\documentclass[12pt,a4paper,twoside]{report}

\documentclass[12pt,a4paper,twoside]{report}
\usepackage{typebook}
\begin{document}
\title{Formatting information}
\subtitle{A beginner's introduction to typesetting with
\LaTeX{}}
\author{Peter Flynn}
\date{v.3.6 March 2005}
\legal{%
This document is Copyright � 1999\ndash{}2005 by
Silmaril Consultants under the terms of what is now the GNU
Free Documentation License (copyleft).

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify
this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled \titlecite{gnufdl}.

You are allowed to distribute, reproduce, and modify it
without fee or further requirement for consent subject to the
conditions in \S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}. The author has
asserted his right to be identified as the author of this
document. If you make useful modifications you are asked to
inform the author so that the master copy can be updated. See
the full text of the License in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.

}\maketitle
\subsubsection*{Acknowledgments}
This edition of \textsl{Formatting
Information} was prompted by the generous help I
have received from \TeX{} users too numerous to mention
individually. Shortly after TUGboat published the November
2003 edition, I was reminded by a spate of email of the
fragility of documentation for a system like \LaTeX{} which is
constantly under development. There have been revisions to
packages; issues of new distributions, new tools, and new
interfaces; new books and other new documents; corrections to
my own errors; suggestions for rewording; and in one or two
cases mild abuse for having omitted package X which the author
felt to be indispensable to users.\par
I am grateful as always to the people who sent me
corrections and suggestions for improvement. Please keep them
coming: only this way can this book reflect what people
want to learn. The same limitation still applies, however: no
mathematics, as there are already a dozen or more excellent
books on the market\mdash{}as well as other online
documents\mdash{}dealing with mathematical typesetting in
\TeX{} and \LaTeX{} in finer and better detail than I am
capable of.\par
The structure remains the same, but I have revised and
rephrased a lot of material, especially in the earlier
chapters where a new user cannot be expected yet to have
acquired any depth of knowledge. Many of the screenshots have
been updated, and most of the examples and code fragments have
been retested.\par
As I was finishing this edition, I was asked to review
an article for \titlecite{practex}, which
grew out of the Practical \TeX{} Conference in 2004. The
author specifically took the writers of documentation to task
for failing to explain things more clearly, and as I read
more, I found myself agreeing, and resolving to clear up some
specific problems areas as far as possible. It is very
difficult for people who write technical documentation to
remember how they struggled to learn what has now become a
familiar system. So much of what we do is second nature, and a
lot of it actually has nothing to do with the software, but
more with the way in which we view and approach information,
and the general level of knowledge of computing. If I have
obscured something by making unreasonable assumptions about
\emph{your} knowledge, please let me know so
that I can correct�it.\par
\par\vspace*{2pc}\noindent\ignorespaces
Peter Flynn is author of \titleof{htmlbook} and \titleof{sgmltools}, and editor of \titleof{xmlfaq}.
\par\vfill
\subsubsection*{Technical~note}
The text is written and
maintained in DocBook with a customization layer for
typographics. XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} is used to generate
HTML\index{HTML@HTML} (for the Web and plain-text
versions) and \LaTeX{} (for PDF\index{PDF@PDF} and
PostScript\index{PostScript}). The November 2003 edition
was published in \titlecite{tugboat}. This edition contains extensive
revisions and simplifications to the text, and many corrections
to the way in which the packages and their capabilities are
presented.\par\vfill
\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Contents}
\tableofcontents
\listofexercises
\listoftables
\prelim{Introduction}\label{intro}

This book originally accompanied a 2-day course on using the
\LaTeX{} typesetting system. It has been extensively revised and
updated and can now be used for self-study or in the classroom.
It is aimed at users of Linux, Macintosh, or Microsoft Windows
but it can be used with \LaTeX{} systems on any platform,
including other Unix workstations, mainframes, and even your
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)\index{PDA@PDA|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDA@PDA|textbf}.
\subsection*{Who needs this book?}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Who needs this book?}

The audience for the original training course was assumed
to be computer-literate and composed of professional,
business, academic, technical, or administrative computer
users. The readers of the book (you) are mostly assumed to be
in a similar position, but may also come from many other
backgrounds, including hobbyists, students, and just people
interested in quality typesetting. You are expected to have
one or more of the following or similar objectives:
\begin{itemize}
\item
producing typesetter-quality formatting;

\item
formatting long, complex, highly-structured,
repetitive, or automatically-generated
documents;\footnote{\LaTeX{} can easily be used for once-off or short
and simple documents as well, but its real strengths
lie in consistency and automation.}

\item
saving time and effort by automating common
tasks;

\item
achieving or maintaining your independence from
specific makes or models of proprietary hardware,
software, or file formats (portability);

\item
using Open Source software (free of restrictions,
sometimes also free of charge).

\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Skills needed}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Skills needed}

\LaTeX{} is a very easy system to learn, and requires no
specialist knowledge, although literacy and some familiarity
with the publishing process is useful. It is, however, assumed
that you are completely fluent and familiar with using your
computer before you start. Specifically, effective use of this
document requires that you already know and understand the
following very thoroughly:
\begin{itemize}
\item
how to use a good plain-text
editor (\emph{not} a wordprocessor like
\product{OpenOffice},
\product{WordPerfect}, or Microsoft
\product{Word}, and
\emph{not} a toy like Microsoft
\product{Notepad});\marginal{
2.1.3
}

\item
where to find all 95 of the printable ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters on your keyboard and
what they mean, and how to type accents and symbols, if
you use them;\marginal{
3.2.1.2
}

\item
how to create, open, save,
close, rename, move, and delete files and folders
(directories);\marginal{
2.3
}

\item
how to use a Web browser and/or File
Transfer Protocol (FTP)\index{FTP@FTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FTP@FTP|textbf} program to
download and save files from the Internet;\marginal{
7.3.1.6
}

\item
how to uncompress and unwrap (unzip or detar)
downloaded files.\marginal{
2.3.7
}

\end{itemize}

If you don't know how to do
these things yet, it's important to go and learn them
first. Trying to become familiar with the fundamentals of
using a computer \emph{at the same time} as
learning \LaTeX{} is not likely to be as effective as doing
them in order.

These are not specialist
skills\mdash{}they are all included in the European Computer Driving
Licence (ECDL)\index{ECDL@ECDL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ECDL@ECDL|textbf} and the relevant sections of the ECDL\index{ECDL@ECDL} syllabus are noted in the margin
above, so they are well within the capability of anyone who
uses a computer.
\subsection*{Objectives of this book}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Objectives of this book}

By the end of this book, you should be able to undertake
the following tasks:
\begin{itemize}
\item
use a plain-text editor to create and maintain your
documents;

\item
add \LaTeX{} markup to identify
your document structure and formatting
requirements;

\item
typeset \LaTeX{} documents, correct simple formatting
errors, and display or print the results;

\item
identify, install, and use additional packages (using
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} for downloading where
necessary);

\item
recognise the limitations of procedural markup systems
and choose appropriate generic markup methods where
appropriate.

\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Synopsis}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Synopsis}

The original course covered the following topics as
separate sessions, which are represented in the book as
chapters:
\begin{enumerate}\item
Where to get and how to install
\LaTeX{} (\product{te\TeX{}},
\product{fp\TeX{}}, or
\product{pro\TeX{}t} from the
\TeX{} Collection disks);\index{texlive@ Live}\index{texcollection@ Collection}

\item
How to type \LaTeX{} documents:
using an editor to create files
(half a dozen editors for \LaTeX{});

\item
Basic structures (the Document Class Declaration and
its layout options; the document environment with sections
and paragraphs);

\item
Typesetting, viewing, and printing;

\item
The use of packages and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
to adapt formatting using standard tools;

\item
Other document structures (lists, tables, figures,
images, and verbatim text);

\item
Textual tools (footnotes, marginal notes,
cross-references, indexes and glossaries, and
bibliographic citations);

\item
Typographic considerations (white-space and typefaces;
inline markup and font changes; extra font installation
and automation);

\item
Programmability and automation (macros and modifying
\LaTeX{}'s behaviour);

\item
Conversion and compatibility with other systems
(XML\index{XML@XML},
\product{Word}, etc.).

\end{enumerate}

A few changes have been made in the transition to printed
and online form, but the basic structure is the same, and the
document functions as a workbook for the course as well as a
standalone self-teaching guide.
\subsection*{Where's the math?}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Where's the math?}

It is important to note that
the document \emph{does not cover} mathematical
typesetting, complex tabular material, the design of
large-scale macros and document classes, or the finer points
of typography or typographic design, although it does refer to
these topics in passing on a few occasions.
\index{mathematics}
There are several other guides, introductions, and
`get-started' documents on the Web and
on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} which cover these topics and
more. Among the more popular are:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\titlecite{begin}, where all
beginners should start;

\item
\titlecite{lshort} is a good
beginner's tutorial;

\item
\titlecite{gentle} is a classic
tutorial on Plain \TeX{};

\item
\titlecite{imported} shows you how
to do (almost) anything with graphics: side-by-side,
rotated, etc.;

\item
\titlecite{mathguide} gets you
started with the American Math Society's powerful
packages;

\item
\titlecite{symbol-list} shows over
2,500 symbols available.

\end{itemize}

This list was taken from the
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search page. There are also
lots of books published about \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}: the most
important of these for users of this document are listed in
the last paragraph of the Foreword on p.\thinspace\pageref{docs}.
\subsection*{Availability of \LaTeX{} systems}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Availability of \LaTeX{} systems}\label{availability}

Because the \TeX{} program (the
`engine' which actually does the
typesetting) is separate from whichever editor you choose,
\TeX{}-based systems are available in a variety of different
modes using different interfaces, depending on how you want to
use them.
\subsubsection*{Graphical interface}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Graphical interface}\label{gui}

The normal way to run \LaTeX{} is
to use a toolbar button (icon), a menu item, or a keystroke
in your editor. Click on it and your document gets saved and
typeset. All the other features of \LaTeX{} systems (the
typeset display, spellchecker, related programs like
\product{makeindex} and \BibTeX{}) are run
the same way. This works both in a normal Graphical User Interface (GUI)\index{GUI@GUI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GUI@GUI|textbf} as well as in
text-only interfaces.

In the popular \LaTeX{} editors like
\product{Emacs},
\product{\TeX{}shell},
\product{\TeX{}nicCenter},
\product{WinShell}, or
\product{WinEdt}, a record of the
typesetting process is shown in an adjoining window so that
you can see the progress of pages being typeset, and any
errors or warnings that may occur.\footnote{Recent versions of some editors hide this display by
default unless errors occur in the typesetting.}
\subsubsection*{Command-line interface}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Command-line interface}\label{cli}

However, the graphical interface
is useless if you want to run \LaTeX{} unattended, as part of an
automated system, perhaps in a web server or e-commerce
environment, where there is no direct connection between
user and program. The underlying \TeX{} engine is in fact
a Command-Line Interface (CLI)\index{CLI@CLI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CLI@CLI|textbf} program,
that is, it is used as a
`console' program which you run from
a standard Unix or Mac terminal or shell window (or from an
MS-DOS command window in Microsoft Windows systems). You
type the command
\verb+latex+ followed by the name of your
document file (see Figure~\ref{clidemo} in \S\thinspace\ref{cmdwin} for an example).

Commands like these let you run \LaTeX{} in an automated
environment like a
Common Gateway Interface (CGI)\index{CGI@CGI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CGI@CGI|textbf} script
on a web server or a batch file on a document system. All
the popular distributions for Unix and Windows, both free
and commercial, include this interface as standard
(te\TeX{}, fp\TeX{}, MiK\TeX{}, pro\TeX{}t,
PC-\TeX{}, True\TeX{},
etc.).
\subsubsection*{Typeset displays}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Typeset displays}\label{displays}

\LaTeX{} usually displays your
typeset results in a separate window, redisplayed
automatically every time the document is reprocessed,
because the typesetting is done separately from the editing.
Some systems, however, can format the typesetting while you
type, at the expense of some flexibility.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Asynchronous typographic displays]\label{async}
This method is called an \textbf{\textit{asynchronous typographic
display}}\label{asynchronous}\index{asynchronous typographic
display@\textbf{\textit{asynchronous typographic
display}}} because the typeset window only
updates \emph{after} you have typed
something and reprocessed it, not
\emph{while} you are still typing, as it
would with a wordprocessor.\footnote{Among other reasons, \TeX{} typesets whole
paragraphs at a time, not line-by-line as lesser
systems do, in order to get the hyphenation and
justification (H\amp J) right (see \S\thinspace\ref{handj}).
}
\item[\sffamily Synchronous typographic displays]\label{sync}
\label{synchro}%
Some distributions of \LaTeX{}
offer a \textbf{\textit{synchronous
typographic interface}}\label{synchronous}\index{synchronous
typographic interface@\textbf{\textit{synchronous
typographic interface}}}. In these, you type
directly into the typographic display, as with a
wordprocessor. Three popular examples are
\product{Textures},
\product{Scientific Word}, and
\product{V\TeX{}} (see table below).
At least one free version (\LyX{}, see Figure~\ref{lyxwin} in \S\thinspace\ref{editors})
offers a similar interface.

