example below). Many
writers make a habit of adding the details of every book
and article they read, so that when they write a document,
these entries are always available for reference. You give
each entry a short label, just like you do with normal
cross-references (see \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}), and it is
this label you use to refer to in your own documents when
you cite the work using the \command{cite}
command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..as has clearly been shown by Fothergill~\cite{fg}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
By default, this creates a cross-reference number in
square brackets�[1] which is a common style in the
Natural Sciences (see \S\thinspace\ref{othercite} for
details of how to change this). There are dozens of
alternative citation formats in extra packages, including
the popular author/year format:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..as has clearly been shown by~\citeauthoryear{fg}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
\dots as has clearly been shown by�\citeauthoryear{fg}.\end{quote}\end{example}
Note that in this case the author name is not typed,
but automatically extracted by BIB\TeX{}. There are lots of
variants on this technique in many packages, allowing you to
phrase your sentences with references in as natural a way as
possible, and rely on BIB\TeX{} to insert the right data (if
you examine the source of this document you'll find I
use some homebrew commands \command{authorof} and
\command{titleof} for a similar purpose).
To print the bibliographic listing (usually called
`References' in articles and
`Bibliography' in books and
reports), add these two lines towards the end of your
document, or wherever you want it printed, substituting
the name of your own BIB\TeX{} file and the name of your
chosen bibliography style:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}
\bibliography{mybib}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{itemize}
\item
The \command{bibliography} command is
followed by the filename of your BIB\TeX{} file
\emph{without} the
\url+.bib+ extension.
\item
The \command{bibliographystyle} command
is followed by the name of any of \LaTeX{}'s
supported bibliography styles, of which there are many
dozens available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.\footnote{The style shown
in the example here provides formatting according
to the specifications for Transactions of the IEEE
(revised).}
\end{itemize}
The styles \opt{plain} and
\opt{alpha}
are two common generic styles used for drafts: see below
for others.
\subsubsection{Running \product{bibtex}}
\label{bibtex}
When you run the \product{bibtex}
program, the details of every document you have cited will
be extracted from your database, formatted according to
the style you specify, and stored in a temporary
bibliographic (\url+.bbl+) file with a
label corresponding to the one you used in your citation,
ready for \LaTeX{} to use. This is entirely automatic: all
you do is cite your references in your \LaTeX{} document
using the labels you gave the entries in your BIB\TeX{}
file, and run the \product{bibtex}
program.
After processing your file with \LaTeX{}, run BIB\TeX{}
on it by clicking on the \guiicon{BIB\TeX{}}
toolbar icon (\product{WinEdt}) or the
\menuitem{TeX}{BIBTeX
File} menu entry
(\product{Emacs}) or by typing the
command \verb+bibtex+ followed by the name of
your document (without the \url+.tex+
extension). When you run \LaTeX{} again it uses the
\url+.bbl+ file to add the references
where you tell it to, and a subsequent run of \LaTeX{} will
format the correct citation numbers (or author/year, or
whatever format you are using).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
$ latex mybook
$ bibtex mybook
$ latex mybook
$ latex mybook
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Because of this three-stage process, you always get a
warning message about an `unresolved
reference' the first time you add a new
reference to a previously uncited work. This will
disappear after subsequent runs of
\product{bibtex} and \LaTeX{}.
In practice, authors tend to run \LaTeX{} from time to
time during writing anyway, so they can preview the
document. Just run BIB\TeX{} after adding a new
\command{cite} command, and subsequent runs of
\LaTeX{} will incrementally incorporate all references
without you having to worry about it. You only need to
follow the full formal sequence (\LaTeX{}, BIB\TeX{},
\LaTeX{}, \LaTeX{}) when you have finished writing and want
to ensure that all references have been resolved.
\subsubsection{BIB\TeX{} format}
\label{bibspec}
The format for the BIB\TeX{} file is specified in the
BIB\TeX{} documentation (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc}
for how to find and print it). You create a file with a
name ending in \url+.bib+, and add your
entries, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
@book{fg,
title = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
author = {John Fothergill},
edition = {3rd},
publisher = {Penguin},
year = 1929,
address = {London}
}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
There is a prescribed set of fields for each of a
dozen or so types of document: book, article (in a
journal), article (in a collection), chapter (in a book),
thesis, report, paper (in a Proceedings), etc. Each entry
identifies the document type after the
`\verb+@+' sign,
followed by the entry label that you make up, and then
each field (in any order), using the format:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
keyword = {value},
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Most \TeX{}-sensitive editors have a BIB\TeX{} mode
which understands these
entries. \product{Emacs} automatically
uses its \url+bibtex-mode+ whenever you open
a filename ending in \url+.bib+. When
editing BIB\TeX{} databases, the rules are simple:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Omit the comma after the last field in the entry
(only).
\item
Titles may have their case changed in some styles:
to prevent this, enclose the title in double curly
braces as in the example.
\item
Values which are purely numeric (e.g.�years) may
omit the curly braces.
\item
Fields can occur in any order but the format must
otherwise be \emph{very strictly}
observed.
\item
Fields which are not used do not have to be
included (so if your editor automatically inserts them
blank, you can safely delete the unused lines).
\end{itemize}
To help with this, there are several interfaces to
creating and maintaining BIB\TeX{} files, such as the
\product{tkbibtex} program, which runs on
most platforms (see Figure~\ref{tkbibtex}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{tkBIB\TeX{}, one of several graphical interfaces to
BIB\TeX{} databases}
\label{tkbibtex}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{tkbibtex}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsubsection{Changing the layout}
\label{bibstyle}
To change the title printed over the reference listing, just
change the value of \command{refname} (articles)
or \command{bibname} (books and reports) by
adding a line like this in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\bibname}{Reading List}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
The formatting specifications (BIB\TeX{} styles) are
based on standard settings for journals and books from
dozens of publishers: you just pick the one you want by
name. The \url+texmf/bib/bst+ subdirectory
of your installation contains the ones installed by
default, and you search on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
for others (look for \url+.bst+ files).
Most of the others are named after university press styles
(e.g. \product{harvard},
\product{oxford}) or the publisher or
journal which specified them (e.g.
\product{elsevier},
\product{kluwer}, etc.).
Some of them have an accompanying package file which
you need to include with the normal
\command{usepackage} command in your preamble. In
this case the format may be distributed as
\url+.dtx+ and \url+.ins+
files and will need installing in the same way as any
other package (see \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}). Always read
the documentation, because most of the formats are very
specific to the journal they were designed for, and have
fairly absolute requirements.
\begin{warning}
If you are writing for a specific publisher, you
should remember that the rules or formats are laid down
by the typographic designer of that journal or
publisher: you cannot arbitrarily change the format just
because you don't happen to like it: it's not
your choice!
\end{warning}
It is also possible to write your own BIB\TeX{}
(\url+.bst+) style files, although it uses
a language of its own which really needs a computer
science background to understand. However, this is
rendered unnecessary in most cases: there is an extensive
program (actually written in \LaTeX{}) called
\product{makebst}, which makes
\url+.bst+ files by asking you a (long)
series of questions about exactly how you want your
citations formatted. Just type
\verb+latex makebst+ in a command window, but
give it a dummy run first, because some of the questions
are very detailed, so you need to have thought through how
you want your citations to appear before you start.
\subsubsection{Other modes of citation}
\label{othercite}
The method of citing a work by numeric reference is
common in the Natural Sciences but is not used in the
Humanities and Law. In these fields, citations are usually
done with short references (author/short-title/year) in a
numbered footnote. Sometimes they are actually called
`footnotes' to the exclusion of
ordinary footnotes, although they are really citations
which happen by convention to be
\emph{displayed} as footnotes: an important
distinction rarely appreciated by authors until they come
to need a normal footnote.
The bibliography at the back of the document is then
printed \emph{unnumbered} in alphabetic
order of author, or perhaps chronologically if the
time-frame is very large. This unnumbered format is why it
is conventionally called
`References' rather than
`Bibliography': sufficient working
citation has already been provided in the footnote, and
the list at the back is for reference purposes only;
whereas in the Natural Sciences, the citation is just a
number, or possibly an author and year only, so the full
listing is called a Bibliography.
The \package{jurabib} package
(originally intended for German law articles but now
extended to other fields in the Humanities, and to other
languages) has extensive features for doing this style of
citation and is very strongly recommended.
\section{Indexes and glossaries}
\label{indexes}
\index{indexes}\index{glossaries}
\LaTeX{} has a powerful, automated indexing facility which
uses the standard \product{makeindex}
program. To use indexing, use the package
\package{makeidx} and include the
\command{makeindex} command in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{makeidx}
\makeindex
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
When you want to index something, using the command
\command{index} followed by the entry in curly
braces, as you want it to appear in the index, using one of
the following formats:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Plain entry]
Typing \verb+\index{beer}+ will create
an entry for `beer' with the
current page
number.\index{beer}
\item[\sffamily Subindex entry]
For an entry with a subentry use an exclamation mark
to separate them:
\verb+\index{beer!lite}+.\index{beer!lite} Subsubentries like
\verb+\index{beer!lite!American}+ work to
another level deep.\index{beer!lite!American}
\item[\sffamily Cross-references]
`See' entries are done with
the vertical bar (one of the rare times it does
\emph{not} get interpreted as a math
character):
\verb+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}
\item[\sffamily Font changes]\label{indextypo}
To change the style of an entry, use the
@-sign followed by a font change command:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\noindent This example\index{Chocolate Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}} indexes
`\product{Chocolate
Stout}' and italicises it
at the same time. Any of the standard
\verb+\text...+ font-change commands work
here: see the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontcmds} for details. You
can also change the font of the index number on its own,
as for first-usage references, by using the vertical bar
in a similar way to the `see'
entries above, but substituting a font-change command
(\emph{without} a backslash) such as
\verb+textbf+ for bold-face text:
\verb+\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate Stout|textbf}+\index{Chocolate Stout|textbf} (see the index).
\item[\sffamily Out of sequence]
The same method can be used as for font changes,
just without the font command:
\verb+\index{Oregon Brewing Company@Rogue}+\index{Oregon Brewing Company@Rogue} will add an entry for
`Rogue' in the
`O' section of the index, as if
it was spelled `Oregon Brewing
Company'.
\end{description}
When the document has been processed through \LaTeX{} it
will have created a \url+.idx+ file, which you
run through the \product{makeindex} program
by typing (for example):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
makeindex�mythesis
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Some editors may have a button or menu entry for this.
The program will look for the \url+.idx+ file
and output a \url+.ind+ file. This gets used by
the command \command{printindex} which you put at the
end of your document, where you want the index printed. The
default index format is two columns.
Glossaries are done in a similar manner using the command
\command{makeglossary} in the preamble and the
command \command{glossary} in the same way as
\command{index}. There are some subtle differences in
the way glossaries are handled: both the books by \citeauthoryear{latexbook} and by \citeauthoryear{companion} duck the issue, but
there is some documentation on \url+glotex+ on
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.
\section{Multiple columns}
\label{multicols}
\index{columns}
Use the \package{multicol} package: the
environment is called \env{multicols} (note the
plural form) and it takes the number of columns as a separate
argument in curly braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{multicol}
..
\begin{multicols}{3}
..
\end{multicols}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{multicols}{3}
{\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}
\LaTeX{} has built-in support for two-column typesetting
via the \verb+twocolumn+ option in the standard
Document Class Declarations, but it is relatively inflexible
in that you cannot change from full-width to double-column
and back again on the same page, and the final page does not
balance the column heights. However, it does feature special
\env{figure*} and \env{table*}
environments which typeset full-width figures and tables
across a double-column setting.
The more extensive solution
is the \package{multicol} package, which will
set up to 10 columns, and allows the number of columns to be
changed or reset to one in mid-page, so that full-width
graphics can still be used. It also balances the height of
the final page so that all columns are the same height, and
you can control the width of the gutter by redefining the
\command{columnsep} command to a new dimension.
The package provides the
\env{multicols} environment (note the extra
`s') and you follow the
begin-environment command with the number of columns needed
as a second argument: \verb+\begin{multicols}{5}+.
\end{multicols}
\chapter{Fonts and layouts}
\label{typo}
\index{typographics}
This is the chapter that most users want first, because they
come to structured documents from a wordprocessing environment
where almost the \emph{only} way to convey a
change of information is to fiddle with the font and size
drop-down menus.
As I hope you have seen, this is normally completely
unnecessary in \LaTeX{}, which does most of the hard work for you
automatically. However, there are occasions when you need to
make manual typographic changes, and this chapter is about how
to do them.
\section{Changing layout}
\label{layouts}
The design of the page can be a very subjective matter,
and also rather a subtle one. Many organisations large and
small pay considerable sums to designers to come up with page
layouts to suit their purposes. Styles in page layouts change
with the years, as do fashions in everything else, so what may
have looked attractive in 1989 may look rather dated in
2003.
As with most aspects of typography, making the document
readable involves making it consistent, so the reader is not
interrupted or distracted too much by apparently random
changes in margins, widths, or placement of objects. However,
there are a number of different occasions where the layout
usually \emph{does} change, related to the
frequency with which the format appears.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The title page (and the half-title, copyright page,
dedication, and other one-page preliminaries if you use
them) is usually designed individually, as the information
on it only occurs once in that format anywhere in the
document.
\item
The table of contents and other related lists like
figures and tables probably all need to share one
design.
\item
The prelims like Foreword, Introduction, and Preface
should likewise follow the same format between
them.
\item
Chapter and Appendix start pages usually share a
layout.
\item
Other (normal) pages have a single layout, but it may
specify individual variations to handle tables, lists,
figures, sidebars, exercises, footnotes, etc.
\end{itemize}
If you are going to design a whole document, it's
probably a good idea to read a couple of books on layout
design first, to get a feel for the conventions which
contribute to making the reader comfortable reading.
While unusual or radical layouts have an important role in
attention-grabbing or making a socio-political statement
(\titlecite{wired} magazine is an obvious
recent example), they are usually out of place in business
reports, white papers, books, theses, and journals. In
ephemera, on the other hand, as in advertising, they are
probably critical.
\subsection{Spacing}
\label{spacing}
\index{page size!margins}\index{margins}
We mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{marginals} and
elsewhere the existence of the
\package{geometry} package which lets you
change margins. It also lets you set the text-area height
and width and a lot of other layout settings: read the
documentation for details (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for how to read package
documentation).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[left=2cm,top=1cm,bottom=2cm,right=3cm,
nohead,nofoot]{geometry}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
The spacing around the individual textual components
(headings, paragraphs, lists, footnotes, etc.)�can also be
changed on a document-wide basis, as we saw with paragraph
spacing and indentation in \S\thinspace\ref{paraspace}.
Changing the spacing of section headings for the whole
document can be done with the
\package{sectsty} package, designed to let
you adjust section-head spacing without having to know about
the internal \LaTeX{} coding. The spacing for lists can be
adjusted with the \package{mdwlist} package.
In both cases the user with highly specific requirements
such as a publisher's Compositor's Specification
should read the relevant sections in the \titlecite{companion} or ask for expert help, as
there are many internal settings which can also be changed to
fine-tune your design, but which need some knowledge of
\LaTeX{}'s internals.
All the above are for automating changes so that they
occur every time in a consistent manner. You can also make
manual changes whenever you need:
\index{space|see{white-space}}\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Flexible vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!flexible}
There are three preset commands
\command{smallskip},
\command{medskip}, and
\command{bigskip}. These output flexible
(dynamic, or `rubber') space,
approximately 3pt, 6pt, and 12pt high respectively,
but they will automatically compress or expand a
little, depending on the demands of the rest of the
page (for example to allow one extra line to fit, or a
heading to be moved to the next page without anyone
except a typographer noticing the change). These
commands can only be used after a paragraph break (a
blank line or the command
\command{par}).
\item[\sffamily Fixed vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!fixed}\index{white-space!vertical!disappearing}
For a fixed-height space which will
\emph{not} stretch or shrink, use the
command \command{vspace} followed by a length
in curly braces, e.g.
\verb+\vspace{18pt}+ (again, this has to be
after a paragraph break). Bear in mind that extra
space which ends up at a page-break when the document
is formatted will get discarded entirely to make the
bottom and top lines fall in the correct places. To
force a space to remain and be taken into account even
after a page break (rare), use the starred variant:
\command{vspace*}.
\item[\sffamily Double spacing]\index{white-space!double-spacing}\index{double-spacing}
Double-spacing normal lines of text is usually a
bad idea, as it looks very ugly. It is still,
unfortunately, a requirement in some universities for
thesis submission, a historical relic from the days of
typewriters. Nowadays, 1\Frac13 or 1� line
spacing is considered acceptable, according to your
font size. If your institution still thinks they
should have double line spacing, they are quite simply
wrong. Show them this paragraph and explain that they
need to enter the 21st century and adapt to the
features of automated typesetting. If they still
insist, use the \package{setspace}
package,which has commands for double line-spacing and
one-and-a-half line spacing, but be prepared for some
very ugly output.
The space between lines is defined by the length
of \command{baselineskip} multiplied by the
value of \command{baselinestretch}. In
general, \emph{don't meddle with
\command{baselineskip} at all},
and with \command{baselinestretch} only if
you know what you are doing. (Both can, however,
safely be used as reference values in commands like
\verb+\vspace*{\baselineskip}+ to leave a
whole line space.)
\index{spacing|see{white-space}}
The value of \command{baselineskip}
changes with the font size (see \S\thinspace\ref{fontsize}) but is
conventionally set to 1.2 times the current nominal
font size. This is a value derived from long
experience: only change it if you understand what it
means and what effect it will have.
\index{spacing|see{double-spacing}}
Quite separately, there are some perfectly genuine
and acceptable reasons for wanting wide line spacing,
for example when typesetting a proof of a critical or
variorum edition, where editors and contributors are
going to want to add notes manually by writing between
the lines, or where the text is going to be
overprinted by something else like Braille, or in
advertising or display text for special
effects.
\item[\sffamily Horizontal space]\index{white-space!horizontal}
There is a horizontal equivalent to the
\command{vspace} command:
\command{hspace}, which works in the same
way, so I can force a 1$''$ space like
this{\hspace*{1in}}in
mid-paragraph. There are also some predefined
(shorter) spaces available:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\command{thinspace}�(\Frac1{12}em),
which we saw between single and double quotes in
\S\thinspace\ref{thinspace}. It's also
sometimes used between the full point after
abbreviations and a following number, as in page
references like p.\thinspace{}199, where a word space
would look too big, and setting it solid would
look too tight.
\item
\command{enspace}�(�em).
There is no direct equivalent predefined in
\LaTeX{} for mid and thick spaces as used by metal
typesetters, although it would be possible to
define them. The en as a unit is often used as the
width of a single digit in some fonts, as a
convenience so that tables of figures are easy to
line up;
\item
\command{quad}�(1em);
\item
\command{qquad}�(2em).
\end{itemize}
\index{tracking|see{letterspacing}}\index{letterspacing}
Beyond this, all horizontal space within
paragraphs is automatically flexible, as this is what
\LaTeX{} uses to achieve justification. Never be
tempted to try and change the spacing between letters
unless you have some professional training in
typography. Some systems use letterspacing
(incorrectly called `tracking') as an aid
to justification and it is almost always wrong to do
so (and looks it). While it \emph{is}
possible to change letterspacing, it should only be
done by a typographer, and then only very rarely, as
the settings are very subtle and beyond the scope of
this booklet.
\end{description}
\subsection{Headers and footers}
\label{runningheads}
\LaTeX{} has built-in settings to control the page style
of its default page layouts. These are implemented with the
\command{pagestyle} command, which can take an
argument of \verb+plain+ (page number centered
at the bottom), \verb+empty+ (nothing at all),
or \verb+headings+ (running heads). The
value \verb+myheadings+ can be used
if you want to reprogram the definitions of how
\command{markright} and \command{markboth}
are used, which control how chapter and section titles get
into page headers. The command
\command{thispagestyle} (taking the same arguments)
can be used to force a specific style for the current page
only.
The \package{fancyhdr} package lets you
redefine the left-hand, centre, and right-hand page headers
and footers for both odd and even pages (twelve objects in
all). These areas can contain a page number, fixed text,
variable text (like the current chapter or section title, or
the catch-words of a dictionary), or even a small image.
They can also be used to do page backgrounds and frames, by
making one of them the top corner of an invisible box which
`hangs' text or images down over the whole
page.
The settings for the downloadable version of this
document can be used as an example: for the whole story you
have to read the documentation.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\pagestyle{fancy}\fancyhead{}
\renewcommand\headrulewidth{.1pt}
\fancyhead[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\leftmark}
\fancyhead[LE,RO]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\itshape\rightmark}
\fancyfoot[C]{}
\fancyfoot[LE,RO]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox{\footnotesize
\sffamily\thepage}}
\fancyfoot[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
\fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhf{}
\fancyfoot[R]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox{%
\footnotesize\sffamily\thepage}}
\fancyfoot[L]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This is probably more complex than most documents, but
it illustrates some of the most common techniques:
\begin{enumerate}\item
Settings are prefixed by making the
\command{pagestyle}�`fancy' and
setting the \command{fancyhead} to null.
\item
The thickness of the rule at the top of the page can
be changed (or set to 0pt to make it disappear).
\item
The header and footer settings are specified with L,
C, and R for left, centre, and right; and with O and E for
Odd and Even numbered pages. In each setting, the typeface
style, size, and font can be specified along with macros
which implement various dynamic texts (here, the current
chapter and section titles, which \LaTeX{} stores in
\command{rightmark} and
\command{leftmark}).
\item
The `plain' variant is used for chapter
starts, and resets some of the parameters accordingly.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Using fonts}
\label{fontuse}
\index{fonts!in general}
The default typeface in \LaTeX{} is Computer Modern�(CM)\index{CM@CM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CM@CM|textbf}. This typeface was
designed by Knuth for use with \TeX{} because it is a book
face, and he designed \TeX{} originally for typesetting books.
Because it is one of the very few book typefaces with a
comprehensive set of fonts, including a full suite of
mathematics, it has remained the default, rather than Times,
because until recently the mathematical symbols for Times were
a commercial product often unavailable to users of free
software.
\index{fonts!\mf{}}\index{fonts!Computer Modern}{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{11pt}{11pt}\selectfont{}Computer Modern is based on a 19th-century
book typeface from Monotype, which is why it looks a little
like an old-fashioned school book. This paragraph is set in
Computer Modern so you can see what it looks like. The
typeface is written in \mf{}, a font-drawing program
made by Knuth to accompany \TeX{} systems.}
\begin{warning}
If you are reading this in the HTML version, the above
paragraph is only a low-resolution copy because browsers
don't usually have the Computer Modern font available.
All the rest of this document is set in \rmfontfamilyname{}, with
\sffontfamilyname{} for some of the headings and \ttfontfamilyname{} for the
fixed-width type.
\end{warning}
\begin{table}\index{fonts!examples}\caption{Fonts available with a full installation of
\LaTeX{}. There are many more available for download from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.}
\label{fontable}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll>{\sffamily}l>{\ttfamily}l}\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedright}}b{23mm}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Typeface (font family)}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Package}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Family}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\multicolumn{4}{c}{\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape \mf{} fonts}\\[2pt]
\llap{* }Computer Modern&{\alphabet{cmr}}&\llap{(}default)&cmr\\
CM\index{CM@CM} Sans&{\alphabet{cmss}}&\llap{(}default)&cmss\\
CM\index{CM@CM} Typewriter&{\alphabet{cmtt}}&\llap{(}default)&cmtt\\
Pandora&{\alphabet{panr}}&pandora&panr\\
Pandora Sans&{\alphabet{pss}}&pandora&pss\\
Universal&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uni}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy}&\mdash{}&uni\\
\llap{* }Concrete&{\alphabet{ccr}}&concrete&ccr\\
BB Dingbats&{\tiny\alphabet[U]{ding}}&\mdash{}&ding\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
Cypriot&{\fontsize{5}{10}\selectfont
\alphabet{cypr}}&\mdash{}&cypr\\
�{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}reannach&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{eiad}\selectfont
N\'{\char'151}l aon tinte�n mar do thinte�n
f�in}&eiad&eiad\\
Etruscan&{\scriptsize\alphabet{etr}}&\mdash{}&etr\\
Linear `B'&{\tiny\alphabet{linb}}&\mdash{}&linb\\
Phoenician&{\shortalphabet{phnc}}&\mdash{}&phnc\\
Runic&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{fut}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE}&\mdash{}&fut\\
Rustic&{\tiny\alphabet{rust}}&\mdash{}&rust\\
Bard&{\tiny\alphabet[U]{zba}}&\mdash{}&zba\\
Uncial&{\tiny\alphabet{uncl}}&\mdash{}&uncl\\
D�rer&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{zdu}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE}&\mdash{}&zdu\\
Fraktur&{\dalphabet[U]{yfrak}}&\mdash{}&yfrak\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
Gothic&{\dalphabet[U]{ygoth}}&\mdash{}&ygoth\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
Schw�bische&{\dalphabet[U]{yswab}}&\mdash{}&yswab\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
\multicolumn{4}{c}{\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Adobe fonts}\\[2pt]
Bookman&{\alphabet{pbk}}&bookman&pbk\\
Schoolbook&{\alphabet{pnc}}&newcent\tablefootnote{addhelv}&pnc\\
Palatino&{\alphabet{ppl}}&palatino\tablefootnote{addag}&ppl\\
\llap{\dag }Times&{\alphabet{ptm}}×\tablefootnote{addhelv}&ptm\\
Avant Garde&{\alphabet{pag}}&avant&pag\\
Helvetica&{\alphabet{phv}}&helvet&phv\\
Zapf Chancery&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pzc}\itshape
\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy
dog}&zapfchan&pzc\\
Courier&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the
lazy}&courier&pcr\\
Zapf Dingbats&{\scriptsize\alphabet[U]{pzd}}&pifont&pzd\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
Symbol&{\alphabet[U]{psy}}&\mdash{}&pzd\tablefootnote{uenc}\\
\multicolumn{4}{c}{\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape X Consortium fonts}\\[2pt]
Charter&{\alphabet{bch}}&charter&bch\\
Nimbus Roman&{\alphabet{unm}}&\mdash{}&unm\\
Nimbus Sans&{\alphabet{unms}}&\mdash{}&unms\\
URW Antiqua&{\alphabet{uaq}}&\mdash{}&uaq\\
URW Grotesk&{\bfseries\alphabet{ugq}}&\mdash{}&ugq\\
Utopia&{{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{put}\selectfont{}(removed from \TeX{}
Live as it is not a free font)}}&utopia&put\\
\end{tabular}
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\textit{\alph{enumi}}}\footnotesize\begin{enumerate*}\item Uses specialised font encoding `U'.\label{uenc}\item Uses Helvetica as the sans-serif
font and Courier for monospace. Full names are
`New Century Schoolbook' and
`Times New Roman'.\label{addhelv}\item Uses Avant Garde as the
sans-serif font and Courier for monospace.\label{addag}\end{enumerate*}\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] Full selection of mathematical symbols
available.