With a synchronous display
you get Instant Textual Gratification\texttrademark{}, but your
level of control is restricted to that of the GUI\index{GUI@GUI} you use, which cannot provide
access to everything that \LaTeX{} can do. For
complete control of the formatting
you may still need access to your normal source
(input) file in the same way as for asynchronous
implementations.
\item[\sffamily Near-synchronous displays]
There are several other
methods available free for Unix and some other systems
for close-to-synchronous updates of the typeset
display (including \person{Jonathan Fine}'s \product{Instant
Preview} and the \TeX{} daemon), and
for embedding typographic fragments from the typeset
display back into the editor window (\person{David Kastrup}'s \package{preview-latex}
package).
\end{description}
\subsubsection*{Commercial distributions}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsubsection}{Commercial distributions}\label{commercial}

Whatever method you choose, the
\TeX{} Collection CD and CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are
not the only source of software. The vendors listed in Table~ offer excellent commercial
implementations of \TeX{} and \LaTeX{},
and if you are in a position where their enhanced support
and additional features are of benefit, I urge you to
support them. In most cases their companies, founders, and
staff have been good friends of the \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}
communities for many years.\index{commercial implementations}
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Popular commercial implementations of \TeX{} systems}
\label{vendors}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}p{.65in}p{1in}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{.9in}l@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Product}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Platform}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Company}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape URI}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
PC\TeX{}&MS-Windows&Personal \TeX{}, Inc&\url+www.pctex.com/+\\
True\TeX{}&MS-Windows&True \TeX{}&\url+truetex.com/+\\
Textures&Apple Mac&Blue Sky Research&\url+www.bluesky.com/+\\
Scientific Word&MS-Windows&Mackichan Software&\url+www.mackichan.com/+\\
V\TeX{}&MS-Windows, Linux, OS/2&MicroPress, Inc&\url+www.micropress-inc.com/+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection*{Production note}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Production note}\label{prodnote}

This document is written and maintained in XML\index{XML@XML}, using a customized version of the
\product{DocBook}�DTD\index{DTD@DTD}. Conversions were made to HTML\index{HTML@HTML} and \LaTeX{} using XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} scripts and \person{Michael Kay}'s \product{Saxon}
processor.

The complete source, with all ancillary files, is
available online at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/src/+
but if you want to try processing it yourself you must install
\product{Java} (from Sun, IBM\index{IBM@IBM}, or a number of
others) and \product{Saxon} (from \url+http://saxon.sourceforge.net/+), in addition
to \LaTeX{}.

This document is published under the terms and conditions
of the GNU\index{GNU@GNU} Free Documentation
License. Details are in Appendix~\ref{gfdl}.
\clearpage\subsection*{Symbols and conventions}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Symbols and conventions}\label{symbols}

The following typographic notations are used:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{symboltable}
\begin{tabular}{@{}lp{3.5in}@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\command{command}&Control sequences which perform an
action, e.g. \command{newpage}\\
\length{length}&Control sequences which store a dimension
(measurement in units), e.g. \length{parskip}\\
\counter{counter}&Values used for counting (whole numbers, as
opposed to measuring in units), e.g. \counter{secnumdepth}\\
\textbf{\textit{term}}\label{term}\index{term@\textbf{\textit{term}}}&Defining instance of a
new term\\
\env{environment}&A \LaTeX{} formatting environment\\
\package{package}&A \LaTeX{} package (available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
\product{product}&Program or product name\\
\verb+typewriter type+&Examples of source code (stuff you
type)\\
{\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}\uline{mybook}} or {\ttfamily{}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}value}&Mnemonic examples of
things you have to supply real-life values for\\
\key{x}&A key on your keyboard\\
\key{Ctrl}--\key{x}~&Two keys pressed together\\
\key{Esc}\thinspace{}\key{q}&Two keys pressed one after another\\
\guiicon{Submit}&On-screen button to click\\
\menuitem{Menu}{Item}&Drop-down menu with items\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Examples of longer fragments of input are shown with a
border round them. Where necessary, the formatted output is
shown immediately beneath. Warnings are shown with a shaded
background. Exercises are shown with a double border.
\prelim{Foreword}\label{foreword}

As noted in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{intro},
this document accompanies a two-day introductory training course.
It became obvious from repeated questions in class and
afterwards, as well as from general queries on \url+comp.text.tex+ that many people do
not read the FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ}s, do not use the
TUG\index{TUG@TUG} web site, do not buy the books and
manuals, do not use the newsgroups and mailing lists, and do not
download the free documentation. Instead, they try to get by
using the training technique known as `sitting by
Nelly', which involves looking over a
colleague's shoulder in the office, lab, library, pub, or
classroom, and absorbing all his or her bad habits.

In the summer of 2001 I presented a short proposal on the
marketing of \LaTeX{} to the annual conference of the \TeX{} Users
Group held at the University of Delaware, and showed an example
of a draft
brochure\footnote{\url+http://www.silmaril.ie/documents/latex-brochure/leaflet.pdf+} designed to persuade newcomers to try \LaTeX{}
for their typesetting requirements. As a result of questions and
suggestions, it was obvious that it needed to include a pointer
to some documentation, and I agreed to make available a revised
form of this document, expanded to be used outside the
classroom, and to include those topics on which I have had most
questions from users over the years.

It turned out to mean a significant
reworking of a lot of the material. Some of it appears in almost
every other manual and book on \LaTeX{} but it is essential to
the beginner and therefore bears repetition. Some of it appears
other forms elsewhere, and is included here because it needs
explaining better. And some of it appears nowhere else but this
document. I took the opportunity to revise the structure of the
training course in parallel with the book (expanding it from its
original one day to two days), and to include a more
comprehensive index. It is by no means perfect (in both senses),
and I would be grateful for comments and corrections to be sent
to me at the address given under the credits.

I had originally hoped that the \LaTeX{} version of the
document would be processable by any freshly-installed default
\LaTeX{} system, but the need to include font samples which go
well beyond the default installation, and to use some packages
which the new user is unlikely to have installed, means that
this document itself is not really a simple piece of \LaTeX{},
however simply it may describe the process itself.

However, as the careful reader will have already noticed,
the master source of the document is not maintained in \LaTeX{}
but in XML\index{XML@XML}. A future task is therefore
to compare the packages required with those installed by
default, and flag portions of the document requiring additional
features so that an abbreviated version can be generated which
can be guaranteed to process even with a basic \LaTeX{}
installation.

\label{docs}%
If you are just starting with \LaTeX{}, at an early
opportunity you should buy or borrow a copy of \titlecite{latexbook} which is the original
author's manual. More advanced users should get the
\titlecite{companion} or one of its
successors. In the same series there are also the \titlecite{graphicscomp} and the \titlecite{webcomp}. Mathematical users might want to
read \titlecite{mathguide}.
\prelim{Preface}\label{preface}

Many people discover \LaTeX{} after
years of struggling with wordprocessors and desktop publishing
systems, and are amazed to find that \TeX{} has been around for
over 25 years and they hadn't heard of it. It's not a
conspiracy, just `a well-kept secret known only to a few
million people', as one anonymous user has put
it.

Perhaps a key to why it has remained
so popular is that it removes the need to fiddle with the
formatting while you write. Although playing around with fonts
and formatting is attractive to the newcomer, it is completely
counter-productive for the serious author or editor who wants to
concentrate on \emph{writing}\mdash{}ask any
journalist or professional writer.

A few years ago a new \LaTeX{} user expressed concern on
the \url+comp.text.tex+ newsgroup about
`learning to write in \LaTeX{}'. Some
excellent advice\footnote{\url+news:comp.text.tex/[email protected]+} was posted in response to this query,
which I reproduce with permission below [the bold text is my
emphasis]:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup \ttfamily\raggedright\setlength{\spaceskip}{.375em}\noindent
No, the harder part might be \emph{writing},
period. \TeX{}/\LaTeX{} is actually easy, once you relax and
stop worrying about appearance as a be-all-and-end-all. Many
people have become `Word Processing
Junkies' and \emph{\textbf{no longer
`write' documents, they
`draw' them}}, almost at the
same level as a pre-literate 3-year old child might pretend to
`write' a story, but is just creating a
sequence of pictures with a pad of paper and box of
\product{Crayola}s\mdash{}this is perfectly
normal and healthy in a 3-year old child who is being
creative, but is of questionable usefulness for, say, a grad
student writing a Master's or PhD thesis or a business
person writing a white paper, etc. For this reason,
\emph{I} strongly recommend
\emph{not} using any sort of fancy GUI\index{GUI@GUI}�`crutch'.
Use a plain vanilla text editor and treat it like an
old-fashioned typewriter. Don't waste time playing with
your mouse.

Note: I am \emph{not} saying that you should
have no concerns about the appearance of your document, just
that you should \emph{write} the document
(completely) first and tweak the appearance
later\dots \emph{not} [spend time on] lots of
random editing in the bulk of the document itself.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent [\citeauthortitleyear{heller}]\end{quotation}

Learning to write well can be hard, but authors shouldn't
have to make things even harder for themselves by using
manually-driven systems which break their concentration every
few seconds for some footling adjustment to the appearance,
simply because the software is incapable of doing it right by
itself.

\label{mathtex}%
\person{Don Knuth} originally wrote \TeX{} to typeset mathematics for
the second edition of his master-work \titlecite{aocs}, and it remains pretty much the only
typesetting program to include fully-automated mathematical
formatting done the way mathematicians want it. But he also
published a booklet called \titlecite{mathwrite} which shows how
important it is to think about what you write, and how the
computer should be able to help, not hinder.

And \TeX{} is much more than math:
it's a programmable typesetting system which can be used
for almost any formatting task, and \LaTeX{} has made it usable by
almost anyone. Professor Knuth generously placed the entire system in the
public domain, so for many years there was no publicity of the
commercial kind which would have got \TeX{} noticed outside the
technical field.

Nowadays, however, there are many companies
selling \TeX{} software or services,\footnote{See, for example, the list of \TeX{} vendors on p.\thinspace\pageref{vendors}, and the list of consultants
published by TUG\index{TUG@TUG}.} dozens
of publishers accepting \LaTeX{} documents for
publication, and hundreds of thousands of users using \LaTeX{}
for millions of documents.\footnote{A guesstimate. With free software it's impossible
to tell how many people are using it, but it's a
\emph{lot}.}

To count yourself as a \TeX{} or \LaTeX{} user, visit the
\TeX{} Users Group's
`\TeX{} Counter' web site
(and get a nice certificate!).

There is occasionally some confusion among newcomers between
the two main programs, \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\TeX{} is a typesetting program, originally written by
Prof Knuth at Stanford around 1978. It implements a
macro-driven typesetters' programming language of some
300 basic operations and it has formed the core of many
other desktop publishing (DTP)\index{DTP@DTP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTP@DTP|textbf}
systems. Although it is still possible to write in the raw
\TeX{} language, you need to study it in depth, and you need
to be able to write macros (subprograms) to perform even the
simplest of repetitive tasks.

\item
\LaTeX{} is a user interface for \TeX{}, designed by
\person{Leslie Lamport} at Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC)\index{DEC@DEC|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DEC@DEC|textbf} in 1985 to automate all the common
tasks of document preparation. It provides a simple way for
authors and typesetters to use the power of \TeX{} without
having to learn the underlying language. \LaTeX{} is the
recommended system for all users except professional
typographic programmers and computer scientists who want to
study the internals of \TeX{}.