\item [\sffamily \dag ] Mathematical symbols available
both free and commercially.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
\end{table}
In addition to CM\index{CM@CM}, there are
many other \mf{} fonts which can be downloaded from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}, including a large collection
of historical, symbol, initial, and non-Latin fonts. \LaTeX{}
also comes with the complete `Adobe 35'
collection of typefaces which are built into every laser
printer, so you have the same base set as other DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems. There are some more fonts
included in PostScript\index{PostScript} Type�1
format donated by the X�Consortium which match those
distributed free with the X�Window system. Plus, of
course, standard \LaTeX{} can use any of the thousands of
Type�1 fonts, and \product{pdflatex} can
use any of the thousands of TrueType fonts as well.
\index{fonts!TrueType}\index{fonts!metafont@\mf{}}\index{fonts!PostScript}\index{fonts!Type�1}\begin{warning}
Just to make it clear: standard \LaTeX{} uses \mf{}
and PostScript\index{PostScript} Type�1 fonts
only. To use TrueType fonts as well, you must use
\product{pdflatex} instead.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Changing the default font family}
\index{fonts!changing the default}
\LaTeX{} expects to work with three font families as
defaults:
\index{fonts!families}\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}l}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Font family}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Code}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
Roman (serif, with tails on the uprights), the
default&rm\\
Sans-serif, with no tails
on the uprights&sf\\
Monospace (fixed-width or
typewriter)&tt\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
If you use one of the packages listed in Table~\ref{fontable}, it will replace the default of the
same type. For example,
\verb+\usepackage{bookman}+ makes the default
Roman font Bookman but leaves the sans-serif and monospace
fonts untouched. Equally,
\verb+\usepackage{helvet}+ changes the default
sans-serif font to Helvetica but leaves the serif (Roman)
and monospace fonts untouched. Using both commands will
change both defaults because they operate independently.
\emph{However}\dots as it is common to want
to change all three defaults at the same time, some of the
most common `suites' of typefaces are
provided as packages:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{times}]
changes to Times/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{pslatex}]
same as \package{times} but uses a
specially narrowed Courier to save space (normal
Courier is rather inelegantly wide). This is the
preferred setting if you want Times.\footnote{The \package{pslatex} package
is also said to be outdated by some experts
because it implemented rather long-windedly what
can now be done in three commands. However, until
these replace the current version, I recommend
continuing to use \package{pslatex}
when you want Times with Helvetica and
Courier.}
\item[\sffamily \package{newcent}]
changes to New Century Schoolbook/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatino}]
changes to Palatino/Avant Garde/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatcm}]
changes the roman to Palatino only, but with
CM\index{CM@CM} mathematics
\end{description}
Where no package name is given in Table~\ref{fontable}, it means the font is rarely used as
a default by itself except in special cases like users' own
homebrew packages. To use the font you have to specify it
manually, or make a little macro for yourself if you use it
more than once, as shown below.
\subsection{Changing the font family temporarily}
\label{fontfam}
\index{fonts!changing temporarily}
To shift to another font family on a temporary basis,
group the text within curly braces to limit the scope of the
font change, and use the commands
\command{fontencoding} (if needed),
\command{fontfamily}, and
\command{selectfont} commands \emph{immediately
inside} the opening curly brace, e.g.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont Helvetica looks like this}
and {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ppl} Palatino looks
like this}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\leavevmode\enspace
\begin{quote}\noindent
{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{}Helvetica
looks like this} and {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ppl}\selectfont{}Palatino looks like
this}.\end{quote}\end{example}
In this example, the \command{fontencoding}
command has been used to ensure that the typeface will work
even if the sentence is used in the middle of something
typeset in a different encoding (like this document).
\begin{sidebar}\label{grouping}
\subsection*{Grouping}\index{grouping}
Notice the use of curly braces in a slightly different
way from their use to delimit the argument to a command.
This is called `grouping' and it
restricts the effect of changes made
\emph{inside} the group so that they do not
interfere with the text following. Any font changes made
within the curly braces cease when the closing curly brace
is processed.
\end{sidebar}
In a normal document, of course, random typeface changes
like this are very uncommon. You select your faces once at
the start of the document, and stick with them. Most cases
where people want to do unusual typeface changes involve
things like special symbols on a repetitive basis, and
\LaTeX{} provides much easier programmable ways to make these
changes into shorthand commands (called macros: see \chaptername~\ref{macros}). You could, for example, make a macro
called \command{product} which would let you
typeset product names in a distinct typeface:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Andlinger has replaced \product{Splosh} with \product{SuperSplosh}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This is one of \LaTeX{}'s most powerful features. It
means that if you needed to change your
\command{product} command at some later stage to
use a different font, you only have to change three
characters in the macro (the font family abbreviation), and
you don't need to edit your document text at
all!
\subsection{Changing font style}
\index{fonts!styles}
Within each typeface or font family there are usually
several different styles of type. \LaTeX{} distinguishes
between font \textbf{\textit{family}}\index{family@\textbf{\textit{family}}}, font
\textbf{\textit{shape}}\index{shape@\textbf{\textit{shape}}}, and font
\textbf{\textit{series}}\index{series@\textbf{\textit{series}}}:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}ll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Command}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example (using Computer Modern)}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
Upright (default)&\command{upshape}*&{\alphabet{cmr}}\\
Italic&\command{itshape}&{\font\foo=cmti10 \foo
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\\
Slanted&\command{slshape}*&{\slshape\alphabet{cmr}}\\
Small Capitals&\command{scshape}*&{\scshape\alphabet{cmr}}\\
Bold&\command{bfseries}*&{\fontseries{b}\selectfont\alphabet{cmr}}\\
Bold Extended&\command{bfseries}\dag &{\font\foo=cmbx10 \foo
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\\
Sans-serif&\command{sffamily}&{\alphabet{cmss}}\\
Monospace&\command{ttfamily}&{\alphabet{cmtt}}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] Not all typefaces have all
variants! Some only have bold and italics.
\item [\sffamily \dag ] Some typefaces do not have
both bold and bold extended: by default \LaTeX{} uses
\command{bfseries} for bold extended.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
These `shape',
`series', and
`family' commands are
\textbf{\textit{commutative}}\index{commutative@\textbf{\textit{commutative}}}, so you can combine a
shape with a series and/or a family, as in:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..{\bfseries\itshape\sffamily bold italic sans-serif type}...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This gives you {\sffamily{}\fontseries{bx}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}bold italic sans-serif type}, but
beware of pushing your fonts beyond their limits unless you
are a typographer. It is not normally meaningful to combine
one shape or series class with another of the same class,
such as trying to get slanted-italics. It's an
impossibility to combine one family with another (such as a
seriffed sans-serif typeface!). Slanted plus italics, for
example, doesn't make sense, as italics are already
slanted (although it is technically possible); and while some
typefaces may well possess italic small caps, they are not
in common use. Sans-serif and monospace (typewriter) are
different fonts, and often different typeface families
entirely.\footnote{Although if you're a typographer wanting to
experiment with typewriter typefaces with and without
serifs, you can use \mf{} to do exactly this kind
of thing. But that's outside the scope of this
document.}
There is an alternative syntax for the most common type
shape and series commands which uses curly braces in the
normal `argument' manner:
\begin{center}
\label{fontcmds}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}ll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Command}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
Italic&\verb+\textit{a few words}+&puts {\font\foo=cmti10 \foo a few
words} into italics\\
Slanted&\verb+\textsl{a few words}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}a few
words} into slanted type*\\
Small Capitals&\verb+\textsc{a few words}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sc}\selectfont{}a few
words} into small caps\\
Bold&\verb+\textbf{a few words}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}a few
words} into bold type\\
Sans-serif&\verb+\textsf{a few words}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmss}\selectfont{}a few
words} into sans-serif type\\
Monospace&\verb+\texttt{a few words}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}a few
words} into typewriter type\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] If slanted is available separately
from italics.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
You can nest these inside one another too:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..\textbf{\itshape\textsf{bold italic sans-serif type}}...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Font sizes}
\label{fontsize}
\index{fonts!sizes}
\LaTeX{} has built into its defaults a set of predefined
font size steps corresponding more or less to the
traditional sizes available to metal typesetters. This is
deliberate, as these sizes have grown up over 500 years of
printing as those which go best together for book-work,
which is where \TeX{} originated.
These sizes are also reflected in the size steps at
which Computer Modern was designed. It often comes as a
surprise to new users that many typefaces are not designed
as a single font and just scaled up or down, but specially
drawn at different sizes to make them more legible.
As an example, {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{11}{11}\selectfont{}here's 11pt Computer
Modern}, and {\font\cmbig=cmr5
at11pt\cmbig here's 5pt Computer Modern scaled up to
11pt}, and
{\font\cmsmall=cmr17 at11pt\cmsmall
here's 17pt Computer Modern scaled down to
11pt} so you can see there really is a
significant difference. In general, you probably don't
want to go scaling fonts too much beyond their design size
because they will start to look very odd.
The default sizes (and the commands that operate them)
are based on the use of a 10pt font. Using the larger
defaults (11pt and 12pt) for the body font will scale these
sizes up approximately in proportion. The exact sizes used
are listed in the macros in the Class Option files
\url+size10.clo+,
\url+size11.clo+ and
\url+size12.clo+. \TeX{}'s default fonts
above 10pt are in fact scaled by a factor of 1.2, as shown
in the fourth column of the table below.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{llrl}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Command}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedleft}}b{.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Nominal point size}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedright}}b{.4in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Exact point size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\command{tiny}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{5}{5}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy dog}&5&5\\
\command{scriptsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{7}{7}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy dog}&7&7\\
\command{footnotesize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{8}{8}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy dog}&8&8\\
\command{small}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{9}{9}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy dog}&9&9\\
\command{normalsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{10}{10}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy dog}&10&10\\
\command{large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12}{12}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy}&12&12\\
\command{Large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{14}{14}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps
over t}&14&14.40\\
\command{LARGE}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{18}{18}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps
o}&18&17.28\\
\command{huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{20}{20}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jum}&20&20.74\\
\command{Huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{24}{24}\selectfont{}The quick brown
fox}&24&24.88\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
While this relieves the beginner of having
to worry about the `right' size for a
given task, when you need a specific size there is the
\command{fontsize} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fontsize{22}{28}\selectfont This is 22pt type 6pt leaded
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This takes two arguments: the point size and the
baseline distance. The above example gives you 22pt type on
a 28pt baseline (i.e.�with 6pt extra space or
`leading' between lines).
\begin{warning}
Computer Modern fonts (the default) come fixed at the
named size steps shown in the table, and if you try to use
an odd size in between, \LaTeX{} will pick the closest step
instead. If you really need to use CM\index{CM@CM} at arbitrary sizes there is a
package \package{type1cm} which lets you
override the default steps. If you use PostScript\index{PostScript}
(Type�1) fonts, the step sizes do not apply and the
font scaling is infinitely variable.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Logical markup}
All this playing around with fonts is very pretty but
you normally only do it for a reason, even if that reason is
just to be decorative. Italics, for example, are used for
many things:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\itshape}l}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Cause}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Example}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
Foreign words&ex officio\\
Scientific names&Ranunculus ficaria\\
Emphasis&must not\\
Titles of documents&The \LaTeX{} Companion\\
Product names&{{\upshape
Corel's}} WordPerfect\\
Variables in maths&\(E=mc^{2}\)\\
Subtitles or headings&How to get started\\
Decoration&FREE UPGRADE!!!\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Humans usually have no problem telling the difference
between these reasons, because they can read and understand
the meaning and context. Computers cannot (yet), so it has
become conventional to use descriptive names which make the
distinction explicit, even though the appearance may be the
same.
\LaTeX{} has some of these built in, like
\command{emph}, which provides
\emph{emphasis}. This has a special feature
because \emph{when the surrounding text is
already italic, \emph{emphasis}
automatically reverts to upright type}, which is a
normal practice for typesetting.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This has a special feature because {\itshape when the surrounding
text is already italic, \emph{emphasis} automatically reverts to
upright type, which is a normal practice for typesetting.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\label{emph}%
This sensitivity to logic is programmed into
the definition of \command{emph} and it's not
hard to make up other commands of your own which could do
the same, such as \command{foreign} or
\command{product}.
But why would you bother? In a short document it's
probably not important, but if you're writing a long
report, or a formal document like an article, a book, or a
thesis, it makes writing and editing hugely easier if you
can control whole groups of special effects with a single
command, such as italicising, indexing, or cross-referencing
to a glossary. If a format needs changing, you only have to
change the definition, and every occurrence automatically
follows suit.
It also makes it possible to find and act on groups of
meanings\mdash{}such as making an index of scientific names
or product names (as in this document)\mdash{}if they are
identified with a special command. Otherwise you'd
spend weeks hunting manually through every
\command{textit} command to find the ones you
wanted. This is the importance of automation: it can save
you time and money.
In \chaptername~\ref{macros} we will see how to make your
own simple commands like this.
\subsection{Colour}
\index{colour}\index{fonts!colour}
You can typeset anything in \LaTeX{} in any colour you
want using the \package{color} package.
First, you need to add the command
\verb+\usepackage{color}+ to your preamble (note
the US spelling of color!). This makes available a default
palette of primary colours: {\selectfont{}\color{red}red}, {\selectfont{}\color{green}green}, and {\selectfont{}\color{blue}blue} for the RGB\index{RGB@RGB} colour model used for emitted light
(television screens), and {\selectfont{}\color{cyan}cyan},
{\selectfont{}\color{magenta}magenta}, and {\selectfont{}\color{yellow}yellow} to go with black for the
CMYK\index{CMYK@CMYK} colour model used for reflected light
(printing).
For the occasional word or phrase in colour, use the command
\command{textcolor} with two arguments, the colour
name and the text: \verb+\textcolor{red}{like this}+.
There is a \command{color} command as well, for use
within groups:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..{\color{blue}some text in blue}...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If you have the PostScript\index{PostScript} printer driver
\product{dvips} installed, you also get a
separate 64-colour palette of predefined names
(representing approximately the colours in the big box of
\product{Crayola} colouring pencils much
favoured by artists and designers). This adds a new colour
model called
\verb+named+, so if you want the
\product{Crayola} colour RubineRed, you can
create a name of your own for it to use in colour-changing
commands:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{myred}{named}{RubineRed}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
RubineRed looks {\selectfont{}\color{myred}like
this} (\verb+\textcolor{myred}{like this}+) if you're reading this in colour.
To use these names with
\product{pdflatex}, you need to use the
\opt{pdftex} option to the
\package{color} package. You can still look up the CMYK\index{CMYK@CMYK} codes in the file
\url+texmf/tex/latex/graphics/dvipsnam.def+
and use \verb+cmyk+ as the colour model name,
if you have software which requires it. In that case you
would say:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{myred}{cmyk}{0,1,0.13,0}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
You can define any shade you want by giving it a
name and providing the Red-Green-Blue�(RGB)\index{RGB@RGB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RGB@RGB|textbf} or Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black�(CMYK)\index{CMYK@CMYK|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CMYK@CMYK|textbf} colour
values expressed as decimals, using this
\command{definecolor} command. For example, an
RGB\index{RGB@RGB} shade given as (37,125,224) in
decimal (\#250FE0 in hexadecimal as used on the Web)
needs to be given as \begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{midblue}{rgb}{0.145,0.490,0.882}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
(divide each value by 255, the maximum for
each of the hues in the Red-Green-Blue colour model). The
\command{definecolor} command takes three
arguments: the name you want to refer to the shade by; the
name of the color model (here \verb+rgb+) and
the set of decimal-fraction values separated by commas. You
can then use \command{textcolor} with your new
colour name: {\selectfont{}\color{midblue}the midblue looks like
this if you're reading in colour.}
The \package{color} package also provides
a colour version of \command{fbox} (see \S\thinspace\ref{fbox}) called
\command{colorbox}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta on midblue}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
{\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta
on midblue}}: you can see how careful you
need to be with colours.
\section{Installing new fonts}
\label{instfonts}
\index{fonts!installing}
Different fonts come in a variety of packagings: the three
most common used with \TeX{} systems are
PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts, TrueType fonts, and
\mf{} fonts. How you install them and where they go
depends on how you installed \LaTeX{}: all I can deal with here
are the standard locations within the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}.
Most typefaces come supplied as one or more font files.
PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts are supplied as a pair
of files: an outline and a metric, as described in \S\thinspace\ref{mffonts} and
\S\thinspace\ref{psfonts}. A TrueType font combines these in a
single file. For \LaTeX{} use you also need a style
(\url+.sty+) file and font definition
(\url+.fd+), which can easily be created if
they are not supplied.
The instructions here assume the use of the New Font Selection Scheme�(NFSS)\index{NFSS@NFSS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!NFSS@NFSS|textbf} used in
\LaTeXe{}. If you are running the obsolete \LaTeX{} 2.09,
upgrade it now.
\subsection{Installing \mf{} fonts}
\label{mffonts}
This is the simplest installation. When you download
\mf{} fonts from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN},
you'll usually find a large number of Outline files
(\url+.mf+ files) and maybe some other types
as well (see below).
\begin{enumerate}
\item \label{newsub}%
Create a new subdirectory named after the typeface
you're installing in
\url+texmf-local/fonts/source/public/+:
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{public}
\end{center}
\item
Copy all the \url+.mf+ (outline)
files to this directory.
\item
Copy the \url+.fd+ (Font Definition)
file[s] and the \url+.sty+ (style) file
to your \url+texmf/tex/latex/mfnfss+
directory.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
That's it. Unlike PostScript\index{PostScript}
fonts, \mf{} fonts can be used to generate the font
metric file (\url+.tfm+ files) automatically
on-the-fly the first time the typeface is used, so there
should be nothing else to install. Some \mf{} fonts
come with pre-generated \url+.tfm+ files
which you can install if your system is slow at generating
them itself:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item
Create a new subdirectory within
\url+texmf-local/fonts/tfm/public/+ named
the same as the one you created for the
\url+.mf+ files above.
\item
Copy all the \url+.tfm+ files into
this subdirectory.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}
In some rare cases, pre-generated packed bitmap fonts
(\url+.pk+ files) are also available from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} (normally your previewer and
print driver creates these automatically, but you can use
the pre-generated ones if you have a very slow system). If
you really want to install these, it's a similar
procedure to the \url+.tfm+ files:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item
Create a new subdirectory within
\url+texmf-local/fonts/pk/modeless/+
named the same as the one you created for the
\url+.mf+ and \url+.tfm+
files above.
\item
Copy all the \url+.nnnpk+ files into
this subdirectory (\(nnn\) is a
number reflecting the dot-density of the bitmap). On
Microsoft systems the files may just end in
\url+.pk+ and be kept in subdirectories
named after the dot-density, e.g.
\url+dpi360+.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}
Now you can put a \command{usepackage} command
in your preamble with whatever name the
\verb+.sty+ file was called, and read the
documentation to see what commands it gives to use the font
(refer to \S\thinspace\ref{packinst} and step~\ref{dtxdoc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{dtxdoc}).
If the font came \emph{without}\url+.fd+ or \url+.sty+ files,
you'll need to find someone who can make them for you (or
follow the outline in \S\thinspace\ref{psfonts}, step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles}).
\subsection{Installing PostScript fonts}
\label{psfonts}
\index{fonts!PostScript}
Lots of people will tell you that
PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts and PostScript
output are dead and that TrueType or OpenType fonts and PDF
output are the way to go. While this is true for many cases,
standard \LaTeX{} does not work with TrueType fonts and does
not produce PDF\index{PDF@PDF} directly. Only
\product{pdflatex} does that, and there are
still many printers whose typesetters and platemakers need
PostScript\index{PostScript} rather than PDF\index{PDF@PDF}. In addition, operating system
support for scalable fonts is still very poor on Unix
systems (including Linux), despite the advances in recent
years, so in many cases it still makes sense to use
\TeX{}'s built-in support for PostScript.
PostScript (Adobe Type�1) fonts come in two halves,
just like \mf{} fonts: a Font Metric and an Outline.
Unlike \mf{} fonts, however, you must install both: you
cannot cause the the metrics to be generated from the
outline as you can with \mf{}.
The two file types are \url+.afm+ (Adobe
Font Metric) and \url+.pfb+
(PostScript Font Binary�(PFB)\index{PFB@PFB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PFB@PFB|textbf}) files.
\emph{You must have both for each font before you
start.} If you only have the near-obsolete
\url+.pfa+ (PostScript\index{PostScript}
Font ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII}) files, it may be
possible to generate the \url+.pfb+ files
using the \product{t1binary} program from
the \product{t1utils} package (see \url+
http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/packages/t1utils.htm+)
or the excellent \product{PFAedit} font
editor (from \url+
http://pfaedit.sourceforge.net+). There are
unfortunately still some companies distributing Type�1
fonts in \url+.pfa+ format (Mathematica is
one reported recently).
\begin{warning}
The installation method I described in earlier
editions has worked perfectly for me for years, but I have
updated it here to use the facilities of the
\product{updmap} program (which comes
with your \TeX{} installation). This removes the need for
one of the steps I gave before, which required editing the
\url+psfonts.map+ file, as this is now
recreated by \product{updmap}. The
procedure below is \emph{not} the official
way (that's \product{fontinst}), but
it is the basis for a script I am working on called
\product{Gutta-Percha}\footnote{Yes, as in rubber.}, which automates the whole process.
\end{warning}
I'll repeat this: before you start, make sure you
have all the \url+.afm+ and
\url+.pfb+ files for the typeface you want.
In the example below, I'm going to use a single font
from an imaginary typeface called Foo, so I have
\verb+foo.afm+ and
\verb+foo.pfb+ files.
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Put the files in your temporary directory}\\
This is \url+/tmp+ on Linux, and
should be \url+C:\tmp+ or
\url+C:\temp+ or even
\url+C:\Windows\temp+ on Microsoft
Windows.
\item \textbf{Find out or decide on the short font name to use
inside \LaTeX{}.}\\
This is \emph{not} the full
descriptive name (e.g.�Baskerville Italic Bold
Extended) but an encoded font name in the format
\verb+fnnsseec+, devised by \person{Karl Berry}, which stores the same information in no
more than eight characters for compatibility with
systems which cannot handle long filenames. The letters
in the format above have the following meanings (see the
\product{fontname} documentation for
more details):
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Letter}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Examples}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\verb+f+&foundry&\verb+b+=Bitstream,
\verb+m+=Monotype,
\verb+p+=Adobe (PostScript)\\
\verb+nn+&typeface name&\verb+ba+=Baskerville,
\verb+tm+=Times,
\verb+pl+=Palatino\\
\verb+ss+&series/shape&\verb+r+=roman,
\verb+bi+=bold italic, etc.\\
\verb+ee+&encoding&\verb+8a+=default 8-bit
ANSI, \verb+ly+=Y\amp Y's
\TeX{}'n'ANSI\\
{\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}\verb+c+}&[small]caps&(this is a literal
`c' character, used only
if needed)\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
The \url+texmf/fontname+ directory in
your installation of \LaTeX{} has files for several foundries
giving fully-formed names like these for common fonts
(e.g. \verb+ptmr8a+ is
[Adobe] \uline{\textbf{P}}ost\-Script
\uline{\textbf{T}}i\uline{\textbf{m}}es
\uline{\textbf{R}}oman in an
\uline{\textbf{8}}\ndash{}bit \uline{\textbf{A}}NSI
encoding;
\verb+bgslly+ is \uline{\textbf{B}}itstream
\uline{\textbf{G}}ill \uline{\textbf{S}}ans
\uline{\textbf{L}}ight in Y\amp Y's \TeX{}'n'ANSI
encoding [\uline{\textbf{LY}}1]).\footnote{Confusingly, Bitstream fonts (and others from
similar sources) mostly have different names from
the original fonts, so what they call Humanist 521
is actually Gill Sans. Until recently, US law only
allowed the \emph{names} of typefaces
to be copyrighted, not the font designs themselves,
leading to widespread piracy.} Read the documentation in \titlecite{fontname}
to find out how to make up your own short
names if the foundry and font you want is not shown in
the \url+fontname+ directory.
In this example we'll call our mythical example
typeface `zork' (standing for
\uline{\textbf{Z}}fonts \uline{\textbf{Or}}dinary
Boo\uline{\textbf{k}}face, because
\verb+k+ is the letter used for Book
fonts, \verb+b+ being already the code
for bold) and we'll assume it
comes in the two files \url+foo.afm+ and
\url+foo.pfb+ that I mentioned
above.
While the \product{fontname}
directories have ready-made lists of these names for
popular collections of typefaces, making them up
requires some knowledge of typographic terms and a
careful reading of the
\product{fontname} documentation.
\item \textbf{Decide on your encoding}\\
This is what tripped me up the first few times until
someone pointed me at Y\amp Y's
\TeX{}'n'ANSI encoding which (to me) seems to
be the only one that includes the glyphs I want where I
want them.\index{fonts!encoding} Your mileage may vary. This encoding is
referred to as \verb+LY1+ within \LaTeX{} and
the encoding file is in
\url+texmf/dvips/base/texnansi.enc+.
Encoding is needed because Adobe fonts store their
characters in different places to the \TeX{}
standard.
Copy this encoding file to the temporary directory
where you're doing all this stuff. If you're
using the 8a or 8r encoding (or some other encoding),
then copy that file instead
(\url+8a.enc+,
\url+8r.enc+).
\item \textbf{Convert \url+.afm+ files to
\url+.tfm+}\\\label{idfile}%
The \product{afm2tfm} program is a
standard utility in the \url+bin+
directory of your \TeX{} installation. If it's not,
update your installation.
In a command window, type:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -v zorkly.vpl -p texnansi.enc rzorkly.tfm >zork.id
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This creates a special `raw'
\TeX{} Font Metric file (hence the special \verb+r+
prefix) that \LaTeX{} can use, with a list of all its
properties encoded with LY1 (the
\url+.vpl+ or Virtual Property List
file). Many people will tell you that virtual fonts are
dead and that this is the wrong way to do it, but no-one
has ever shown me an alternative that works, so I stick
with it.
\item \textbf{Small caps (optional)}\\\label{sc}%
If you want a small caps variant faked up (perhaps
because the typeface family doesn't have a special
small-caps font), repeat the medicine like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -V zorklyc.vpl -p texnansi.enc rzorkly.tfm >>zork.id
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Note the capital \verb+V+ option here.
Yes, it \emph{does} overwrite the
\url+rzorkly.tfm+ created in the first
command. Let it. And those are \emph{two}
of the `greater-than' signs
before the \url+zork.id+ filename because
we want to append to it, not overwrite it.