\end{itemize}

Both \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} have been
constantly updated since their inception. Knuth has now frozen
development of the \TeX{} engine so that users and developers
can have a virtually bug-free, rock-stable platform to work
with.\footnote{Knuth still fixes bugs, although the chances of finding
a bug in \TeX{} these days approaches zero.} Typographic programming development continues with
the New Typesetting System (NTS)\index{NTS@NTS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!NTS@NTS|textbf}, planned
as a successor to \TeX{}. The \LaTeX{}3 project has taken over
development of \LaTeX{}, and the current version is
\LaTeXe{}, which is what we are concentrating on here. Details
of all developments can be had from the TUG\index{TUG@TUG} at \url+http://www.tug.org+
\begin{sidebar}\label{myths}
\subsection*{Debunking the mythology}
Naturally, over all the years, a few myths have grown up
around \LaTeX{}, often propagated by people who should know
better. So, just to clear up any potential
misunderstandings\dots
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} has only got one
font']
Most \LaTeX{} systems can use any OpenType,
TrueType, Adobe (PostScript\index{PostScript})
Type1 or Type3, or \mf{} font. This is more than
most other known typesetting system.
\LaTeX{}'s default font is Computer Modern (based
on Monotype Series�8: see
the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}), not Times Roman, and some
people get upset because it `looks
different' to Times. Typefaces differ:
that's what they're for\mdash{}get used to it.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} isn't WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG}']
Simply not true. DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} preview is better
WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} than any wordprocessor
and most DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems. What
people mean is that \LaTeX{}'s typographic display
is asynchronous with the edit window. This is only true
for the default CLI\index{CLI@CLI}
implementations. See the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{synchro} for details of synchronous
versions.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is obsolete']
Quite the opposite: it's under constant
development, with new features being added almost
weekly. Check the \url+comp.text.tex+ for messages about recent
uploads to CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. It's
arguably more up-to-date than most other systems:
\LaTeX{} had the Euro (\EUR{}) before anyone else, it had
Inuktitut typesetting before the Inuit got their own
province in Canada, and it still produces better
mathematics than anything else.
\end{description}
\end{sidebar}\begin{sidebar}\label{myths2}
\subsection*{More mythology}\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is a Unix system']
People are also heard saying:
`\LaTeX{} is a Windows system',
`\LaTeX{} is a Mac system', etc.,
etc.�\emph{ad nauseam}.
\TeX{} systems run on almost every computer in use, from
some of the biggest supercomputers down to handhelds
(PDA\index{PDA@PDA}s like the Sharp
\product{Zaurus}). That includes
Windows and Linux PCs, Macs, and all other Unix systems.
If you're using something \TeX{} doesn't run
on, it must be either incredibly new, incredibly old, or
unbelievably obscure.
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is ``too
difficult''\thinspace']
This has been heard from
physicists who can split atoms; from mathematicians who
can explain why $\pi$ exists; from business people who can
read a balance sheet; from historians who can grasp
Byzantine politics; from librarians who can understand
LoC and MARC; and from linguists who can decode Linear
`B'. It's nonsense: most people grasp
\LaTeX{} in 20 minutes or so. It's not rocket
science (or if it is, I know any number of unemployed
rocket scientists who will teach it to you).
\item[\sffamily MYTH: `\LaTeX{} is ``only for
scientists and
mathematicians''\thinspace']
Untrue. Although it grew up
in the mathematical and computer science fields, two of
its biggest growth areas are in the humanities and
business, especially since the rise of XML\index{XML@XML} brought new demands for automated
web-based typesetting.
\end{description}
\end{sidebar}\chapter{Installing \TeX{} and \LaTeX{}}
\label{get}
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\index{tetex@te}\index{fptex@fp}\index{texniccenter@nicCenter}\index{miktex@MiK}\index{Linux}\index{Unix}\index{Microsoft Windows}\index{Mac OS X}\index{Apple Mac}\index{OS X}
This course is based on using one of
the following distributions of \TeX{} on the 2004 \TeX{}
Collection DVD or the 2003 \TeX{} Live CD:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily te\TeX{}]
for Linux and other Unix-like systems, including Mac
OS\thinspace{}X (\person{Thomas Esser});
\item[\sffamily pro\TeX{}t]
for Microsoft Windows (\person{Thomas Feuerstack}), based on \person{Christian Schenk}'s
Mik\TeX{};
\item[\sffamily fp\TeX{}]
for Microsoft Windows (\person{Fabrice Popineau}) from the 2003 \TeX{} Live CD.
\end{description}

Many other implementations of \TeX{},
such as \person{Tom Kiffe}'s CMac\TeX{} for the Apple Macintosh, can be
downloaded from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. \LaTeX{} is
included with all modern distributions of \TeX{}.

The \TeX{} Collection CD is issued
annually on behalf of most of the local \TeX{} user groups
around the world (see \url+http://www.tug.org/lugs.html+ for addresses),
and edited by \person{Sebastian Rahtz}, \person{Karl Berry}, \person{Manfred Lotz}, and the authors of the software mentioned above.
These people give an enormous amount of their personal time and
energy to building and distributing these systems, and they
deserve the thanks and support of the user community for all
they do.

There are many other distributions of \LaTeX{} both free and
commercial, as described in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{intro}: they all process \LaTeX{} identically, but
there are some differences in size, speed, packaging, and (in
the case of commercial distributions) price, support, and extra
software provided.

One final thing before we start: publicly-maintained
software like \TeX{} is updated faster than commercial software,
so \emph{always check to see if there is a more recent
version of the installation}. See the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{latest} in \S\thinspace\ref{latest} for more details.
\section{Editing and display}
\label{editdis}

When you install \LaTeX{} you will
have the opportunity to decide \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item which plain-text editor[s] you want to use to create
and maintain your documents; and \item which preview programs you want to use to see your
typesetting\end{inparaenum}. This isn't much use to you if you're
unfamiliar with editors and previewers, so have a look at the
table below, and maybe flip ahead to \S\thinspace\ref{editors} for a moment, where there are
descriptions and screenshots.

The best bet is probably to install more than one\mdash{}if
you've got the disk space\mdash{}or maybe all of them, because
you can always delete the ones you don't like.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Editors]
There is a wide range of editors available: probably
no other piece of software causes more flame-wars in
Internet and other discussions than your choice of
editor. It's a highly personal choice, so feel free
to pick the one you like. My personal biases are
probably revealed below, so feel equally free to ignore
them.
\item[\sffamily Previewers]
For displaying your
typesetting before printing, you will need a previewer.
All systems come with a DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
previewer for standard \LaTeX{},
but if you are intending to produce industry-standard
PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} (Adobe Acrobat) files you will
need a previewer for those formats.
\product{GSview} displays both
PostScript\index{PostScript} and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files;
\product{xpdf} and Adobe's own
\product{Acrobat Reader} just display
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files.
\end{description}

For brief details of some of the most popular editors used
for \LaTeX{}, see \S\thinspace\ref{editors}.
\begin{warning}
\label{pdfurl}
\subsubsection*{Additional downloads}
For licensing reasons, the
\product{GSview} PostScript/PDF previewer,
the \product{Acrobat Reader} PDF previewer,
and the \product{WinEdt} editor could not
be distributed on the 2003 CDs. In those cases you have to
download and install them separately.
\begin{itemize}
\item
\product{GSview} is available for
all platforms from \url+http://www.ghostscript.com/gsview/index.htm+
(on Unix and VMS systems it's also available as
\product{GhostView} and
\product{gv}: see \url+http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/+)

\item
\product{Acrobat Reader} (all
platforms) can be downloaded from \url+http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html+

\item
\product{WinEdt} (Microsoft Windows
only) comes from \url+http://www.winedt.com+

\end{itemize}
\end{warning}
\section{Installation for Linux and Unix}
\label{lininst}

Make sure your system libraries and utilities are up to
date. If you are using Red Hat Linux, use
\product{yum} or
\product{up2date} to download and install
updates. For Debian and other distributions, use
\product{apt-get} or similar. On Red Hat
systems, remove any RPM version of te\TeX{} and associated
utilities which may have been
preinstalled, in order to avoid version conflicts.

If you are installing \TeX{} Live to a new partition, and
you have the opportunity to reformat the partition before use,
use \product{mkfs} with a granularity as
small as it will go (usually 1024 bytes). This avoids the
partition running out of inodes because \TeX{} uses very large
numbers of very small files.

Plan the installation carefully if you are installing for
multiple users (a shared machine): read \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst} for some comments on where to put additional
files downloaded later, and see the FAQ on the same topic at
\url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=wherefiles+

Above all, Read The Fine
Manual (RTFM)\index{RTFM@RTFM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTFM@RTFM|textbf}. The documentation is in
\url+live.html+ and
\url+live.pdf+ on the disk in the directory
\url+texlive2004/texmf-doc/doc/english/texlive-en/+
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \TeX{} Live installation manual}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tlcdoc}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small,commandchars=\\\{\}]
# cd /\textsl{\uline{mnt/cdrom}}/texlive2004
# sh install-tl.sh
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The installer runs in a shell window, so it can be done
even from headless systems (those with no X Window client),
but it does need to be installed as root if you want to stick
with the default directory locations or install it system-wide
for multiple users. To install, just type the commands shown
above.

The options are mostly self-explanatory, and beginners
should pick the recommended scheme and leave all other
settings at their defaults. The character-driven interface
lets you browse around the settings changing things and
looking at options before you commit to installing
anything.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The Unix installation program}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
==================> TeX Live installation procedure <=================

===> Note: Letters/digits in <angle brackets> indicate menu items <===
===> for commands or configurable options <===

Proposed platform: Intel x86 with GNU/Linux
<P> over-ride system detection and choose platform
<B> binary systems: 1 out of 10
<S> Installation scheme (scheme_recommended)
[customizing installation scheme:
<C> standard collections <L> language collections]
20 out of 75, disk space required: 246857 kB
<D> directories:
TEXDIR (The main TeX directory) : /usr/TeX
TEXMFLOCAL (Directory for local styles etc): /usr/TeX/texmf-local
VARTEXMF (Directory for local config) : /usr/TeX/texmf-var
<O> options:
[ ] alternate directory for generated fonts ()
[ ] create symlinks in standard directories
[ ] do not install macro/font doc tree
[ ] do not install macro/font source tree
<R> do not install files, set up to run off CD or DVD
<I> start installation
<H> help, <Q> quit

Enter command:
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

`Collections' (the {\slshape\verb`C`} and
{\slshape\verb`L`} options) are groups of \LaTeX{} packages
that you can include or exclude. It's best to leave this
alone unless you know you need something specific. The only
options I sometimes set are under {\slshape\verb`O`}: the
`alternate directory for generated fonts' may
need to be on a different partition for performance reasons on
a shared system; and I always select `create symlinks in
standard directories' so that the system works
immediately after the post-installation configuration (after
installation, run \product{texconfig} to
adjust your local settings.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Running the post-installation program
\emph{texconfig}}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texconfig}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Note that the Linux/Unix installation does not install any
editors: it is assumed you can do this yourself from your
distribution's standard package system (most likely
you will already be using \product{Emacs} or
\product{vi} anyway).
\section{Installation for Apple Mac}
\label{macinst}

This is exactly the same interface as for the Linux/Unix
installation. You need the \product{bash}
shell (see the warning in the manual for users of older systems).

There is a choice of graphical editors for the Mac: two
are included on the DVD, \product{\TeX{}Shop}
and \product{I\TeX{}Mac}, but they need to be
installed separately, after installing \TeX{}.
\section{Installation for Microsoft Windows}
\label{wininst}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \TeX{} Collection 2004 DVD}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tcdvddir}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Before you install \TeX{}, make
sure you have enough disk space: the default installation
takes about 350Mb on a modern filesystem. The installation
assumes you have a fully updated version of Windows, so visit
the Microsoft Web site first (\url+http://www.microsoft.com/+) and click on
\product{Windows Update}. Select and install
all the relevant updates for your operating system (Windows
95, 98, ME, 2000, NT, or XP). You should be doing this
regularly anyway, to keep your system healthy. You may want to
run \product{ScanDisk} and give your hard
disks a full surface check. \TeX{} consists of a very large
number of quite small files, so it's important that your
disk is in good order.

When you insert the distribution
DVD or CD, it should start the setup program automatically. If
you have auto-run turned off, open \product{My
Computer}, double-click on the DVD or CD drive,
and then double-click \product{Autorun} to
start the setup program.\footnote{Some builds of Windows seem to have a bug that stops
\product{Autorun} starting the
installation. In that case (for the \TeX{} Collection 2004
DVD) double-click \url+Setup.exe+ instead,
or (for the \TeX{}
Collection 2003 CD) go to the \url+tpm+
folder and double-click on
\url+TeXSetup.exe+.}
\subsection{pro\TeX{}t (\TeX{} Collection 2004)}

For pro\TeX{}t from the \TeX{}
Collection DVD, follow the instructions in the PDF
documentation which opens automatically when you start
the setup.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small pro\TeX{}t comes with its own installation
guide}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{tcptpdf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The documentation contains links (in large blue type)
that you click on in sequence to run the installation
process. (This is actually very good: everything worked
first time when I did it on XP.) Basically, you need to
install \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item \product{MIK\TeX{}}; \item \emph{\textbf{either}}�\product{WinEdt}
(with or without some of its add-ons) \emph{\textbf{or}}�\product{\TeX{}nicCenter}; and \item \product{GhostScript} and
\product{GSview}\end{inparaenum}.
\begin{warning}

You only need to install items step~\ref{nldi} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{nldi}
to step~\ref{td} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{td} if you install
\product{WinEdt}.
\end{warning}
\begin{figure}[b]\small
\caption{\small First document in
\emph{\TeX{}nicCenter}}
\label{tcpt1}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tcptfirstdoc}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Install \emph{MIK\TeX{}}}\\
\product{pro\TeX{}t} uses the
\product{MIK\TeX{}} distribution as its
core, a long-established and popular distribution for
Windows.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{WinEdt}}\\
This is optional: it's a good editor,
especially for the heavy user of a
\product{MIK\TeX{}}-based system. This is
a free month's trial\mdash{}after that it reminds you to cough
up and register.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt} New \LaTeX{} Document Interface}\\\label{nldi}%
Optional again, and only applicable if you installed
\product{WinEdt} anyway. It lets you
save commonly-used document settings for use in other
documents of the same type.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt}
Graphics Interface}\\
Another optional add-on for
\product{WinEdt} to provide drag-and-drop
graphics insertion.
\item \textbf{Install the \emph{WinEdt} Table
Designer}\\\label{td}%
Last optional add-on for
\product{WinEdt}, providing a new table editor.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{\TeX{}nicCenter}}\\
This is a free equivalent to
\product{WinEdt}. The interface is
slightly different (see Figure~\ref{tcpt1}) but it
is becoming very popular.
\item \textbf{Install \emph{GhostScript} and
\emph{GSview}}\\
These are essential for viewing the PostScript and
PDF output, especially if you don't have any other PDF
viewer installed.
\end{enumerate}

You get a choice of editors,
but the one which features in
\product{pro\TeX{}t} is
\product{\TeX{}nicCenter}. This is an
Integrated Development
Environment (IDE)\index{IDE@IDE|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!IDE@IDE|textbf} which lets you manage all the files
related to each document. In many cases, of course, you'll
only have one (the text itself) but if you are working with
anything beyond simple articles, you'll probably have
illustrations (images or diagrams), and possibly separate
chapter files for larger documents, plus indexes,
glossaries, bibliographies, etc. I recommend that you create
a new project for each new document, even if it's a
single-file article, as I did for the example in Figure~\ref{tcpt1}.
\subsection{\TeX{} Live (\TeX{} Collection 2003)}
\par\smallskip\noindent\textbf{\itshape Once the installation program is running:}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{\LaTeX{}}\\
Install \LaTeX{} itself from the
\menuitem{TeXLive Software}{Install on
Hard Disk} menu. If you're new to
\LaTeX{}, pick Quick Install on the following screen. This
gives you everything you need to get started, and
doesn't ask any questions, it just installs it all
straight away.