\item \textbf{Create the virtual font}\\
Turn the \url+.vpl+ files into
\url+.vf+ and \url+.tfm+
pairs. \LaTeX{} uses these to convert from Adobe's
encoding to its own.
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
vptovf zorkly.vpl zorkly.vf zorkly.tfm
vptovf zorklyc.vpl zorklyc.vf zorklyc.tfm
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Again, the \url+vptovf+ program is a
standard part of your \TeX{} distribution.
\item \textbf{Make directories to hold the files}\\
Under your \url+texmf-local+
directory there should be a \url+fonts+
directory, and in there there should be
\url+afm+, \url+tfm+,
\url+type1+, and \url+vf+
directories. Create them if they do not already
exist.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{fonts}
\end{center}
In each of these four, create a directory for the
foundry, and within them create a directory for the
typeface (using a human-readable typeface name, not the
short \person{Karl Berry} fontname). In our example, this
means:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts/afm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts/tfm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts/type1/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts/vf/zfonts/ordinary
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Or if you're lazy like me:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
(cd /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts;\
for d in afm tfm type1 vf;do mkdir -p $d/zfonts/ordinary;done)
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
For Microsoft Windows users, the path before
\url+texmf-local+ may look something like
\verb+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\+, depending
on how and where you have installed your \TeX{}
system.
The \verb+-p+ is a Unix feature: it
automatically creates any missing intervening
subdirectories. If your directory-making command
doesn't do this, you'll have to make the
intervening directories by hand first.
\item \textbf{Copy the files to their rightful places}\\
Copy the four groups of files to the four new
directories:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cp *.afm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/afm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.tfm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/tfm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.pfb /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/type1/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.vf /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/vf/zfonts/ordinary/
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
You can of course do all this with a directory
window and mouse if you find it easier.
\item \textbf{Create a font map}\\
The font map is what tells
\product{dvips} which PFB\index{PFB@PFB} file to use for which font. The
configuration file for \product{dvips}
is \url+texmf/dvips/config/config.ps+ and
it gets its entries from the program
\product{updmap} which reads map files
for each typeface. The configuration file for
\product{updmap} is
\url+texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+\footnote{There is another one of these at
\url+texmf/web2c/updmap.cfg+, but
that contains the map references for the fonts which
came with your distribution of \TeX{}, so you should
not interfere with it.}, so it needs an entry for our new font,
using the three-letter font family abbreviation (the first
three letters of the Berry fontname (here
`\verb+zor+'):
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Map zor.map
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
We also have to create this map file
(\url+zor.map+) in a subdirectory of
\url+texmf-local/dvips/config/+ named
after the foundry, so we need to create
\url+texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts+ as
well.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Open
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+
in your editor.
\item
At the bottom, add the line:
\verb`Map zor.map`
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
The font entries in our
\verb+zor.map+ will be on a
\emph{single} line each, with no
line-wrapping. Each entry gives the short name of the
font, the long (Adobe) name, the
PostScript\index{PostScript} encoding parameters
(in quotes), and then two filenames prefixed by input
redirects (less-than signs): the encoding file and the
PostScript\index{PostScript} outline file.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
First create the directory if it doesn't already
exist:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Use your editor to open (create) the file
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts/zor.map+.
\item \label{fullname}%
Insert the line:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
rzorkly Ordinary-Blackface "TeXnANSIEncoding ReEncodeFont" <texnansi.enc <foo.pfb
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
You get the full font name (here,
`Ordinary-Blackface') from the
\verb+zork.id+ which was created back in
step~\ref{idfile} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{idfile} when we ran
\product{afm2tfm}. You must get this
exactly right, because it's the
`official' full name of the font,
and PostScript\index{PostScript} files using this
font need to match it.
\item \textbf{Create a style file}\\
\LaTeX{} needs a style file to implement the
interface to the font. Call it after the
typeface or something related; in this example we'll
call it \url+foozork.sty+. In it go
some details of the name and date we did this, what
version of \LaTeX{} it needs, and any other command
necessary to operate the font, like the font encoding and
whether it is to supersede the current default Roman font.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Use your editor to open (create)
\url+foozork.sty+ in
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss+.
\item
Insert the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
% foozork - created from foo for Zork
\def\fileversion{1.0}
\def\filedate{2002/12/03}
\def\docdate{2002/12/03}
\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesPackage{foozork}[\filedate\space\fileversion\space
Zfonts Ordinary PSNFSS2e package]
\RequirePackage[LY1]{fontenc}
\renewcommand{\rmdefault}{zor}
\endinput
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Note the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The first argument to
\command{ProvidesPackage}�
\emph{must} be the same as this
style file name; and that the font family is
referred to as \verb+zor+, being the
foundry letter
plus the fontname abbreviation. This acts as a
prefix for any/all font variants (bold, italic,
etc.).
\item
If you are not using Y\amp Y encoding, omit
the line referring to LY1 font encoding.
\item
If this is a typewriter font, make the
renewed command \command{rmdefault}
into \command{ttdefault}.
\item
If it's a sans-serif font, make it
\command{sfdefault} instead.
\item
Omit the command completely if you
don't want the style file to supersede the
current defaults but simply to make the font
available. If you do this, you probably want to
write a new command or two to use it, typically
one for grouped use and one for argument
use:
\end{itemize}
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\newcommand{\zorkfamily}{\fontencoding{LY1}\fontfamily{zor}\selectfont}
\newcommand{\textzork}[1]{{\zorkfamily#1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Create the Font Definition file}\\\label{fdfiles}%
The last file to create is the \textbf{\textit{font definition}}\index{font definition@\textbf{\textit{font definition}}}
(\url+.fd+) file. This is named
following the pattern \verb+eeefnn.fd+,
using the same conventions as before, by prepending the
(lowercase) encoding abbreviation to the foundry letter
and fontname abbreviation, so our example would be
\verb+ly1zor.fd+ for the LY1 encoding and
the \verb+zor+ short font name.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Use your editor to open (create)
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss/ly1zor.fd+
\item
Enter the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\ProvidesFile{ly1zor.fd}[2002/03/03 v0.1 manual font
definitions for LY1/zor.]
\DeclareFontFamily{LY1}{zor}{}
\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{n}{<-> zorkly}{}
\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{sc}{<-> zorklyc}{}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
FD files typically use one
\command{DeclareFontFamily} command which
specifies the encoding and the short font name. Then as
many pairs of
\command{DeclareFontShape} commands as you
converted fonts (assuming you did
both normal and small caps for each font: see
step~\ref{sc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{sc}; if you didn't, then only one such
command per font is needed here). The arguments to the
\command{DeclareFontShape} command to watch are
the 3rd (weight/width), 4th (shape), and 5th (font
outline name): the rest are static for each
\url+.fd+ file and simply identify the
encoding and the font family.
The codes to use are given on
pages�190\ndash{}91 of the \titlecite{companion} and should also be in
your copies of
\url+texmf/fontnames/weight.map+ and
\url+texmf/fontnames/width.map+. The
rules for combining weight and width need care: RTFM\index{RTFM@RTFM} for
\package{fontname}. There is no
\url+shape.map+ in
\package{fontname} because it's not
part of font file names, it's purely a \LaTeX{}
creation, so here's what the same book says:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Character}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
\verb+n+&normal (upright)\\
\verb+it+&italic\\
\verb+sl+&slanted\\
\verb+sc+&small caps\\
\verb+ui+&upright italic\\
\verb+ol+&outline\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Add your own for other oddities, but be consistent:
I use \verb+cu+ for cursive (scripts), for
example, and \verb+k+ for blackletter faces
(not to be confused with \verb+k+ as a
\emph{width} for
`book').
The default fontspec (5th)
argument above \verb+<->+ means
all sizes come from the same font outline (remember if
this was a \mf{} font with different design sizes
like CM it would be much more complex).
If the face has only a few variants, you can create
any other entries for bold, italic, slanted, etc. with
the relevant weight and width and shape values pointing
at the relevant outline file.
If you want one font to
substitute for a missing one (for example italics to
substitute for slanted in a typeface which has no
slanted variant of its own) give the
\verb+ssub+ (`silent
substitution') command in the fontspec:
for example to make all references to
\verb+sl+ (slanted) type use an existing
italic font, make the 5th argument like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> ssub * zor/m/it}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If you find the x-height of a font too big or too
small to sort well with another font you are using, you
can specify an \verb+s+
(`scale') factor in this argument
instead: this example will shrink the result to
80\% of normal:
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> s * [0.8] zorkly}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item \textbf{Update the index and the map files}\\
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}) so that
\product{updmap} can find the files it
needs.
Then run \product{updmap} (just
type \verb+updmap+. This updates the
maps and runs the \TeX{} indexer program again
automatically.
\end{enumerate}
Now you can \verb+\usepackage{foozork}+ in
your \LaTeX{} file to make it the default font. To use the
font incidentally instead of as the default, you can
say:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This is {\zorkfamily ZORK} or \textzork{ZORK}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Installing the Type�1 Computer Modern
fonts}
\label{type1cm}
If your \LaTeX{} installation uses the
\mf{} (bitmap) versions of the Computer Modern
typeface, you may want to switch to the Type�1
(PostScript\index{PostScript}) version, especially if
you are going to be using
\product{pdflatex} instead of standard
\LaTeX{} because Acrobat Reader makes such a hames of
displaying Type3 fonts. \product{GSview}
and \product{pdfview} handles them
correctly.
To do this, install one of the sets of CM PostScript
fonts. There are several available:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The fonts from BlueSky Research at \url+
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bluesky/+
\item
\person{Basil�K. Malyshev}'s fonts at \url+
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bakoma/+
\item
\person{Vladimir Volovich}'s CM-Super at \url+
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/cm-super/+
\item
\person{Bogus\l{}aw Jackowski}'s Latin Modern at \url+
ftp://cam.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/lm.tar.gz+
\end{itemize}
The BaKoMa fonts include the American
Mathematical Society�(AMS)\index{AMS@AMS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!AMS@AMS|textbf} fonts for extended
mathematics, but are more complex to install because they
come with a special set of TFM files.
The BlueSky fonts are just PFB\index{PFB@PFB}
and AFM files, and are a drop-in replacement requiring no
further changes, as they use the same TFM files as the
\mf{} version. Follow the \url+README+
file in the downloadable archive for installation
instructions.
The Latin Modern and CM-Super fonts are new and I
haven't tested them but they are well spoken
of. Feedback on this is very welcome.
The \TeX{} Live distribution uses Type�1 versions of
Computer Modern by default. There are more details in the
FAQ at \url+
http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=uselmfonts+\thinspace{}.
\chapter{Programmability (macros)}
\label{macros}
\index{macros}
We've touched several times on the ability of \LaTeX{}
to be reprogrammed. This is one of its central features, and one
that still, after nearly a quarter of a century, puts it well
above many other typesetting systems, even those with macro
systems of their own. It's also the one that needs most
foreknowledge, which is why this chapter is in this
position.
\LaTeX{} is in fact itself just a collection of
macros\mdash{}rather a big collection\mdash{}written in
\TeX{}'s internal typesetting language. These \textbf{\textit{macros}}\index{macros@\textbf{\textit{macros}}} are little program-like sets of
instructions with a name which can be used as shorthand for an
operation you wish to perform more than once.
Macros can be arbitrarily complex. Many of the ones used in
the standard \LaTeX{} packages are several pages long, but as we
will see, even short ones can very simply automate otherwise
tedious chores and allow the author to concentrate on
\emph{writing}.
\section{Simple replacement macros}
\label{replacement}
In its simplest form, a \LaTeX{} macro can just be a
straightforward text replacement of a phrase to avoid
misspelling something each time you need it, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\ef}{European Foundation for the Improvement of Living
and Working Conditions}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Put this in your preamble, and you can then use
\command{ef} in your document and it will typeset it
as the full text. Remember that after a command ending in a
letter you need to leave a space to avoid the next word
getting gobbled up as part of the command (see
\S\thinspace\ref{swallow}). And when you want to force a space
to be printed, use a backslash followed by a space, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
The \ef\ is an institution of the Commission of the European Union.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
As you can see from this example, the
\command{newcommand} command takes two arguments:
\begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item the name you want to give the new command; and \item the expansion to be performed when you use it\end{inparaenum}, so there are always two sets of curly braces
after \command{newcommand}.
\section{Macros using information gathered previously}
\label{macinf}
A more complex example is the macro
\command{maketitle} which is used in almost every
formal document to format the title block. In the basic
document classes (book, report, and article) it performs small
variations on the layout of a centred block with the title
followed by the author followed by the date, as we saw in
\S\thinspace\ref{titling}.
If you inspect one of these document class files, such as
\url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+ you will
see \command{maketitle} defined (and several variants
called \command{@maketitle} for use in different
circumstances). It uses the values for the title, author, and
date which are assumed already to have been stored in the
internal macros \command{@title},
\command{@author}, and \command{@date} by
the author using the matching \command{title},
\command{author}, and \command{date}
commands in the document.
This use of one command to store the information in
another is a common way of gathering the information from the
user. The use of macros containing the
\verb+@+ character prevents their accidental
misuse by the user: in fact to use them in your preamble we
have to allow the \verb+@+ sign to become a
`letter' so it can be recognised in a
command name, and remember to turn it off again
afterwards (see item~\ref{makeat} below).
\begin{sourcecode}\label{newtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\maketitle}{%
\begin{flushleft}%
\sffamily
{\Large\bfseries\color{red}\@title\par}%
\medskip
{\large\color{blue}\@author\par}%
\medskip
{\itshape\color{green}\@date\par}%
\bigskip\hrule\vspace*{2pc}%
\end{flushleft}%
}
\makeatother
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Insert this in the sample file on p.\thinspace\pageref{oldtitle} immediately before the
\verb+\begin{document}+ and remove the
\verb+\color{...}+ commands from the title,
author, and date. Re-run the file through \LaTeX{}, and you
should get something like this:
\begin{center}
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1cm}\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{newtitle}
\end{center}
In this redefinition of \command{maketitle},
we've done the following:
\begin{enumerate}\item\label{makeat}
Enclosed the changes in
\command{makeatletter} and
\command{makeatother} to allow us to use the
\verb+@+ sign in command names;\footnote{If you move all this preamble into a style file of
your own, you don't need these commands: the use
of \url+@+ signs in command names is
allowed in style and class files.}
\item
Used \command{renewcommand} and put
\command{maketitle} in curly braces after it;
\item
Opened a pair of curly braces to hold the new
definition. The closing curly brace is immediately before
the \command{makeatother};
\item
Inserted a \env{flushleft} environment
so the whole title block is left-aligned;
\item
Used \command{sffamily} so the whole title
block is in the defined sans-serif typeface;
\item
For each of \command{@title},
\command{@author}, and \command{@date},
we have used some font variation and colour, and enclosed
each one in curly braces to restrict the changes just to
each command. The closing \command{par} makes
sure that multiline title and authors and dates get
typeset with the relevant line-spacing;
\item
Added some flexible space between the lines, and
around the \command{hrule} (horizontal rule) at
the end;
\end{enumerate}
Note the \verb+%+ signs after any line ending
in a curly brace, to make sure no intrusive white-space find its
way into the output. These aren't needed after simple
commands where there is no curly brace because excess
white-space gets gobbled up there anyway.
\section{Macros with arguments}
\label{macargs}
But macros are not limited to text expansion. They can
take arguments of their own, so you can define a command to do
something with specific text you give it. This makes them much
more powerful and generic, as you can write a macro to do
something a certain way, and then use it hundreds of times
with a different value each time.
We looked earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{emph}) at making new
commands to put specific classes of words into certain fonts,
such as product names into italics, keywords into bold, and so
on. Here's an example for a command
\command{product}, which also indexes the product
name and adds a trademark sign:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{%
\textit{#1}\texttrademark%
\index{#1@\textit{#1}}%
}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
If I now type \verb+\tmproduct{Velcro}+ then I
get \product{Velcro}\texttrademark{} typeset, and if
you look in the index, you'll find this page referenced
under `{\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Velcro}'. Let's
examine what this does:
\begin{enumerate}\item
The macro is specified as having one argument (that's
the \verb+[1]+ in the definition). This will
be the product name you type in curly braces when you use
\command{product}. Macros can have up to nine
arguments.
\item
The expansion of the macro is contained in the second
set of curly braces, spread over several lines (see item~\ref{macrolines} for why).
\item
It prints the value of the first argument (that's
the \verb+#1+) in italics, which is
conventional for product names, and adds the
\command{texttrademark} command.
\item
Finally, it creates an index entry using the same
value (\verb+#1+), making sure that it's
italicised in the index (see the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{indextypo} in \S\thinspace\ref{indextypo} to remind yourself of how indexing
something in a different font works).
\item\label{macrolines}
Typing this macro over several lines makes it easier
for humans to read. I could just as easily have
typed
\begin{sourcecode}[\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{\textit{#1}\index{#1@\textit{#1}}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
but it wouldn't have been as clear what I was doing.
One thing to notice is that to prevent unwanted
spaces creeping into the output when \LaTeX{} reads the
macro, I ended each line with a comment character
(\verb+%+). \LaTeX{} normally treats
newlines as spaces when formatting (remember \S\thinspace\ref{comment}), so this stops the end of line
being turned into an unwanted space when the macro is
used. \LaTeX{} always ignores spaces at the
\emph{start} of macro lines anyway, so
indenting lines for readability is fine.
\end{enumerate}
In (\S\thinspace\ref{hyph}) we mentioned the problem
of frequent use of unbreakable text leading to poor
justification or to hyphenation problems. A solution is to
make a macro which puts the argument into an
\command{mbox} with the appropriate font change, but
precedes it all with a conditional
\command{linebreak} which will make it more
attractive to \TeX{} to start a new line.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\var}[1]{\linebreak[3]\mbox{\ttfamily#1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
This only works effectively if you have a reasonably wide
setting and paragraphs long enough for the differences in
spacing elsewhere to get hidden. If you have to do this in
narrow journal columns, you may have to adjust wording and
spacing by hand occasionally.
\section{Nested macros}
\label{macnest}
Here's a slightly more complex example, where one
macro calls another. It's common in normal text to refer
to people by their forename and surname (in that order), for
example \person{Don Knuth}, but to have them indexed as \emph{surname,
forename}. This pair of macros,
\command{person} and \command{reindex},
automates that process to minimize typing and indexing.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\person}[1]{#1\reindex #1\sentinel}
\def\reindex #1 #2\sentinel{\index{#2, #1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{enumerate}\item
The digit 1 in square brackets means that
\command{person} has one argument, so you put the
whole name in a single set of curly braces, e.g.
\verb+\person{Don Knuth}+.
\item
The first thing the macro does is output
\verb+#1+, which is the value of what you typed,
just as it stands, so the whole name gets typeset exactly
as you typed it.
\item
But then it uses a special feature of Plain \TeX{}
macros (which use \command{def} instead of
\LaTeX{}'s \command{newcommand}\footnote{Don't try this at home alone, children! This one
is safe enough, but you should strictly avoid
\command{def} for a couple of years. Stick to
\command{newcommand} for now.}): they too
can have multiple arguments but you can separate them with
other characters (here a space) to form a pattern which
\TeX{} will recognise when reading the arguments.
In this example (\command{reindex}) it's
expecting to see a string of characters
(\verb+#1+) followed by a space, followed by
another string of characters (\verb+#2+)
followed by a dummy command (\command{sentinel}).
In effect this makes it a device for splitting a name into two
halves on the space between them, so the two halves can be
handled separately. The \command{reindex} command
can now read the two halves of the name separately.
\item
The \command{person} command invokes
\command{reindex} and follows it with the name
you typed plus the dummy command
\command{sentinel} (which is just there to signal
the end of the name). Because \command{reindex}
is expecting two arguments separated by a space and
terminated by a \command{sentinel}, it sees
`\verb+Don+ and
\verb+Knuth+' as two separate
arguments.
It can therefore output them using
\command{index} in reverse order, which is
exactly what we want.
\end{enumerate}
A book or report with a large number of personal names to
print and index could make significant use of this to allow
them to be typed as
\verb+\person{Leslie Lamport}+ and printed as
\person{Leslie Lamport}, but have them indexed as
`Lamport,�Leslie' with virtually no effort
on the author's part at all.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{20}Other names}
\subsubsection*{Other names}
Try to work out how to make this
\command{person} feature work with names like:
\begin{itemize*}
\item Blanca Maria Bartosova de Paul
\item Patricia Maria Soria de Miguel
\item Arnaud de la Vill�sbrunne
\item Prince
\item Pope John Paul II
\end{itemize*}
Hints: the command \command{space} produces a
normal space, and one way around \LaTeX{}'s requirements
on spaces after command names ending with a letter is to
follow such commands with an empty set of curly braces
\verb+{}+.
\end{exercise}
\section{Macros and environments}
\label{macenv}
As mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{fancybox}, it is possible
to define macros to capture text in an environment and reuse it
afterwards. This avoids any features of the subsequent use
affecting the formatting of the text.
One example of this uses the facilities of the
\package{fancybox} package, which defines a variety
of framed boxes to highlight your text, and a special
environment \env{Sbox} which
`captures' your text for use in these boxes.
By putting the text (here in a
\env{minipage} environment because we want to
change the width) inside the \env{Sbox}
environment, it is typeset into memory and stored in the macro
\command{theSbox}. It can then be used afterwards as
the argument of the \command{shadowbox} command (and
in this example it has also been centred).
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{Sbox}
\begin{minipage}{3in}
This text is formatted to the specifications
of the minipage environment in which it occurs.
Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox
until it is needed, which is after the end of
the minipage, where you can (for example) centre
it and put it in a special framed box.
\end{minipage}
\end{Sbox}
\begin{center}
\shadowbox{\theSbox}
\end{center}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{sidebar}
This text is formatted to the specifications
of the minipage environment in which it occurs.
Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox
until it is needed, which is after the end of
the minipage, where you can (for example) centre
it and put it in a special framed box.
\end{sidebar}\end{example}
\section{Reprogramming \sfLaTeX{}'s internals}
\label{reprog}
\LaTeX{}'s internal macros can also be reprogrammed or
even rewritten entirely, although doing this can require a
considerable degree of expertise. Simple changes, however, are
easily done.
Recall that \LaTeX{}'s default document structure for
the Report document class uses Chapters as the main unit of
text, whereas in reality most reports are divided into
Sections, not Chapters (\S\thinspace\ref{repchap}). The result
of this is that if you start off your report with
\verb+\section{Introduction}+, it will print
as
{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}0.1\quad Introduction\emstrut}
\noindent which is not at all what you want. The zero is
caused by it not being part of any chapter. But this numbering
is controlled by macros, and you can redefine them. In this
case it's a macro called \verb+\thesection+
which reproduces the current section number counter (see \S\thinspace\ref{thecounter}). It's redefined afresh in each
document class file, using the command
\command{renewcommand} (in this case in
\url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand \thesection {\thechapter.\@arabic\c@section}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
You can see it invokes \command{thechapter}
(which is defined elsewhere to reproduce the value of the
\counter{chapter} counter), and it then prints a dot,
followed by the Arabic value of the counter called
\counter{section} (that \verb+\c@+
notation is \LaTeX{}'s internal way of referring to
counters). You can redefine this in your preamble to simply
leave out the reference to chapters:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\thesection}{\arabic{section}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
I've used the more formal method of enclosing the
command being redefined in curly braces. For largely
irrelevant historical reasons these braces are often omitted
in \LaTeX{}'s internal code (as you may have noticed in
the example earlier). And I've also used the
`public' macro
\command{arabic} to output the value of
\counter{section} (\LaTeX{}'s internals use a
`private' set of control sequences
containing \verb+@+-signs, designed to protect
them against being changed accidentally).
Now the introduction to your report will start
with:
{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}1\quad Introduction\emstrut}
What's important is that you \emph{don't
ever} need to alter the original document class
file \url+report.cls+: you just copy the
command you need to change into your own document preamble,
and modify that instead. It will then override the
default.
\subsection{Changing list item bullets}
\label{bullets}
As mentioned earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{labelitem}),
here's how to redefine a bullet for an itemized list,
with a slight tweak:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{bbding}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
Here we use the \package{bbding} package
which has a large selection of
`dingbats' or little icons, and we
make the label for top-level itemized lists print a
right-pointing pencil (the names for the icons are in the
package documentation: see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for how
to get it).
In this case, we are using the
\command{raisebox} command within the redefinition
because it turns out that the symbols in this font are
positioned slightly too high for the typeface we're
using. The \command{raisebox} command takes two
arguments: the first is a dimension, how much to raise the
object by (and a negative value means
`lower': there is no
\verb+\lowerbox+ command!); and the second is the
text you want to affect. Here, we are shifting the symbol
down by �ex (see \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions} for a list
of dimensions \LaTeX{} can use).
There is a vast number of symbols available: see
\titlecite{symbol-list} for a comprehensive list.
\chapter{Compatibility with other systems}
\label{compat}
As we saw in \chaptername~\ref{plaintext}, \LaTeX{} uses
plain-text files, so they can be read and written by any standard
application that can open text files. This helps preserve your
information over time, as the plain-text format cannot be
obsoleted or hijacked by any manufacturer or sectoral interest,
and it will always be readable on any computer, from your
handheld (yes, \LaTeX{} is available for some PDA\index{PDA@PDA}s) to
the biggest supercomputer.
However, \LaTeX{} is intended as the last stage of the
editorial process: formatting for print or display. If you have
a requirement to re-use the text in some other
environment\mdash{}a database perhaps, or on the Web or a CD-ROM\index{CD-ROM@CD-ROM} or DVD\index{DVD@DVD}, or in Braille
or voice output\mdash{}then it should be edited, stored, and
maintained in something neutral like XML, and only converted to
\LaTeX{} when a typeset copy is needed.
Although \LaTeX{} has many structured-document features in
common with SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and XML\index{XML@XML}, it can still only be processed by the
\LaTeX{} and
\product{pdflatex} programs. Because its macro features
make it almost infinitely redefinable, processing it requires a
program which can unravel arbitrarily complex macros, and
\LaTeX{} and its siblings are the only programs which can do that
effectively. Like other typesetters and formatters (Quark
\product{XPress},
\product{PageMaker},
\product{FrameMaker}, Microsoft
\product{Publisher},
\product[3]{3B2} etc.), \LaTeX{} is largely a
one-way street leading to typeset printing or display
formatting.
Converting \LaTeX{} to some other format therefore means you
will unavoidably lose some formatting, as \LaTeX{} has features
that others systems simply don't possess, so they cannot be
translated. Similarly, converting other formats to \LaTeX{}
usually means editing back the stuff the other formats omit
because they only store appearances, not structure.