If you're installing under Windows NT, 2000, or
XP, you may want to click on the option to install for
all users if you have other users on your system.

If you want to use \product{Emacs}
as your editor, click the option for Xem\TeX{}
Support.\footnote{Note this unfortunate choice of name is nothing
to do with \person{Eberhard Matthes}' MS-DOS implementation of \TeX{}
called em\TeX{}\mdash{}the `Xem' is
short for \product{Xemacs}.}
\item \textbf{Emacs}\\
After installation, right-click and drag
\url+Xemacs.exe+ from the
\url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\bin\win32+
folder out onto your desktop and let go, then pick
`Create Shortcut'. This places
\product{Emacs} on your desktop for
easy access.
\item \textbf{WinShell and WinEdt}\\
If you want to install
\product{WinShell}, run the installer
program in the \url+support/winshell+
directory. For \product{WinEdt} you
must go to their Web site (\url+http://www.winedt.com/+) for a
downloadable version.

You don't have to install just one editor: if
you've got the space, install them all so you can
try them out. You can always uninstall the ones you
don't want afterwards.
\item \textbf{GSView}\\
Ghostscript is installed automatically, but for
\product{GSView} you need to go to
\url+http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/gsview/+,
and download the most recent version.

If you use \product{GSView}, please
register your copy with Ghostgum, Pty.�(\url+http://www.ghostgum.com.au/+).
\end{enumerate}
\begin{warning}

Please read the \TeX{} Live update pages at \url+http://www.tug.org/texlive/bugs.html+ for
details of any changes since the disks were released, and
download and install any additional software
required.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Installation problems}

It's always annoying when a program that's supposed to
install painlessly causes trouble, and none the more so when
everyone else seems to have been able to install it without
problems. I've installed \TeX{} hundreds of times and very
rarely had any difficulties, but these are a few of the
occasions when I did.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Bad hard disks]
As recommended in \S\thinspace\ref{wininst}, run a
scan and defragmentation of your hard disk[s] before
you start. It should take under an hour on a modern
machine unless you have a very large disk, and it may
need overnight on an older machine. Clean your CD or DVD
drive if it's been in heavy use. \TeX{} uses a very
large number of very small files, so there is a lot of
disk activity during an installation. As also
recommended in \S\thinspace\ref{lininst}, if you have
the chance to reformat the hard disk, pick the
smallest granularity (cluster size) possible.
\item[\sffamily Registry errors]
This only affects Microsoft Windows users. The
Registry is where Microsoft want software companies
automatically to store details of all the programs you
install. Unfortunately the Registry is grossly abused
by marketing departments to try and foist undesirable
links on you, the user. You will see this with many
commercial programs, where a particular type of file
you've been able to double-click on for years suddenly
runs a different program. Some programs install
obsolete or broken copies of program libraries (DLL
files), overwriting ones which were working perfectly.
Worse, the viruses, trojans, and worms which typically
infect unprotected Windows systems can leave unwanted
links to web pages, or change some of the ways in
which Windows operates. The overall effect can be that
the whole machine slows down, or that files which are
expected to do one thing do another. The best
solution is a thorough Registry clean-out, using one
of the many programs available for the purpose.
\item[\sffamily Use the latest versions]\label{latest}
Before installing, check the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} web site (\url+http://www.ctan.org/+ for any updated
copy of the installation program. This is called
\url+install-tl.sh+ for Linux and Mac
systems, and \url+Setup.exe+ for
Microsoft Windows (on the \TeX{} Collection 2003 CD it
was called \url+TeXSetup.exe+). Just
occasionally a bug slips through onto the production
CD or DVD, and although it's always fixed and notified
on \url+comp.text.tex+,
that's a high-volume newsgroup and even the sharpest
eyes may miss an announcement.
\item[\sffamily Stick to the defaults]
Unless you're a computer scientist or a software
engineer, I suggest you never change or fiddle with
the default directories for installation. I know some
of them look odd, but they're that way for a purpose,
especially when it comes to avoiding directories will
spaces in their names, like the notorious
\verb+C:\Program Files+. Although most
modern systems cope happily with spaces in filenames
and directory names, they are usually A Bad Design
Idea, and should be avoided like the plague (spaces
are forbidden in web addresses for the same reason:
the people who designed them knew the pitfalls). It
may look snazzier to put the installation in
\verb+My Cute Stuff+, but please
don't: you'll just make it harder to find, harder to
fix problems, and more embarrassing if you have to
explain it to someone else trying to help you.
\end{description}
\chapter[Using your editor to create documents]{Using your editor \newline{}to create documents}
\label{plaintext}

\LaTeX{} documents are all \textbf{\textit{plain-text}}\label{plain-text}\index{plain-text@\textbf{\textit{plain-text}}} files.\footnote{`Plain-text'
originally meant just the 95 printable characters of the
American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)\index{ASCII@ASCII|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ASCII@ASCII|textbf}\mdash{}see Table~\ref{asciicodes}\mdash{}but now more commonly includes
both these \emph{and} the relevant 8-bit
characters from \emph{one} (only) character
set such as ISO-8859-1 (Western Latin\ndash{}1) or
ISO-8859-15 (Western Latin plus the Euro sign). These are
international standards which work everywhere: you should
avoid using manufacturers' proprietary character sets
like Microsoft Windows\ndash{}1252 or Apple Macintosh
Roman\ndash{}8, because they may make your documents unusable
on some other systems.} You can edit them with any editor, and transfer
them to any other computer system running \LaTeX{} and they will
format exactly the same. Because they are plain text they cannot
corrupt your system, as they cannot be used for hiding or
transporting virus infections as binary wordprocessor files can.
Everything you can see is in the file and everything in the file
is there for you to see: there is nothing hidden or secret and
there are no manufacturers' proprietary
`gotchas' like suddenly going out of date
with a new version.
\section{Markup}
\label{mark-up}

In a \LaTeX{} document, you type your text along with
\textbf{\textit{markup}}\label{markup}\index{markup@\textbf{\textit{markup}}} which identifies the
important parts of your document by name, for example
`title', `section',
`figure', etc. \LaTeX{} does all the formatting
for you automatically, using the markup to guide its internal
rules and external stylesheets for typesetting.
\begin{sidebar}\subsection*{Markup}
This is a term from printing, and originally meant the
notes on how to lay the document out, or the instructions
which a proofreader might add during correction. It now also
means instructions or descriptions added to a computer
document to act as guidelines for identification or
formatting. Markup has been around for
\emph{ages}.
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}}b{.75in}r@{}}
\vrule height4pt width0pt \includegraphics[width=2in]{55-1L-part}&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\titlecite{tain}}\\[4pt]
\includegraphics[width=2in]{23-part}&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\titlecite{varmints}}\\[4pt]
\verb+.h1 Interest Rates+&Runoff&\emph{c.}1970\\[4pt]
\verb+\section{Interest Rates}+&\LaTeX{}&1984\\[4pt]
\verb+<sec><ttl>Interest Rates</ttl>...+&SGML\index{SGML@SGML}&1985\\[4pt]
\verb+<H1>Interest Rates</H1>+&HTML\index{HTML@HTML}&1991\\[4pt]
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{sidebar}
You do not need to format any of your text \emph{in
your editor}, because \LaTeX{} does it
all by itself when it typesets. You can of course regularise
or neaten its appearance \emph{in your editor}
for ease of editing (for example, keeping each item in a list
on a separate line), but this is not required.

You will often hear \LaTeX{} markup referred to as
`commands' or sometimes `control
sequences' (the proper \TeX{}nical term for them).
For
all practical purposes these terms all mean the same
thing.

This course assumes that users have one of
\product{\TeX{}shell},
\product{\TeX{}nicCenter},
\product{WinShell}, or
\product{WinEdt} (Windows only), or
\product{Emacs} or \LyX{} (any platform)
installed. These are discussed briefly in \S\thinspace\ref{editors}, and the menus and toolbars for running
\LaTeX{} are explained in \chaptername~\ref{process}.
\section{Quick start for the impatient}
\label{quickstart}

If you already know all this stuff about editors and
plain-text files and running programs, and you know your system
is already correctly installed (including your editor),
you'd probably like to type something in and see \LaTeX{}
do its job. If you don't, then skip forward to \S\thinspace\ref{commands} and read a bit more about \LaTeX{}
first.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Sample document}
\label{sampledoc}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{palatino,url}
\begin{document}
\section*{My first document}

This is a short example of a \LaTeX\ document I wrote
on \today. It shows a few simple features of automated
typesetting, including

\begin{itemize}
\item setting the default font size to 12pt;
\item specifying `article' type for formatting;
\item using the Palatino typeface;
\item adding special formatting for URIs;
\item formatting a heading in `section' style;
\item using the \LaTeX\ logo;
\item generating today's date;
\item formatting a list of items;
\item centering and italicizing;
\item autonumbering the pages.
\end{itemize}

\subsection*{More information}

This example was taken from `Formatting Information',
which you can download from
\url{http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/beginlatex/}
and use as a teach-yourself guide.

\begin{center}
\textit{Have a nice day!}
\end{center}

\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}
\par\smallskip\noindent\textbf{\itshape Up and running in a few minutes}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Install the software}\\
Make sure you have a
properly-installed \LaTeX{} system and a copy of a
suitable editor.
\item \textbf{Create a sample document}\\\label{demodoc}%
Open your editor and type in
the text \emph{exactly} as shown in Figure~\ref{sampledoc}. Do \emph{not} make any
changes or miss anything out or add anything different at
this stage.
\item \textbf{Save the document}\\
Save the document as
\url+demo.tex+
\item \textbf{Run \LaTeX{} or \emph{pdf\LaTeX{}}}\\
Click on the \guiicon{\LaTeX{}} or
\guiicon{pdf\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon or the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
File} menu item; or type \verb+latex demo+ or \verb+pdflatex demo+ in a
command window.
\item \textbf{Preview the typesetting}\\
Click on the \guiicon{DVI} or
\guiicon{PDFview} toolbar icon or the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
View} menu item; or type your previewer
command in a terminal shell.

(Note that there may be a pause the first time you use
your DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewer, while WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} font files are
created.\footnote{DVI\index{DVI@DVI} previewers use their
own font files specially created from the font
outlines (TrueType, OpenType, PostScript, \mf{},
etc). The first time you use a font at a size not used
before, there will be a second or two's pause
while it gets created. The more you use \LaTeX{}, the
less this
happens.})
\item \textbf{Print it}\\
Click on the \guiicon{Print} toolbar icon
within the viewer, or use the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{} Print}
menu item, or type
\verb+dvips -f demo | lpr+
(Unix/Linux).
\end{enumerate}

If you encounter any errors, it means you
\emph{do} need to study this chapter after
all!
\section{Editors}
\label{editors}
\index{editors}
All the text of your documents can be typed into your
\LaTeX{} document from a standard keyboard using any decent
plain-text editor. However, it is more convenient to use an
editor with special features to make using \LaTeX{} easier.
Some of the most popular are
\product{\TeX{}shell}\product{WinShell}, \product{\TeX{}nic
Center}, and \product{WinEdt}
(Windows only); and \product{\LyX{}} and
\product{Emacs} (all platforms).
\subsection{\LyX{}}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \LyX{} document editor}
\label{lyxwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{lyx}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The \LyX{} document editor (all platforms) is a special
case, as it uses the What You See Is
What You Mean (WYSIWYM)\index{WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYM@WYSIWYM|textbf} model of synchronous typographic
editing as opposed to What You See Is
What You Get (WYSIWYG)\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG|textbf}, and many users prefer this
interface (but see the reservations in the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{sync}).

\LyX{} makes a strong case for using synchronous
typographical editing: it is possible to create even quite
large and complex documents without seeing a backslash very
often, although with math or complex macros there is
probably no way to avoid having to do some manual insertion
of
\LaTeX{} code.

The free availability on multiple platforms makes this a
clear answer to the myth of `having to edit like a
programmer', and as it is an Open Source project,
there is constant improvement, both to the facilities and to
the interface.

Probably the only real reservation is that it does not
save native \LaTeX{} files by default. It uses its own
internal format, and it can export \LaTeX{} for use in other
editors, but the exported files are not designed for human
legibility, only for \LaTeX{} processing. In a co-operative
environment this would be a serious drawback, but for the
individual user this interface is an excellent tool.
\subsection{\TeX{}shell}
\label{texshell}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \TeX{}shell editor}
\label{texshellwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texshell}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

This is one of the simplest of all the plaintext Windows
editors, but it has most of the tools needed to begin with.
Sectioning, lists, and graphics can be inserted from the
menus, and there are buttons for running \LaTeX{} on the
open document and for previewing the typeset
document.

The syntactic highlighting distinguishes between
commands and your text, and it comes with options for
spellchecking (you need to install
\product{ispell}), and for adding math,
Greek (math), and some symbol characters from a pickchart.
The typeset display is done using your installed DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewer (there is no provision for
PDF\index{PDF@PDF}, although as it is
configurable, that could probably be edited into the
menus).

Download the \url+.tar.gz+ file from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
\url+support/TeXshell/+ directory and unwrap
it into somewhere like \url+C:\Program
Files\TeXshell\+.\footnote{Yes, I know I said don't use directory names with
spaces in them\mdash{}and so you shouldn't, for your
\LaTeX{} documents\mdash{}but Windows programs are usually safe
enough in them.} There is a \product{tsconfig}
program in the same directory on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}, which is designed to help with
reconfiguring \TeX{}shell.
\subsection{WinShell}
\label{winshell}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The WinShell editor}
\label{winshellwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{winshell}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

This is another free Windows editor for beginners with
\LaTeX{}. Despite its simplicity, it is capable of a
considerable amount of document management and assistance
with editing. As well as handling stand-alone \LaTeX{}
files, you can create a `Project' for larger
documents, which helps you keep track of additional files
like separate chapters, illustrations, diagrams, indexes,
etc.

You run \LaTeX{} direct from the toolbar icons or with
F-key shortcuts. Both standard \LaTeX{} and
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} are supported, as well
as creation and previewing of
PostScript\index{PostScript} and PDF\index{PDF@PDF} output. There are additional toolbars
for math characters, and there is a `Table
Wizard' for handling tables. The syntax
highlighting distinguishes between commands (in blue) and
delimiters (in red), leaving your text in black.

Download the
\texttt{WinShell\textsl{\uline{nn}}.exe}
program (self-contained setup: the
\textsl{nn} changes with the version) from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
\url+systems/win32/winshell/+ directory and
double-click it to start the setup.
\subsection{\TeX{}nicCenter}
\label{texniccenter}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \TeX{}nicCenter editor}
\label{texniccenterwin}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{texniccenter}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{\TeX{}nicCenter} is a powerful
Windows editor suitable both for the beginner and the more advanced
user. Its `Project' environment keeps track of
multiple files, and the processing function (the bit which
actually runs \LaTeX{}, here called
`Build') tries to ensure that all the files you
need for a large or complex document are in place before you
start typesetting, to avoid errors like missing
illustrations.

It's a much more wordprocessor-like control
interface, with configurable toolbars and button-controls
for lists, math, tables, and previewing options.

Download the
\texttt{TXCSetup\textsl{\uline{xxx}}.exe}
program (self-contained setup: the
\textsl{xxx} bit changes with the version)
from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
\url+systems/win32/TeXnicCenter/+ directory
and double-click it to start the setup.
\subsection{WinEdt}
\label{winedt}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The \emph{WinEdt} editor}
\label{winedtpic}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{winedt}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{WinEdt} is a highly
configurable plain-text editor for Windows. It comes with a
host of special functions and shortcuts for
\TeX{} and \LaTeX{}, based on the Mik\TeX{} distribution. It
is supplied on the \TeX{} Collection 2004 DVD and the
\product{pro\TeX{}t} CD. You can also
download it from \url+http://www.winedt.com+\mdash{}in either case
there's a 1-month free trial, then it reminds you to
buy it.

\product{WinEdt} uses a built-in
toolbar of configurable buttons, preset for use with
\LaTeX{}, and it provides syntactic coloring of
\LaTeX{} commands. Both the positioning and effect of the
buttons can be changed, using an editable file of icons and
a configuration panel. This flexibility lets you bind a
program and arguments (equivalent to a typed command) to a
particular icon.

There are default buttons on the toolbar for one-click
typesetting, previewing, and
PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} generation from \LaTeX{} documents,
and it manages multi-file document projects like most of the
other editors. \product{Winedt} is also
used by many people for normal plaintext file-editing tasks,
in preference to more limited programs like
\product{Notepad}. If you're using the
fp\TeX{} which came with the 2003 \TeX{}
Collection, some editing of the menus is required (explained
in the local installation document) because the default
setup is for
Mik\TeX{}/pro\TeX{}t.
\subsection{GNU Emacs}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Emacs editing \LaTeX{}}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{emacs}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{Emacs} is a product of the
GNU\index{GNU@GNU} Project.\footnote{`GNU's Not
Unix (GNU)\index{GNU@GNU|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GNU@GNU|textbf}' is a project to make a
computing environment completely free of
restrictions.} Versions are available for all makes and models
of computer, and it has a \LaTeX{}-mode which provides
syntactic colouring (`fontification'
in \product{Emacs}-speak) and mouseclick
processing from a menu or toolbar.

\product{Emacs}
is a very large and powerful editor, with
`modes' (plug-ins) to handle almost
everything you do on a computer. Many users run
\product{Emacs} once on logging in, and
never leave it for the rest of the day\mdash{}or month. As
well as edit, you can use it to read your mail, browse the
Web, read Usenet news, do wordprocessing and spreadsheets,
compile programs, help you write in any computer
language\mdash{}including XML\index{XML@XML} and
\LaTeX{}\mdash{}and it provides a few games as well.

\product{Emacs}
knows about \LaTeX{} and how to process it, so it comes with
a menu full of \LaTeX{} operations to click on. If you are
editing complex documents with mathematics, there is a mode
(\product{AUC\TeX{}}) which has even more
functionality. \LaTeX{} support is well-developed, and there
is a hierarchy of newsgroups for
\product{Emacs} support.

Because \product{Emacs} runs on
Microsoft Windows, Macs, Linux, and most other platforms,
many \LaTeX{} users who have multiple machines (and those
who have multiple users to support) prefer it to other
editors because it provides the same environment regardless
of which platform they are using.

It's sometimes criticised for a steep learning
curve, but in fact it's no worse in this respect than
any other editor, given the power that it provides, and it
is significantly better than most which lack many of the
authorial tools available in Emacs.
\subsection{Mac editors}

Mac users will be disappointed that I haven't included
any of the Mac interfaces here. It's simple: I don't have a
Mac right now to try them out on. I hope to remedy this for a
future edition.
\section{\LaTeX{} commands}
\label{commands}

\label{bsol}%
\LaTeX{} commands all begin with a
\textbf{\textit{backslash}}\label{backslash}\index{backslash@\textbf{\textit{backslash}}}
(\verb+\+)\footnote{Do not confuse the backslash
with the forward slash (\url+/+). They are
two different characters. The forward slash is used on the
Web and on Unix systems to separate directory names and
filenames. The backslash is used in Microsoft Windows
(only) for the same purpose, and in \LaTeX{} to begin a
command.} and are usually made up of lowercase
letters only, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The
\command{tableofcontents} command is an instruction
to \LaTeX{} to insert the Table of Contents at this point. You
would usually use this in a book or report (or perhaps a very
long article) somewhere close to the beginning. You don't have
to do anything else. Provided that you have used the
sectioning commands described in \S\thinspace\ref{sections},
all the formatting and numbering for the Table of Contents is
completely automated.
\subsection{Simple commands}
\label{simplecmd}

\label{swallow}%
Simple one-word commands like
\command{tableofcontents} must be separated from
any following text with \textbf{\textit{white-space}}\label{wsp}\index{white-space@\textbf{\textit{white-space}}}. This means a
normal space, or a newline [linebreak] or a TAB character.
For example either of these two forms will work:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help
with this book.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontents
Thanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help with this book.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you forget the white-space, as in the following
example, \LaTeX{} will try to read it as a command
called \verb+\tableofcontentsThanks+. There's no
such command, of course, so \LaTeX{} will complain at you by
displaying an error message (see \S\thinspace\ref{undefcs}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\tableofcontentsThanks to Aunt Mabel for all her help
with this book.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\LaTeX{} swallows any white-space which follows a command
ending in a letter. It does this automatically, so you
don't get unwanted extra space in your typeset output,
but it does mean that any simple command which ends in a
letter and has no arguments (see below) must be followed by
white-space before normal text starts again, simply to keep
it separate from the text.
\subsection{Commands with arguments}
\label{cmdargs}

Many \LaTeX{} commands are followed by one or more
\textbf{\textit{arguments}}\label{arguments}\index{arguments@\textbf{\textit{arguments}}}, a term from
the field of Computer Science, meaning information to be acted
upon. Here are two examples:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter{Poetic Form}
\label{pform}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Such arguments always go in
\verb+{+\textbf{\textit{curly
braces}}\label{curly}\index{curly
braces@\textbf{\textit{curly
braces}}}\verb+}+ like
those\index{braces|see{curly braces}} shown above. Be careful not to confuse the
curly braces on your keyboard with round parentheses
\verb+(�)+, square brackets
\verb+[�]+, or angle brackets
\verb+<�>+. They are all
different and they do different things.

With commands that take arguments you do
\emph{not} need to use extra white-space after
the command, because there is an argument following it
which will keep it separate from any normal text with
follows after that. The following is therefore perfectly
correct (although unusual because it's harder to edit:
normally you'd leave a blank line between the chapter title or
label and the start of the first paragraph).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter{Poetic Form}\label{pform}The shape of poetry
when written or printed distinguishes it from prose.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{White-space in \LaTeX{}}
\label{white-space}
\index{white-space}
In \LaTeX{} documents, all \emph{multiple}
spaces, newlines (linebreaks), and TAB characters are
treated as if they were a \emph{single} space
or newline during typesetting. \LaTeX{} does its own spacing
and alignment using the instructions you give it, so you
have extremely precise control. You are therefore free to
use extra white-space in your editor for optical ease and
convenience when editing.

The following is therefore exactly equivalent to the example
in the preceding section:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\chapter {Poetic
Form}\label
{pform}

The shape of poetry when written or printed
distinguishes it from prose.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

That is, it will get typeset exactly the same. In
general, just leave a blank line between paragraphs and a
single space between words and sentences. \LaTeX{} will take
care of the formatting.
\section{Special characters}
\label{specials}
\index{special characters}
There are ten keyboard characters which have special
meaning to \LaTeX{}, and cannot be used on their own except for
the following purposes:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{1mm}
\begin{tabular}{clcc}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\centering}}b{1.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape \emph{If you need the actual character itself,
type:}}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Character}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{$\backslash$}&The command character&\command{textbackslash}&$\backslash$\\
\key{\$}&Math typesetting delimiter&\command{\$}&\$\\
\key{\%}&The comment character&\command{\%}&\%\\
\key{{\char'136}}&Math superscript character&\command{{\char'136}}&{\char'136}\\
\key{\amp }&Tabular column separator&\command{\amp }&\amp \\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'137}}&Math subscript character&\command{{\ttfamily\char'137}}&\texttt{\_}\\
\key{{\char'176}}&Non-breaking space&\command{{\char'176}}&{\char'176}\\
\key{\#}&Macro parameter symbol&\command{\#}&\#\\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'173}}&Argument start delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\ttfamily\char'173}}\texttt{\$}&$\{$\\
\key{{\ttfamily\char'175}}&Argument end delimiter&\texttt{\$}\command{{\ttfamily\char'175}}\texttt{\$}&$\}$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
These characters were deliberately chosen, either because
they are rare in normal text, or (in the case of \$,
\#, \amp , and \%) they already had an
established special meaning on computers as \textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}\label{metacharacters}\index{metacharacters@\textbf{\textit{metacharacters}}} (characters
standing as symbols for something else) by the time \TeX{} was
written, and it would have been misleading to choose
others.
\subsection{Using the special characters}