\section{Converting into \sfLaTeX{}}
\label{tolatex}
There are several systems which will save their text in
\LaTeX{} format. The best known is probably the
\LyX{} editor, which is a
wordprocessor-like interface to \LaTeX{} for Windows and Unix.
Several maths packages like the
\product{EuroMath} editor, and the
\product{Mathematica} and
\product{Maple} analysis packages, can also
save material in \LaTeX{} format.
In general, most wordprocessors and DTP systems don't
have the level of internal markup sophistication needed to
create a \LaTeX{} file, or any other kind of structured
document, because they only store what the text looks like,
not why it's there or what role it fulfills. There are two
ways out of this:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Use the \menuitem{File}{Save
As\dots } menu item to save the wordprocessor
file as HTML, rationalise the HTML using
\person{Dave Raggett}'s \product{HTML
Tidy}\footnote{\url+
http://tidy.sourceforge.net/+}, and convert the resulting
XHTML to \LaTeX{} with any of the standard tools (see
below).
\item
Use a specialist conversion tool like EBT's
\product{DynaTag} (now available from
Enigma, if you can persuade them to sell you a copy).
It's expensive and they don't advertise it, but
for bulk conversion of consistently-marked
\product{Word} files into XML it beats everything
else hands down. The \product{Word} files
\emph{must} be consistent, though, and must
use named styles from a stylesheet, otherwise no system on
earth is going to be able to guess what it means.
\end{itemize}
There is of course a third way, suitable for large volumes
only: send it off to the Pacific Rim to be retyped into XML.
There are hundreds of companies from India to Polynesia who do
this at high speed and low cost. It sounds crazy when the
document is already in electronic form, but it's a good
example of the low quality of wordprocessor markup that this
solution exists at all.
You will have noticed that all the solutions lead to one
place: SGML\index{SGML@SGML} or XML\index{XML@XML}. As explained above and elsewhere, these
formats are the only ones devised so far capable of storing
sufficient information in machine-processable,
publicly-accessible form for a document to be recreated in
multiple output formats. Once your document is in XML\index{XML@XML} or
SGML\index{SGML@SGML}, there is a large range of software available to turn it
into other formats, including \LaTeX{}. Processors in any of
the common styling and processing languages like DSSSL\index{DSSSL@DSSSL}, XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT},
\product{Omnimark},
\product{Metamorphosis},
\product{Balise}, etc. can easily be written
to output \LaTeX{}, and this approach is extremely
common.
Much of this will be simplified when wordprocessors
support native, arbitrary XML as a standard feature.
Sun's \product{Star Office} and its Open
Source sister, \product{OpenOffice}, have
used XML as their native Save format for several years, and
there is a project at the Organisation for
the Advancement of Structured Information Systems�(OASIS)\index{OASIS@OASIS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!OASIS@OASIS|textbf}
for developing a common XML office file format based on those
used by these two packages.
\product{WordPerfect} has also had a native
SGML\index{SGML@SGML} (and now XML\index{XML@XML}) editor for many years, which will work
with any Document Type Definition�(DTD)\index{DTD@DTD|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTD@DTD|textbf} (but not a Schema).
Microsoft has had a half-hearted `Save
As\dots XML' for a while, using an internal
and largely undocumented Schema, but the
`Professional' versions of
\product{Word} and
\product{Excel} in
\product{Office�11} (Office 2003) now
have full support for arbitrary Schemas.
When these efforts coalesce into generalised support for
arbitrary DTD\index{DTD@DTD}s and Schemas, it will
mean a wider choice of editing interfaces, and probably the
ability to run XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} conversion into
\LaTeX{} from within these editors, uch as is done at the
moment with \product{Emacs} or
\product{XML Spy}.
\section{Converting out of \sfLaTeX{}}
\label{latexto}
This is much harder to do comprehensively. As noted
earlier, the \LaTeX{} file format really requires the \LaTeX{}
program itself in order to process all the packages and
macros, because there is no telling what complexities authors
have added themselves (what a lot of this booklet is
about!).
There is an excellent program on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} to do
\LaTeX{}-to-\product{Word} conversion, but it
only handles a subset of the built-in commands of default
\LaTeX{}, not packages or your own macros.
One easy route into wordprocessing, however, is the
reverse of the procedures suggested in the preceding section:
convert \LaTeX{} to HTML, which many wordprocessors read
easily. The \product[latex2html]{\LaTeX{}2HTML} and
\product[tex4ht]{\TeX{}4HT} programs do
this quite well, given the limited formatting available
through Web browsers.
If you have the full version of Adobe
\product{Acrobat}, you can open a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file created by
\product{pdflatex}, select and copy all the
text, and paste it into \product{Word} and
some other wordprocessors, and retain some common formatting
of headings, paragraphs, and lists. Both solutions still
require the wordprocessor text to be edited into shape, but
they preserve enough of the formatting to make it worthwhile
for short documents. Otherwise, use the
\product{pdftotext} program to extract
everything from the PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file as
plain (paragraph-formatted) text.
At worst, the \product{detex} program on
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} will strip a \LaTeX{} file of
all markup and leave just the raw unformatted text, which can
then be re-edited. There are also programs to extract the raw
text from DVI\index{DVI@DVI} and PostScript�(PS)\index{PS@PS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PS@PS|textbf} files.
\section{Going beyond \sfLaTeX{}}
\label{beyondlatex}
The reader will have deduced by now that while \LaTeX{} is
possibly the best programmable formatter around, the \LaTeX{}
file format is not generally usable with anything except the
\LaTeX{} program. \LaTeX{} was originally written in the
mid-1980s, about the same time as the Standard Generalized Markup Language�(SGML)\index{SGML@SGML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!SGML@SGML|textbf},
but the two projects were not related. However, \TeX{} and
\LaTeX{} have proved such useful tools for formatting SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and more recently XML\index{XML@XML} that many users chose this route for
their output, using conversions written in the languages
already mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{latexto}.
Unfortunately, when the rise of the Web in the early 1990s
popularised SGML\index{SGML@SGML} using the HyperText Markup Language�(HTML)\index{HTML@HTML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!HTML@HTML|textbf}, browser
writers deliberately chose to encourage authors to ignore the
rules of SGML\index{SGML@SGML}. Robust auto-converted
formatting therefore became almost impossible except via the
browsers' low-quality print routines.
It was not until 1997, when the Extensible Markup Language�(XML)\index{XML@XML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XML@XML|textbf} was devised,
that it again became possible to provide the structural and
descriptive power of SGML\index{SGML@SGML} but
without the complex and rarely-used options which had made
standard SGML\index{SGML@SGML} so difficult to
program for.
XML\index{XML@XML} is now becoming the
principal system of markup. Because it is based on the
international standard (SGML\index{SGML@SGML}), it is
not proprietary, so it has been implemented on most platforms,
and there is lots of free software supporting it as well as
many commercial packages. Like SGML\index{SGML@SGML},
it is actually a meta-language to let you define your own
markup, so it is much more flexible than HTML\index{HTML@HTML}. Implementations of the companion
Extensible Stylesheet Language�(XSL)\index{XSL@XSL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XSL@XSL|textbf}
provide a direct route to PDF\index{PDF@PDF} but at
the expense of reinventing most of the wheels which \LaTeX{}
already possesses, so the sibling Extensible Stylesheet Language:
Transformations�(XSLT)\index{XSLT@XSLT|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XSLT@XSLT|textbf} can be used instead to translate
to \LaTeX{} source code. This is usually much faster than
writing your own formatting from scratch in XSL\index{XSL@XSL}, and it means that you can take full
advantage of the packages and sophistication of \LaTeX{}. A
similar system is used for the Linux Documentation Project,
which uses SGML\index{SGML@SGML} transformed by the
Document Style Semantics and Specification
Language�(DSSSL)\index{DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf} to \TeX{}
The source code of this booklet, available online at
\url+
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/src/+
includes XSLT which does exactly this.
\appendix
\chapter[GNU Free Documentation License]{GNU Free Documentation License\\\LARGE\itshape Version 1.2, November 2002}
\label{gfdl}
\begin{multicols}{2}\small\gfdl
\begin{quotation}\small\noindent
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation,
Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not
allowed.
\end{quotation}
\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{PREAMBLE}
\label{gfdl-0}
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook,
or other functional and useful document `free' in
the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom
to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it,
either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this
License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of `copyleft', which
means that derivative works of the document must themselves be
free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public
License, which is a copyleft license designed for free
software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for
manuals for free software, because free software needs free
documentation: a free program should come with manuals
providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this
License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for
any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it
is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or
reference.
\section{APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS}
\label{gfdl-1}
\label{gfdl-doc}%
This License applies to any manual or other
work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the
copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms
of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide,
royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work
under the conditions stated herein. The
`Document', below, refers to any such manual or
work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
addressed as `you'. You accept the license if
you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring
permission under copyright law.
\label{gfdl-mod-ver}%
A `Modified Version' of the
Document means any work containing the Document or a portion
of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
translated into another language.
\label{gfdl-secnd-sect}%
A `Secondary Section' is
a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers
or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that
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the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary
Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship
could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or
with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical,
ethical or political position regarding them.
\label{gfdl-inv-sect}%
The `Invariant Sections'
are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says
that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it
is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document
may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not
identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
\label{gfdl-cov-text}%
The `Cover Texts' are
certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the
Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text
may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most
25 words.
\label{gfdl-transparent}%
A `Transparent' copy of
the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a
format whose specification is available to the general public,
that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly
with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels)
generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text
formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in
an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence
of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage
subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An
image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial
amount of text. A copy that is not `Transparent'
is called `Opaque'.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies
include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format,
LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available
DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML,
PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF designed for human
modification. Examples of transparent image formats include
PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats
that can be read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing
tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated
HTML, PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF produced by
some word processors for output purposes only.
\label{gfdl-title-page}%
The `Title Page' means,
for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this
License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, `Title
Page' means the text near the most prominent
appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning
of the body of the text.
\label{gfdl-entitled}%
A section `Entitled XYZ'
means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is
precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text
that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for
a specific section name mentioned below, such as
`Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
`Endorsements', or `History'.) To
`Preserve the Title' of such a section when you
modify the Document means that it remains a section
`Entitled XYZ' according to this
definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the
notice which states that this License applies to the Document.
These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by
reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming
warranties: any other implication that these Warranty
Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning
of this License.
\section{VERBATIM COPYING}
\label{gfdl-2}
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium,
either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this
License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all
copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to
those of this License. You may not use technical measures to
obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the
copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a
large enough number of copies you must also follow the
conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated
above, and you may publicly display copies.
\section{COPYING IN QUANTITY}
\label{gfdl-3}
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that
commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more
than 100, and the Document's license notice requires
Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry,
clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts
on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover.
Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the
publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the
full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in
addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long
as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these
conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous
to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many
as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest
onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
numbering more than 100, you must either include a
machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy,
or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network
location from which the general network-using public has
access to download using public-standard network protocols a
complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
material. If you use the latter option, you must take
reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of
Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent
copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until
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copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the
authors of the Document well before redistributing any large
number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an
updated version of the Document.
\section{MODIFICATIONS}
\label{gfdl-4}
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the
Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above,
provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of
the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of
the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In
addition, you must do these things in the Modified
Version:
\begin{enumerate}\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}\item Use in the Title Page (and on the covers,
if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and
from those of previous versions (which should, if there
were any, be listed in the History section of the
Document). You may use the same title as a previous
version if the original publisher of that version gives
permission.
\item List on the Title Page, as authors, one or
more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the
modifications in the Modified Version, together with at
least five of the principal authors of the Document (all
of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.
\item State on the Title page the name of the
publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
\item Preserve all the copyright notices of the
Document.
\item Add an appropriate copyright notice for
your modifications adjacent to the other copyright
notices.
\item Include, immediately after the copyright
notices, a license notice giving the public permission to
use the Modified Version under the terms of this License,
in the form shown in the Addendum (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-addendum}) below.
\item Preserve in that license notice the full
lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given
in the Document's license
notice.
\item Include an unaltered copy of this License.
\item Preserve the section Entitled
`History', Preserve its Title, and add to it
an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title
Page. If there is no section Entitled
`History' in the Document, create one stating
the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the
Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.
\item Preserve the network location, if any,
given in the Document for public access to a Transparent
copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations
given in the Document for previous versions it was based
on. These may be placed in the `History'
section. You may omit a network location for a work that
was published at least four years before the Document
itself, or if the original publisher of the version it
refers to gives permission.
\item For any section Entitled
`Acknowledgements' or
`Dedications', Preserve the Title of the
section, and preserve in the section all the substance and
tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
dedications given therein.
\item Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the
Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles.
Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part
of the section titles.
\item Delete any section Entitled
`Endorsements'. Such a section may not be
included in the Modified Version.
\item Do not retitle any existing section to be
Entitled `Endorsements' or to conflict in
title with any Invariant Section.
\item Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
\end{enumerate}
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections
or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain
no material copied from the Document, you may at your option
designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do
this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in
the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must
be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled
`Endorsements', provided it contains nothing but
endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for
example, statements of peer review or that the text has been
approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of
a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover
Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to
the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.
Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover
Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one
entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the
same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by
the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add
another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old
one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by
this License give permission to use their names for publicity
for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.
\section{COMBINING DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-5}
You may combine the Document with other documents released
under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}) above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of
the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all
their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this
License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be
replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the
title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it,
in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher
of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the
same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant
Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled
`History' in the various original documents,
forming one section Entitled `History'; likewise
combine any sections Entitled `Acknowledgements',
and any sections Entitled `Dedications'. You
must delete all sections Entitled
`Endorsements'.