We have already seen (the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{bsol}) how
to use the backslash to start a command, and curly braces to
delimit an argument. The remaining special
characters are:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \key{\$}]
Because of the special mathematical meaning
\LaTeX{} uses for the dollar-sign on its own, if you
want to print \$35.99 you type
\verb+\$35.99+
\item[\sffamily \key{\%}]
\label{comment}%
The \textbf{\textit{comment character}}\label{commentchar}\index{comment character@\textbf{\textit{comment character}}} makes
\LaTeX{} ignore the remainder of the line in your
document, so you can see it in your editor, but it
will never get typeset. For example \verb+Today's price per kilo is �22.70 % get Mike to update this+\\If you want to print 45\% you need
to type \verb+45\%+
\item[\sffamily \key{{\char'136}}]
The caret sign lets you type
\verb+$E=mc^2$+ to get $E=mc^{2}$. If you need the circumflex accent
on a letter like �, just type the letter or use the
symbolic notation \verb+\^e+.
\item[\sffamily \key{\amp }]
The ampersand is used in tables to separate
columns (see \S\thinspace\ref{tables}). If you want to
print AT\amp T you need to type
\verb+AT\&T+.
\item[\sffamily \key{{\ttfamily\char'137}}]
The underscore lets you type
\verb+$r_2$+ for $r_{2}$. If you want to underline text
(extremely rare in typesetting) see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{uline}.
\item[\sffamily \key{{\char'176}}]\label{tilde}
The tilde prints as a space, but prevents a
linebreak ever occurring at that point. It's often
used between a person's initials and their surname, eg
\verb+Prof D.E.~Knuth+
\item[\sffamily \key{\#}]
If you want a
\textbf{\textit{hash mark}}\label{hash}\index{hash mark@\textbf{\textit{hash mark}}} (the
\textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}\label{octothorpe}\index{octothorpe@\textbf{\textit{octothorpe}}} or
American number or `pound' [weight] sign)
you type \verb+\#+. For a pound
(sterling)\index{pound@�}
sign �, now nearly obsolete except in the UK and
some of its former dependencies, use your
\key{�} key or type
\command{textsterling}.
\end{description}

While we're on the subject of money, an unusual but
interesting serif-font Euro\index{euro@\euro{}} sign {\rmfamily{}\selectfont{}\euro{}}
is got with the \command{texteuro} command from the
\package{textcomp} package. The standard
sans-serif {\sffamily{}\selectfont{}\EUR{}} needs the
\package{marvosym} package and is done with
the \command{EUR} command.\footnote{The European Commission has specified that everyone
use the sans-serif design, even in serif text, but this
is amazingly ugly and most designers rightly ignore
it.}
\section{Quotation marks}
\label{quotes}
\index{quotation marks}
Do \emph{not} use the unidirectional
typewriter keyboard \ttkey{"} key for quotation
marks. Correct typographic quotes are got with the \ttkey{\`{}} key and the \ttkey{'} key, doubled if you want double
quotes:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont\renewcommand{\ttdefault}{pcr}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, ``I'm just going out.''
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}He said,
``I'm just going out.''}
\end{quote}\end{example}

This ensures you get real left-hand
and right-hand (opening and closing) quotes (usually shaped
like tiny
\textsuperscript{66}�and�\textsuperscript{99}
or as symmetrically-balanced strokes). If you are using
\product{Emacs} as your editor, the
\key{"} key is specially programmed in
\LaTeX{}-mode to think for itself and produce correct {\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}\`{}\`{}} and
\verb+''+ characters (so this is one occasion when
you \emph{can} use the \key{"}
key).
\begin{warning}

If you are reading this in a
browser, or if you have reprocessed the file using different
fonts, it may not show you real quotes (some old browser
fonts are defective) and the \command{thinspace}
below may be too wide. Download the typeset (PDF\index{PDF@PDF}) version of this document to see the
real effect.
\end{warning}

\label{thinspace}%
When typing one quotation inside another,
there is a special command \command{thinspace} which
provides just enough separation between double and single
quotes (a normal space is too much and could allow an unwanted
linebreak):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont\renewcommand{\ttdefault}{pcr}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
He said, `Her answer was ``never''\thinspace'.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

He said, `Her answer was
``never''\thinspace{}'.
\end{quote}\end{example}
\section{Accents}
\label{accents}
\index{accents}
For accented letters in western
European languages\footnote{ISO 8859-1 (Latin\ndash{}1, Western European) to
8859-15 (includes the Euro).} or other Latin-alphabet character sets just use
the accented keys on your keyboard\mdash{}if you have the right
ones. You must also tell \LaTeX{} what character repertoire
(`input encoding') you are using. You
specify this by using the \package{inputenc}
package\footnote{We haven't covered the use of
packages yet. Don't worry, see \S\thinspace\ref{packages}
if you're curious.} in your preamble
with the relevant option. For example, to tell \LaTeX{} you
will be typing ISO Latin\ndash{}1 accented characters,
use:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have a real Unicode editor, which lets you insert
any letter or symbol from any language on the planet (for
example, mixed European, Asian, and other languages), use
\verb+utf8+ instead of \verb+latin1+.
The encoding definitions that are available on your system are
in \url+/texmf/tex/latex/base+ (all files
ending in \url+.def+).
\begin{sidebar}\label{keystrokes}
\subsection*{If you don't have accented letters}
This is for users whose keyboards do not have native
accent characters on them. See your Operating System manual
for full details. Here are two common examples:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Under Linux systems the letter
� is usually got with
\key{AltGr}--\key{;}~\thinspace{}\key{e}. Refer to the
\product{xkeycaps} utility for a table
of key codes and combinations (get it from \url+http://www.jwz.org/xkeycaps/+).

\item
Under Microsoft Windows the letter � is got with
\key{Ctrl}--\ttkey{'}~\thinspace{}\key{e} or by holding down the
\thinspace{}\key{Alt} key and typing
\thinspace{}\key{0}\thinspace{}\key{1}\thinspace{}\key{3}\thinspace{}\key{0}
on the numeric keypad (\emph{not} the top
row of shifted numerals). Refer to the
\product{charmap} utility for a table
of key codes and combinations (find it in the
\url+C:\Windows+ folder).

\end{itemize}
\end{sidebar}
If you don't have accented letter keys on your
keyboard, you'll need to use your operating system's
standard keyboard \key{Ctrl} or
\key{Alt} key combinations to generate the
characters (see the panel `If you don't have accented letters' \testpage[above]{keystrokes}).

If you cannot generate accented characters from your
keyboard at all, or if you need additional accents or symbols
which are not in any of the keyboard tables, you can use the
symbolic notation in Table~\ref{accentcodes}. In fact,
this can be used to put any accent over any letter: if you
particularly want a \~g you can have one with the command
\command{{\char'176}}\verb+g+ (and Welsh
users can get \^w with
\command{{\char'136}}\verb+w+).

If you use this symbolic method only, you do not need to
use the \package{inputenc} package. Before the
days of keyboards and screens with their own real accented
characters, the symbolic notation was the
\emph{only} way to get accents, so you may come
across a lot of older documents (and users!) using this method
all the time: it does have the advantage in portability that
the \LaTeX{} file remains plain ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII}, which will work on all machines
everywhere, regardless of their internal encoding, and even
with very old \TeX{} installations.\footnote{Remember not everyone is lucky enough to be able to
install new software: many users on corporate and academic
networks still have to use old versions of \TeX{} because
their system administrators are too busy to
install new ones.}
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Built-in \LaTeX{} accents}
\label{accentcodes}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lcc}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Accent}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Characters to type}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Acute (fada)&�&\verb+\'e+\\
Grave&�&\verb+\`e+\\
Circumflex&�&\verb+\^e+\\
Umlaut or di�resis&�&\verb+\"e+\\
Tilde&�&\verb+\~n+\\
Macron&\=o&\verb+\=o+\\
Bar-under&{\b o}&\verb+\b o+\\
Dot-over (s�{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}\.m{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}�)&{\.m}&\verb+\.m+\\
Dot-under&{\d s}&\verb+\d s+\\
Breve&\u u&\verb+\u u+\\
H�\v cek (caron)&\v u&\verb+\v u+\\
Long umlaut&\H o&\verb+\H o+\\
Tie-after&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}\t oo}&\verb+\t oo+\\
Cedilla&\c c&\verb+\c c+\\
O-E ligature&\oe , \OE &\verb+\oe+,
\verb+\OE+\\
A-E ligature&\ae , \AE &\verb+\ae+,
\verb+\AE+\\
A-ring&\aa , \AA &\verb+\aa+,
\verb+\AA+\\
O-slash& \o , \O &\verb+\o+,
\verb+\O+\\
Soft-l&{\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}\l{}, \L{}}&\verb+\l+,
\verb+\L+\\
Ess-zet (scharfes-S)&\ss &\verb+\ss+\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

Irish and Turkish dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} is done with the
special command \command{i}, so an {\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}-fada
(which is normally typed with \key{{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}})
requires \verb+\'\i+ if you need to type it in
the long format, followed by a backslash-space or dummy pair of
curly braces if it comes at the end of a word and there is no
punctuation, because of the rule that \LaTeX{} control
sequences which end in a letter (see the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{swallow}) always absorb any following space. So
what you might see as \textsl{R�
Tea\.mra\.c} has to be \verb+R\'\i\ Tea\.mra\.c+ when typed in full (there are not
usually any keyboard keys for the dotless-{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i} or the
lenited characters). A similar rule applies to dotless-{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\j}} and to uppercase
\'I.
\section{Dimensions, hyphenation, justification, and breaking}
\label{handj}
\index{dimensions}\index{hyphenation}\index{justification}\index{hj@H\amp J|see{hyphenation, justification}}
\LaTeX{}'s internal measurement system is
extraordinarily accurate. The underlying \TeX{} engine
conducts all its business in units smaller than the wavelength
of visible light, so if you ask for 15mm space, that's
what you'll get\mdash{}within the limitations of your
screen or printer, of course. Most screens cannot show
dimensions of less than
$\frac{1}{96}$$''$ without resorting to magnification
or scaling; and on printers, even at 600dpi, fine oblique
lines or curves can still sometimes be seen to stagger the
dots.

At the same time, many dimensions in \LaTeX{}'s
preprogrammed formatting are specially set up to be flexible:
so much space, plus or minus certain limits to allow the
system to make its own adjustments to accommodate variations
like overlong lines, unevenly-sized images, and non-uniform
spacing around headings.

\TeX{} uses a very sophisticated
justification algorithm to achieve a smooth, even texture to
normal paragraph text. The programming for this has been
borrowed by a large number of other DTP systems, and users of
these are often quite unaware that they are in fact using a
significant part of \TeX{} in their work.
Occasionally, however, you will need to hand-correct an
unusual word-break or line-break, and there are facilities for
doing this on individual occasions as well as throughout a
document.
\subsection{Specifying size units}
\label{dimensions}
\index{dimension}\index{units}
Most people in printing and publishing habitually use
points and picas and ems. Some designers use cm and mm. Many
English-language speakers still use inches. You can specify
lengths in \LaTeX{} in any of these units, plus some others
(see Table~\ref{units}).
\index{pt (points)}\index{points}\index{pc (picas)}\index{picas}\index{bp (big points)}\index{sp (scaled points)}\index{dd (Didot points)}\index{cc (Ciceros)}\index{em (relative measure)}\index{ex (relative measure)}\index{mm (millimeters)}\index{cm (centimeters)}\index{in (inches)}\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Units in \LaTeX{}}
\label{units}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{4in}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Unit}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' fixed measures\\[2pt]
pt&Anglo-American standard points (72.27 to the
inch)\\
pc&pica ems (12pt)\\
bp&Adobe `big' points (72
to the inch)\\
sp&\TeX{}�`scaled' points
(65,536 to the pt)\\
dd&Didot (European standard) points (67.54 to the
inch)\\
cc&Ciceros (European pica ems, 12dd)\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Printers' relative measures\\[2pt]
em&ems of the current point size (historically the
width of a letter `M' but see
below)\\
ex&x-height of the current font (height of letter
`x')\\
\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape &\vrule height1.5em width0pt\bfseries\itshape Other measures\\[2pt]
cm&centimeters (2.54 to the inch)\\
mm&millimeters (25.4 to the inch)\\
in&inches\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

The em can cause beginners some puzzlement because
it's based on the `point size'
of the type, which is itself misleading. The point size
refers to the depth of the metal body on which foundry type
was cast in the days of metal typesetting,
\emph{not} the printed height of the letters
themselves. Thus the letter-size of 10pt type in one face
can be radically different from 10pt type in another (look
at the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-adobe}, where all the examples are
10pt). An em is the height of the type-body in a specific size,
so 1em of 10pt type is 10pt and 1em of 24pt type is
24pt.

Another name for a 1em space is a
`quad', and \LaTeX{} has a command
\command{quad} for leaving exactly that much
horizontal space. A special name is given to the 12pt em, a
`pica' em, as it has become a fixed
measure in its own right.

If you are working with other DTP users, watch out for
those who think that Adobe points (bp) are the only ones.
The difference is only .27pt per inch, but in 10$''$ of
text (a full page of A4) that's 2.7pt, which is nearly
1mm, enough to be clearly visible if you're trying to
align one sample with another.
\subsection{Hyphenation}
\label{hyph}

\LaTeX{} hyphenates automatically according to the
language you use (see \S\thinspace\ref{langs}). To specify
different breakpoints for an individual word, you can insert
soft-hyphens\index{hyphens!soft} (discretionary hyphens, done with
\command{-}) wherever you need them, for
example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
When in Mexico, we visited Popoca\-t�petl by helicopter.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

To specify hyphenation points for all occurrences of a
word, use the \command{hyphenation} command in your
preamble (see the panel `The Preamble' \testpage[below]{preamble}) with one or more
words in its argument, separated by spaces. This will even
let you break `helico-\linebreak pter' correctly. In this command
you use normal hyphens, not soft-hyphens.\index{hyphens!discretionary}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\hyphenation{helico-pter Popoca-t�petl
im-mer-sion}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have frequent hyphenation problems with long,
unusual, or technical words, ask an expert about changing
the value of \length{spaceskip},
which controls the flexibility of the space between words.
This is not something you would normally want to do, as it
can change the appearance of your document quite
significantly.

If you are using a lot of unbreakable text (see next
section and also \S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) it may also
cause justification problems. One possible solution to this
is shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macargs}.
\subsection{Unbreakable text}

To force \LaTeX{} to treat a word as unbreakable, use
the \command{mbox} command:
\verb+\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}+.
This may have undesirable results, however, if
you change margins or the width of the text:
\mbox{pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis}\dots

To tie two words together with an unbreakable
space\index{hard space}\index{white-space!hard} (hard space), use a tilde (\verb+~+)
instead of the space (see the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{tilde} in \S\thinspace\ref{tilde}). This
will print as a normal space but
\LaTeX{} will never break the line at that point. You should
make this standard typing practice for things like
people's initials followed by their surname, as in
Prof. D.�E.�Knuth:
\verb+Prof.\ D.~E.~Knuth+.
\begin{warning}

Note that a full point after a lowercase letter is
treated as the end of a sentence, and creates more space
before the next word. Here, after
`Prof.', it's
\emph{not} the end of a sentence, and the
backslash-space forces \LaTeX{} to insert just an ordinary
word-space because it's OK to break the line after
`Prof.', whereas it would look
wrong to have initials separated with Prof.�D.E.�Knuth broken over a line-end.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Dashes}

For a long dash\mdash{}what printers call an
`em rule' like this\mdash{}use three
hyphens typed together, \verb+like~--- this+,
and bind them to the preceding word with a tilde to avoid
the line being broken before the dash. It's also common
to see the dash printed without spaces---like that: the
difference is purely �sthetic. \emph{Never}
use a single hyphen for this purpose.

Between digits like page ranges (35\ndash{}47), it is
normal to use the short dash (what printers call an en-rule)
which you get by typing two hyphens together, as in
\verb+35--47+. If you want a minus sign, use math
mode (\S\thinspace\ref{math}).
\subsection{Justification}

The default mode for typesetting is justified (two
parallel margins, with word-spacing adjusted automatically
for the best optical fit). In justifying, \LaTeX{} will never
add space between letters, only between words. There is a
special package called \package{so}
(`space-out') if you need special
effects like letter-spacing, but these are best left to the
expert.

There are two commands
\command{raggedright} and
\command{raggedleft} which set ragged-right (ranged
left) and ragged-left (ranged right). Use them inside a
group (see the panel `Grouping' \testpage[below]{grouping}) to confine their
action to a part of your text.

{\raggedleft
These modes also exist as
`environments' (see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{environments}) called
\env{raggedright} and
\env{raggedleft} which are more convenient
when applying this formatting to a whole paragraph or more,
like this one.
\par}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{raggedleft}
These modes also exist as environments called raggedright
and raggedleft which is more convenient when applying this
formatting to a whole paragraph or more, like this one.
\end{raggedleft}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Ragged setting turns off hyphenation. There is a package
\package{ragged2e} which retains hyphenation
in ragged setting, useful when you have a lot of long
words.
\subsection{Languages}
\label{langs}

\LaTeX{} can typeset in the native manner for several
dozen languages. This affects hyphenation, word-spacing,
indentation, and the names of the parts of documents used as
headings (e.g.�Table of Contents).

Most distributions of \LaTeX{} come with US English and
one or more other languages installed by default, but it is
easy to add the \package{babel} package and
specify any of the supported languages or variants, for
example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
..
\selectlanguage{frenchb}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Changing the language with
\package{babel} automatically changes the
names of the structural units and identifiers like
`Abstract',
`Index', etc.�to their
translated version. For example, using French as above,
chapters will start with
`\emph{Chapitre}'.\footnote{Note that the \package{babel} package
also sets the hyphenation patterns \emph{provided
your version of \LaTeX{} has them
precompiled} (see the start of your log
files for a list). For other languages you need to set
the hyphenation separately (outside the scope of this
book).}
\section{Mathematics}
\label{math}
\index{mathematics}
As explained in the Preface on p.\thinspace\pageref{mathtex}, \TeX{} was
originally written to automate the typesetting of books
containing mathematics. The careful reader will already have
noticed that mathematics is handled differently from normal
text, which is why it has to be typeset specially. This
document does not cover mathematical typesetting, which is
explained in detail in many other books and Web pages, so all
we will cover here is the existence of the math mode commands,
and some characters which have special meaning, so they
don't trip you up elsewhere.

In addition to the 10 special characters listed in \S\thinspace\ref{specials}, there are three more characters which
only have any meaning inside mathematics mode:\index{math characters}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cl}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{$|$}&Vertical bar\\
\ttkey{<}&Less-than\\
\ttkey{>}&Greater-than\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
If you type any of these in normal text (ie outside math
mode), you will get very weird things happening and lots of
error messages. If you need to print these characters, you
\emph{must} type them using math mode, or use
their symbolic names from the \env{textcomp}
package (\command{textbrokenbar},
\command{textlangle}, and
\command{textrangle}).

The hyphen also has an extra meaning in math mode: it
typesets as a minus sign, so if you want to write about
negative numbers you need to type the number in math mode so
the minus sign and the spacing come out right.

To use math mode within a paragraph, enclose your math
expression in \command{(} and \command{)}
commands. You can get the much-quoted equation
$E=mc^{2}$ by typing
\verb+$E=mc^2$+, and to get a temperature like
\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}30� you need to type
\verb+$-30$�+.\footnote{Bear in mind that the degree symbol is a non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} character, so you must specify
what input encoding you are using if you want to type it:
see the example of the \package{inputenc}
package in \S\thinspace\ref{accents}. If you don't
want to use non-ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} characters
(or if you are using a system which cannot generate them),
you can use the command \command{textdegree} to
get the degree sign.}

To typeset a math expression as `displayed
math' (centered between paragraphs), enclose it
in the commands \command{[} and
\command{]}.\footnote{You will also see dollar signs used for math mode.
This is quite common but deprecated: it's what plain
\TeX{} used in the days before \LaTeX{}, and the habit got
ingrained in many mathematicians. It still works as a
convenient shorthand like \url+$x=y$+, as do
double-dollars for display-mode math like
\url+$$E=mc^2$$+, but they are only mentioned
here to warn readers seeing them in other authors'
work that \command{(}\dots \command{)}
and \command{[}\dots \command{]} are
the proper \LaTeX{} commands.}
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\[\bar n^*_j(s)=\frac{\left\{s\sum_{i=1}^k
n_i(0)p^*{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}\sum_{i=1}^k
p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum_{i=1}^kp_{0i}p^*_{i,
k+1}(s)}+\sum_{i=1}^kn_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)[j=
1,2,\dots,k].\]
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

$\bar n^*_j(s)=
\frac{\left\{s\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{i,k+1}(s)+M^*(s)\right\}
\sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*{ij}(s)}{1-s\sum^k_{i=1}p_{0i}p^*_{i,k+1}(s)}
+\sum^k_{i=1}n_i(0)p^*_{ij}(s)\,\rlap{[j=1,2,\dots,k]}$

\end{quote}\end{example}

Displayed equations can be auto-numbered with the
\env{equation} environment instead of the
\command{[} and \command{]} commands.
\chapter{Basic document structures}
\label{basic}
\index{sections}
\LaTeX{}'s approach to formatting is to aim for
consistency. This means that as long as you identify each
\textbf{\textit{element}}\label{element}\index{element@\textbf{\textit{element}}} of your document
correctly, it will be typeset in the same way as all the other
elements like it, so that you achieve a consistent finish with
minimum effort. Consistency helps make documents easier to read
and understand.

Elements are the component parts of a document, all the
pieces which make up the whole. Almost everyone who reads books,
newspapers, magazines, reports, articles, and other classes of
documents will be familiar with the popular structure of
chapters, sections, subsections, subsubsections, paragraphs,
lists, tables, figures, and so on, even if they don't
consciously think about it.

Consistency is also what publishers look for. They have a
house style, and often a reputation to keep, so they rightly
insist that if you do something a certain way once, you should
do it the same way each time.

To help achieve this consistency, every \LaTeX{} document
starts by declaring what \textbf{\textit{document
class}}\label{documentclass}\index{document
class@\textbf{\textit{document
class}}} it belongs to.
\section{The Document Class Declaration}
\label{docdecl}
\index{document class}
To tell \LaTeX{} what class of document you are going to
create, you type a special first line into your file which
identifies it.\footnote{Readers familiar with SGML\index{SGML@SGML},
HTML\index{HTML@HTML}, or XML\index{XML@XML} will recognize the concept as
similar to the Document Type
Declaration.} To start a report, for
example, you would type the \command{documentclass}
command like this as your first line:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass{report}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are four built-in classes provided, and many others
that you can download (some may already be installed for
you):
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{report}]
for business, technical, legal, academic, or
scientific reports;
\item[\sffamily \package{article}]
for white papers, magazine or journal articles,
reviews, conference papers, or research notes;
\item[\sffamily \package{book}]
for books and theses;
\item[\sffamily \package{letter}]
for letters.\footnote{The built-in \package{letter}
class is rather idiosyncratic: there are much better
ones you can download, such as
the \package{memoir} and
\package{komascript} packages.}
\end{description}

The \package{article} class in particular
can be used (some would say `abused') for almost
any short piece of typesetting by simply omitting the titling
and layout (see below).

The built-in classes are intended as starting-points,
especially for drafts and for compatibility when exchanging
documents with other \LaTeX{} users, as they come with every
copy of \LaTeX{} and are therefore guaranteed to format
identically everywhere. \emph{They are \emph{\textbf{not}} intended as final-format
publication-quality layouts.} For most other
purposes, especially for publication, you use
add-in packages (\S\thinspace\ref{packages}) to extend
these classes to do what you need:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The \package{memoir} and
\package{komascript} packages contain
more sophisticated replacements for all the built-in
classes;

\item
Many academic and scientific publishers provide their
own special class files for articles and books (often on
their Web sites for download);

\item
Conference organisers may also provide class files for
authors to write papers for presentation;

\item
Many universities provide their own thesis document
class files in order to ensure exact fulfillment of their
formatting requirements;

\item
Businesses and other organizations can provide their
users with corporate classes on a central server and
configure \LaTeX{} installations to look there first for
packages, fonts, etc.

\end{itemize}

Books and journals are not usually printed on office-size
paper. Although \LaTeX{}'s layouts are designed to fit on
standard A4 or Letter stationery for draft purposes, it makes
them look odd: the margins are too wide, or the positioning is
unusual, or the font size is too small, because the finished
job will normally be trimmed to a different size
entirely\mdash{}try trimming the margins of the PDF\index{PDF@PDF} version of this book to 185mm by 235mm
(the same as \titlecite{companion} series)
and you'll be amazed at how it changes the appearance!

\subsection{Document class options}
\label{doclayout}
\index{paper sizes}
The default layouts are designed to fit as drafts on US
Letter size paper.\footnote{Letter size is 8�$''$$\times$11$''$, which is the
trimmed size of the old Demi Quarto, still in use in
North America. The other common US office size is
`Legal', which is
8�$''$$\times$14$''$, a bastard cutting close to
the old Foolscap (8�$''$$\times$13�$''$). ISO
standard `A',
`B', and
`C' paper sizes are still
virtually unknown in many parts of North America.} To create documents with the correct proportions
for standard A4 paper, you need to specify the paper size in
an optional argument in square brackets before the document
class name, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[a4paper]{report}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The two most common options are \opt{a4paper}
and \opt{letterpaper}. However, many European
distributions of \TeX{} now come preset for A4, not Letter, and
this is also true of all distributions of
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}}.

The other default settings are for: \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item 10pt type (all document classes); \item two-sided printing (books and reports) or
one-sided (articles and letters); and \item separate title page (books and reports
only)\end{inparaenum}. These can be modified with the following
document class options which you can add in the same set of
square brackets, separated by commas:
\index{fonts!sizes}\begin{description}
\label{docfontsize}
\item[\sffamily \opt{11pt}]
to specify 11pt type (headings, footnotes,
etc.�get scaled up or down in
proportion);
\item[\sffamily \opt{12pt}]
to specify 12pt type (again, headings
scale);
\item[\sffamily \opt{oneside}]
to format one-sided printing for books and
reports;
\item[\sffamily \opt{twoside}]
to format articles for two-sided printing;
\item[\sffamily \opt{titlepage}]
to force articles to have a separate title
page;
\item[\sffamily \opt{draft}]
makes \LaTeX{} indicate hyphenation and
justification problems with a small square in the
right-hand margin of the problem line so they can be
located quickly by a human.
\end{description}

If you were using pdf\LaTeX{} for a report to be in 12pt
type on Letter paper, but printed one-sided in draft mode, you
would use:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[12pt,letterpaper,oneside,draft]{report}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are extra preset options for other type sizes
which can be downloaded separately, but 10pt, 11pt, and 12pt
between them cover probably 99\% of all document
typesetting. In addition there are the hundreds of add-in
packages which can automate other layout and formatting
variants without you having to program anything by hand or
even change your text.
\begin{exercise}
\label{firstline}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{1}Create a new document}
\subsubsection*{Create a new document}\begin{enumerate}\item
Use your editor to create a new document.