\section{COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-6}
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and
other documents released under this License, and replace the
individual copies of this License in the various documents
with a single copy that is included in the collection,
provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other
respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection,
and distribute it individually under this License, provided
you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
and follow this License in all other respects regarding
verbatim copying of that document.
\section{AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT
WORKS}
\label{gfdl-7}
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with
other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a
volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
`aggregate' if the copyright resulting from the
compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the
compilation's users beyond what the individual works
permit. When the Document is included an aggregate, this
License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate
which are not themselves derivative works of the
Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable
to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less
than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's
Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document
within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers
if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must
appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.
\section{TRANSLATION}
\label{gfdl-8}
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you
may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of
section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations
requires special permission from their copyright holders, but
you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections
in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and
all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty
Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original
English version of this License and the original versions of
those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement
between the translation and the original version of this
License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled
`Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
or `History', the requirement (section 4) to
Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing
the actual title.
\section{TERMINATION}
\label{gfdl-9}
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the
Document except as expressly provided for under this License.
Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute
the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your
rights under this License. However, parties who have received
copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have
their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in
full compliance.
\section{FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
LICENSE}
\label{gfdl-10}
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised
versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to
time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new
problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing
version number. If the Document specifies that a particular
numbered version of this License `or any later
version' applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified
version or of any later version that has been published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
does not specify a version number of this License, you may
choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
Software Foundation.
\section{ADDENDUM: How to use this License
for your documents}
\label{gfdl-addendum}
To use this License in a document you have written,
include a copy of the License in the document and put the
following copyright and license notices just after the title
page:
\begin{quotation}\small\noindent
Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to
copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms
of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
section entitled `GNU Free Documentation
License'.
\end{quotation}
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and
Back-Cover Texts, replace the
`with\dots Texts.' line with this:
\begin{quotation}\small\noindent
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover
Texts being LIST.
\end{quotation}
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or
some other combination of the three, merge those two
alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program
code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under
your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General
Public License, to permit their use in free software.
\end{multicols}
\chapter{Configuring \TeX{} search paths}
\label{cnf}
\TeX{} systems run on a huge variety of platforms, and are
typically made up of huge numbers of quite small files, so they
cannot easily use each operating system's built-in methods
of searching for a file when needed.
Instead, they use a technique borrowed from the Unix world,
based on a simple index for each directory they need to look in.
This is known as the ls-R database, from the Unix command
(\verb+ls -R+) which creates it, and the program
which does it for \TeX{} is sometimes actually called
\product{mktexlsr}. This is the program referred
to in step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}.
However, to know where to make these indexes, and thus where
to search, \TeX{} needs to be told about them. In a standard
\TeX{} installation this information is in
\url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+. The file is similar
to a Unix script, but the only lines of significance for the
search paths are the following (this is how they appear in the
default Unix installation, omitting the comments):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
TEXMFMAIN = /usr/TeX/texmf
TEXMFLOCAL = /usr/TeX/texmf-local
HOMETEXMF = $HOME/texmf
TEXMF = {$HOMETEXMF,!!$TEXMFLOCAL,!!$TEXMFMAIN}
SYSTEXMF = $TEXMF
VARTEXFONTS = /var/lib/texmf
TEXMFDBS = $TEXMF;$VARTEXFONTS
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
As you can see, this defines where the main \TeX{}/\mf{}
directory is, where the local one is, and where the user's
personal (home) one is. It then defines the order in which they
are searched, and makes this the system-wide list. A temporary
directory for bitmap fonts is set up, and added to the list,
defining the places in which \product{texhash}
or \product{mktexlsr} creates its
databases.
In some installations, the local directory is set up in
\url+/usr/local/share/texmf+ or
\url+/usr/share/texmf.local+ or similar
variations, so you would substitute this name for
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local+. Under Microsoft
Windows, the names will be full paths such as
\url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\texmf+. On an Apple
Mac, it might be \url+Hard Disk:TeX:texmf+.
If you edit plain-text configuration files with anything
other than a plain-text editor (e.g.�a wordprocessor), or if you
edit them with a plain-text editor which has been set to
word-wrap long lines, make sure you turn line-wrapping
\emph{off} so that any long lines are preserved in
their correct format.
\chapter{\TeX{} Users Group membership}
\label{tugform}
The \TeX{} Users Group was founded in 1980 for educational
and scientific purposes: to provide an organization for those
who have an interest in typography and font design, and are
users of the \TeX{} typesetting system invented by Donald Knuth.
TUG is run by and for its members and represents the interests
of \TeX{} users worldwide.
\subsection*{TUG membership benefits}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{TUG membership benefits}
Members of TUG help to support and promote the use of
\TeX{}, \mf{}, and related systems worldwide. All members
receive \titlecite{tugboat} \textsl{TUGboat}, the
journal of the \TeX{} Users Group, the \TeX{} Live software
distribution (a runnable \TeX{} system), and the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} software distribution (containing most
of the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} archive).
In addition, TUG members vote in TUG elections, and
receive discounts on annual meeting fees, store purchases, and
TUG-sponsored courses. TUG membership (less benefits) is
tax-deductible, at least in the USA. See the TUG Web site for
details.
\subsection*{Becoming a TUG member}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Becoming a TUG member}
Please see the forms and information at \url+
http://tug.org/join.html+. You can join
online, or by filling out a paper form. The NTG (Dutch) and
UKTUG (United Kingdom) \TeX{} user groups have joint membership
agreements with TUG whereby you can receive a discount for
joining both user groups. To do this, please join via \url+
http://www.ntg.nl/newmember.html+ (the NTG
membership page) or \url+
http://uk.tug.org/Membership/+ (the UKTUG
page), respectively, and select the option for joint
membership.
Each year's membership entitles you to the software and
TUGboat produced for that year (even if it is produced in a
subsequent calendar year, as is currently the case with
TUGboat). You can order older issues of TUGboat and \TeX{}
memorabilia through the TUG store (\url+
http://tug.org/store+).
The current TUG membership fee is \$65 (US) per year
for individuals and \$35 for students and seniors. Add
\$10 to the membership fee after May 31 to cover
additional shipping and processing costs. The current rate for
non-voting subscription memberships (for libraries, for
example) is \$85. The current institutional rate is
\$500, which includes up to seven individual
memberships.
\subsection*{Privacy}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Privacy}
TUG uses your personal information only to mail you
products, publications, notices, and (for voting members)
official ballots. Also, if you give explicit agreement, we may
incorporate it into a membership directory which will be made
available only to TUG members.
TUG neither sells its membership list nor provides it to
anyone outside of its own membership.
\renewcommand{\bibname}{References}
\bibliography{beginlatex}
\bibliographystyle{jurabib}
\begin{VerbatimOut}{beginlatex.bib}
@book{mathguide,
juraauthor = {AMS},
author = {{American Mathematical Society}},
title = {{Short Math Guide for \LaTeX{}}},
juratitle = {Short Math Guide},
publisher = {AMS},
address = {Providence, RI},
url = {
http://www.ams.org/tex/short-math-guide.html},
year = {2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontname,
author = {Karl Berry},
title = {{Fontname: Filenames for \TeX{} fonts}},
url = {
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/fontname/},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
year = {June 2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bull,
author = {RJ Bull},
title = {{Accounting in Business}},
publisher = {Butterworths},
address = {London},
year = {1972},
isbn = {0-406-70651-4},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{teiguide,
author = {Lou Burnard and Michael Sperberg-McQueen},
title = {{Guidelines for the Text Encoding Initiative}},
juratitle = {TEI Guidelines},
organisation = {OUP},
address = {Oxford},
year = {1995},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{davy,
author = {William Davy},
title = {{A System of Divinity}},
publisher = {Published by the author},
address = {Lustleigh, Devon},
year = {1806},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gentle,
author = {Michael Doob},
title = {{A Gentle Introduction to \TeX{}: A Manual for Self-Study}},
juratitle = {Gentle Intro},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
year = {2002},
url = {
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/gentle/},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bovary,
author = {Gustave Flaubert},
title = {{Madame Bovary}},
address = {Paris},
year = {1857},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{htmlbook,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{The HTML Handbook}},
juratitle = {The HTML Handbook},
publisher = {International Thompson Computer
Press},
address = {London},
isbn = {1-85032-205-8},
year = {1995},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{sgmltools,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{Understanding SGML and XML Tools}},
juratitle = {SGML \amp XML Tools},
publisher = {Kluwer},
address = {Boston},
isbn = {0-7923-8169-6},
year = {1998},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{fg,
author = {John Fothergill},
title = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
publisher = {Penguin},
address = {London},
edition = {3rd},
year = {1929},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{companion,
author = {Michel Goossens and Frank Mittelbach and Alexander Samarin},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Companion}},
juratitle = {Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-54199-8},
year = {1993},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{graphicscomp,
author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Frank Mittelbach},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Graphics Companion}},
juratitle = {Graphics Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-85469-4},
year = {1997},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{webcomp,
author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Ross Moore and Bob Sutor},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Web Companion}},
juratitle = {Web Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-43311-7},
year = {1999},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{goreham-ctt,
author = {Anthony Goreham},
title = {{Re: Installing a new font: PFM, PFB}},
juratitle = {Installing a new font},
url = {news:comp.text.tex},
number = {
[email protected]},
pages = {(all pages)},
year = {28 November 2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{heller,
author = {Robert Heller},
title = {{New To \LaTeX{}\dots Unlearning Bad Habits}},
juratitle = {Bad habits},
url = {news:comp.text.tex},
number = {
[email protected]},
pages = {(all pages)},
year = {11 March 2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontinst,
author = {Alan Jeffrey and Rowland McDonnell},
title = {{Font installation software for \TeX{}}},
juratitle = {Fontinst},
url = {
http://www.tex.ac.uk/tex-archive/fonts/utilities/fontinst/},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
year = {30 June 1998},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{aocs,
author = {Donald Ervin Knuth},
title = {{The Art of Computer Programming}},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
edition = {2nd},
volume = {1},
isbn = {0-201-89685-0},
year = {1980},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{latexbook,
author = {Leslie Lamport},
title = {{\LaTeX{}: A Document Preparation System}},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-52983-1},
edition = {2nd},
year = {1994},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{macnamara,
author = {Matthew {Mac Namara}},
title = {{La Textualisation de \emph{Madame
Bovary}}},
publisher = {Rodopi},
address = {Amsterdam},
year = {2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{lshort,
author = {Tobias Oetiker and Hubert Partl and Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl},
title = {{The (Not So) Short Guide to \LaTeXe{}: \LaTeXe{} in 131 Minutes}},
juratitle = {Short Guide},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/},
year = {2001},
edition = {3.2},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{symbol-list,
author = {Scott Pakin},
title = {{A comprehensive list of symbols in \TeX{}}},
juratitle = {Symbol list},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/symbols/comprehensive/},
year = {2002},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{begin,
juraauthor = {TUG},
author = {{\TeX{} Users Group}},
title = {{Getting Started with \TeX{}, \LaTeX{}, and friends}},
juratitle = {Getting Started},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {
http://www.tug.org/begin.html},
year = {November 2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{imported,
author = {Keith Reckdahl},
title = {{Using imported graphics in \LaTeXe{}}},
juratitle = {Imported graphics},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/epslatex.pdf/},
year = {1997},
edition = {2.0},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{ryder,
author = {John Ryder},
title = {{Printing for Pleasure}},
publisher = {Bodley Head},
address = {London},
isbn = {0-370-10443-9},
year = {1976},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{xmlfaq,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{The XML FAQ}},
organisation = {University College Cork},
address = {Cork, Ireland},
url = {
http://www.ucc.ie/xml/},
year = {January 2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gnufdl,
juraauthor = {FSF},
author = {{Free Software Foundation}},
title = {{The GNU Free Documentation License}},
juratitle = {GNU FDL},
organisation = {Free Software Foundation},
address = {Boston, MA},
url = {
http://www.fsf.org/copyleft/fdl.html},
year = {2003/02/10 23:42:49},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{tugboat,
editor = {Barbara Beeton},
title = {{TUGboat}},
publisher = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
issn = {0896-3207},
year = {Since 1980},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{wired,
editor = {Chris Anderson},
title = {{WIRED}},
publisher = {Cond\'e Nast},
address = {San Francisco, CA},
issn = {1059-1028},
year = {1993--},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
\end{VerbatimOut}
\renewcommand{\indexname}{Index}
\clearpage\section*{\indexname}
The same fonts are used here as in the text of the booklet
(see the Introduction)
to distinguish between different meanings:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-.95\baselineskip]
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}&Acronyms (small caps in some typefaces)\\
\command{command}&\LaTeX{} control sequences (monospace font)\\
{\fontseries{b}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}term}&Defining instance of a specialist term (bold
italics)\\
\product{product}&program or product name (italics)\\
\env{environment}&\LaTeX{} environment (sans-serif bold)\\
\package{package}&\LaTeX{} package (sans-serif; all available from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
\opt{options},
\counter{variables}&options and variables (oblique)\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
In the online version, these entries are all hyperlinked to
their source: for clarity the stylesheet recommends
retaining the traditional blue colour but removing the
underlining which most browsers use to indicate a link.
Page numbers in {\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}bold type}
indicate the defining instance.
\par\parfillskip=0pt plus.5fil
\multicolsep=1.5pc\printindex
\end{document}