\item
Type in a Document Class Declaration as shown
above.

\item
Add a font size option if you wish.

\item
In North America, omit the
\opt{a4paper} option or change it to
\opt{letterpaper}.

\item
Save the file (make up a name) ensuring the name
ends with \url+.tex+

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{The document environment}
\label{docenv}

After the Document Class Declaration, the text of your
document is enclosed between two commands which identify the
beginning and end of the actual document:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}

\begin{document}
..
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(You would put your text where the dots are.) The reason
for marking off the beginning of your text is that \LaTeX{}
allows you to insert extra setup specifications before it
(where the blank line is in the example above: we'll be
using this soon). The reason for marking off the end of your
text is to provide a place for \LaTeX{} to be programmed to do
extra stuff automatically at the end of the document, like
making an index.

A useful side-effect of marking the end of the document
text is that you can store comments or temporary text
underneath the \verb+\end{document}+ in the
knowledge that \LaTeX{} will never try to typeset them.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..
\end{document}
Don't forget to get the extra chapter from Jim!
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{environments}%
This
\command{begin}\thinspace{}\dots \command{end}
pair of commands is an example of a common \LaTeX{} structure called an
\textbf{\textit{environment}}\label{environment}\index{environment@\textbf{\textit{environment}}}.
Environments enclose text which is to be handled in a particular
way. All environments start with
\verb+\begin{...}+ and end with
\verb+\end{...}+ (putting the name of the
environment in the curly braces).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{2}Adding the document environment}
\subsubsection*{Adding the document environment}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add the \env{document} environment to
your file.

\item
Leave a blank line between the Document Class
Declaration and the \verb+\begin{document}+
(you'll see why later).

\item
Save the file.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\section{Titling}
\label{titling}
\index{titles}
The first thing you put in the
\env{document} environment is almost always the
document title, the author's name, and the date (except
in letters, which have a special set of commands for
addressing which we'll look at later). The title, author,
and date are all examples of \textbf{\textit{metadata}}\label{metadata}\index{metadata@\textbf{\textit{metadata}}} or \textbf{\textit{metainformation}}\label{metainformation}\index{metainformation@\textbf{\textit{metainformation}}} (information
\emph{about} information).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}

\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The \command{title}, \command{author},
and \command{date} commands are
self-explanatory. You put the title, author name, and date in
curly braces after the relevant command. The title and author
are usually compulsory; if you omit the
\command{date} command, \LaTeX{} uses today's
date by default.

You always finish the metadata with the
\command{maketitle} command, which tells
\LaTeX{} that it's complete and it can typeset the titling
information at this point. If you omit
\command{maketitle}, the titling will never be
typeset. This command is reprogrammable so you can alter the
appearance of titles (like I did for the printed version of
this document).

The double backslash (\verb+\\+) is the
\LaTeX{} command for forced linebreak. \LaTeX{} normally decides by
itself where to break lines, and it's usually right, but
sometimes you need to cut a line short, like here, and start a
new one. I could have left it out and just used a comma, so my
name and my company would all appear on the one line, but I
just decided that I wanted my company name on a separate line.
In some publishers' document classes, they provide a special
\command{affiliation} command to put your company
or institution name in instead.

When this file is typeset, you get something like this
(I've cheated and done it in
colour (\S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) for fun\mdash{}yours will be in black and white
for the moment):
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{title}}
\end{center}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{3}Adding the metadata}
\subsubsection*{Adding the metadata}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add the \command{title},
\command{author}, \command{date}, and
\command{maketitle} commands to your
file.

\item
Use your own name, make up a title, and give a
date.

\end{enumerate}

The order of the first three commands is not important,
but the \command{maketitle} command must come
last.
\end{exercise}

The document isn't really ready for printing like this,
but if you're really impatient, look at \chaptername~\ref{process} to see how to typeset and display
it.
\section{Abstracts and summaries}
\label{abstracts}
\index{abstracts}\index{summaries}
In reports and articles it is normal for the author
to provide an Summary or Abstract, in which you describe
briefly what you have written about and explain its
importance. Abstracts in articles are usually only a few
paragraphs long. Summaries in reports can run to several
pages, depending on the length and complexity of the report
and the readership it's aimed at.

In both cases (reports and articles) the Abstract or
Summary is optional (that is, \LaTeX{} doesn't force you
to have one), but it's rare to omit it because readers want
and expect it. In practice, of course, you go back and type
the Abstract or Summary \emph{after} having
written the rest of the document, but for the sake of the
example we'll jump the gun and type it now.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Summary}
\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This document presents the basic concepts of
typesetting in a form usable by non-specialists. It
is aimed at those who find themselves (willingly or
unwillingly) asked to undertake work previously sent
out to a professional printer, and who are concerned
that the quality of work (and thus their corporate
�sthetic) does not suffer unduly.
\end{abstract}

\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

After the \command{maketitle} you use the
\env{abstract} environment, in which you simply
type your Abstract or Summary, leaving a blank line between
paragraphs if there's more than one (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs} for this convention).

In business and technical documents, the Abstract is often
called a Management Summary, or Executive Summary, or Business
Preview, or some similar phrase. \LaTeX{} lets you change the
name associated with the \env{abstract}
environment to any kind of title you want, using the
\command{renewcommand} command to give the command
\command{abstractname} a new value:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Executive Summary}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{4}Using an Abstract or Summary}
\subsubsection*{Using an Abstract or Summary}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add the \command{renewcommand} as shown
above to your Preamble.

The Preamble is at the start of the document, in
that gap \emph{after} the
\command{documentclass} line but
\emph{before} the
\verb+\begin{document}+ (remember I said
we'd see what we left it blank for: see the panel `The Preamble' \testpage[below]{preamble}).

\item
Add an \env{abstract} environment
after the \command{maketitle} and type in a
paragraph or two of text.

\item
Save the file (no, I'm not paranoid, just
careful).

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

Notice how the name of the command you are renewing (here,
\command{abstractname}) goes in the first set of
curly braces, and the new value you want it to have goes in
the second set of curly braces (this is an example of a
command with two arguments). The environment you use is still
called \env{abstract} (that is, you still type
\verb+\begin{abstract}+\dots \verb+\end{abstract}+).
What the \command{abstractname} does is change the
name that gets displayed and printed, not the name of the
environment you store the text in.

If you look carefully at the example document, you'll
see I sneakily added an extra command to the Preamble.
We'll see later what this means (Brownie points for
guessing it, though, if you read \S\thinspace\ref{accents}).
\begin{sidebar}\label{preamble}
\subsection*{The Preamble}
Modifications which you want to affect a whole document
go at the start of your \LaTeX{} file, immediately
after the \command{documentclass} line and before
the \verb+\begin{document}+ line:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\renewcommand{\abstractname}{Sneak Preview}
\begin{document}
..
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This position, between the Document Class Declaration
and the beginning of the \env{document}
environment, is called the \textbf{\textit{preamble}}\label{pre}\index{preamble@\textbf{\textit{preamble}}}, and it is used for small or
temporary modifications to the style and behaviour of the
document. Major or permanent modifications should go in a
\url+.sty+ file and be invoked with a
\command{usepackage} command.
\end{sidebar}\section{Sections}
\label{sections}
\index{sections}
In the body of your document, \LaTeX{} provides seven
levels of division or sectioning for you to use in structuring
your text. They are all optional: it is perfectly possible to
write a document consisting solely of paragraphs of
unstructured text. But even novels are normally divided into
chapters, although short stories are often made up solely of
paragraphs.

Chapters are only
available in the \package{book} and
\package{report} document classes, because they
don't have any meaning in articles and letters. Parts are
also undefined in letters.\footnote{It is arguable that chapters also have no place in
reports, either, as these are conventionally divided into
sections as the top-level division. \LaTeX{}, however,
assumes your reports have chapters, but this is only the
default, and can be changed very simply (see
\S\thinspace\ref{reprog}).\label{repchap}}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{secdepths}
\begin{tabular}{@{}clll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Depth}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Division}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notes}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
$\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1$&Part&\command{part}&Not in letters\\
0&Chapter&\command{chapter}&Books and reports\\
1&Section&\command{section}&Not in letters\\
2&Subsection&\command{subsection}&Not in letters\\
3&Subsubsection&\command{subsubsection}&Not in letters\\
4&Titled paragraph&\command{paragraph}&Not in letters\\
5&Titled subparagraph&\command{subparagraph}&Not in letters\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
In each case the title of the part, chapter, section,
etc. goes in curly braces after the command. \LaTeX{}
automatically calculates the correct numbering and prints the
title in bold. You can turn section numbering off at a
specific depth: details in \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New recruitment policies}
..
\subsection{Effect on staff turnover}
..
\chapter{Business plan 2005--2007}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are packages\footnote{Details of how to use \LaTeX{} packages are in \S\thinspace\ref{packages}.} to let you control the typeface, style, spacing,
and appearance of section headings: it's much easier to
use them than to try and reprogram the headings manually. Two
of the most popular are the \package{ssection}
and \package{sectsty} packages.

Headings also get put automatically into the Table of
Contents, if you specify one (it's optional). But if you
make manual styling changes to your heading, for example a
very long title, or some special line-breaks or unusual
font-play, this would appear in the Table of Contents as well,
which you almost certainly \emph{don't}
want. \LaTeX{} allows you to give an optional extra version of
the heading text which only gets used in the Table of Contents
and any running heads, if they are in effect (\S\thinspace\ref{runningheads}). This optional alternative
heading goes in [square brackets] before the curly
braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section[Effect on staff turnover]{An analysis of the
effect of the revised recruitment policies on staff
turnover at divisional headquarters}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{5}Start your document text}
\subsubsection*{Start your document text}\begin{enumerate}\item
Add a \command{chapter} command after your
Abstract or Summary, giving the title of your first
chapter.

\item
If you're planning ahead, add a few more
\command{chapter} commands for
subsequent chapters. Leave a few blank lines between
them to make it easier to add paragraphs of text
later.

\item
By now I shouldn't need to tell you what to do
after making significant changes to your document
file.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Section numbering}
\label{secnum}
\index{section numbering}
All document divisions get numbered automatically. Parts
get Roman numerals (Part�I, Part�II, etc.);
chapters and sections get decimal numbering like this
document, and Appendixes (which are just a special case of
chapters, and share the same structure) are lettered (A, B,
C, etc.).

You can change the depth to which section numbering
occurs, so you can turn it off selectively. In this document
it is set
to�\arabic{secnumdepth}.
If you only want parts, chapters, and sections numbered, not
subsections or subsubsections etc., you can change the
value of the \counter{secnumdepth}
counter using the the \command{setcounter} command,
giving the depth value from the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{secdepths}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{1}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

A related counter is \counter{tocdepth}, which specifies what
depth to take the Table of Contents to. It can be reset in
exactly the same way as \counter{secnumdepth}. The current setting
for this document is�\arabic{tocdepth}.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

To get an \emph{unnumbered} section
heading which does \emph{not} go into the
Table of Contents, follow the command name with an asterisk
before the opening curly brace:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Shopping List}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

All the divisional commands from
\command{part*} to \command{subparagraph*}
have this `starred' version which can
be used on special occasions for an unnumbered heading when
the setting of \counter{secnumdepth}
would normally mean it would be numbered.
\section{Ordinary paragraphs}
\label{paragraphs}

After section headings comes your text. Just type it and
leave a blank line between paragraphs. That's all
\LaTeX{} needs.

The blank line means `start a new paragraph
here': it does \emph{not} (repeat:
\emph{\textbf{not}}) mean you get a blank
line in the typeset output. Now read this paragraph
again and again until that sinks in.

The spacing between paragraphs is a separately definable
quantity, a \textbf{\textit{dimension}}\label{dimension}\index{dimension@\textbf{\textit{dimension}}} or
\textbf{\textit{length}}\label{length}\index{length@\textbf{\textit{length}}} called \length{parskip}. This is normally zero
(no space between paragraphs, because that's how books
are normally typeset), but you can easily set it to any size
you want with the \command{setlength} command in the
Preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{paraspace}%
This will set the space between paragraphs
to 1cm. See \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions} for details of the
various size units \LaTeX{} can use. \emph{Leaving
multiple blank lines between paragraphs in your source
document achieves nothing}: all extra blank lines
get ignored by \LaTeX{} because the space between paragraphs
is
controlled only by the value of \length{parskip}.

White-space in \LaTeX{} can also be made flexible (what
\authorof{latexbook} calls
`rubber' lengths). This means that
values such as \length{parskip} can
have a default dimension plus an amount of expansion minus an
amount of contraction. This is useful on pages in complex
documents where not every page may be an exact number of
fixed-height lines long, so some give-and-take in vertical
space is useful. You specify this in a
\command{setlength} command like this:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parskip}{1cm plus4mm minus3mm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Paragraph indentation can also be set with the
\command{setlength} command, although you would
always make it a fixed size, never a flexible one, otherwise
you would have very ragged-looking paragraphs.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{6mm}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

By default, the first paragraph after a heading follows
the standard Anglo-American publishers' practice of
\emph{no} indentation. Subsequent paragraphs are
indented by the value of \length{parindent} (default
18pt).\footnote{Paragraph spacing and indentation are cultural
settings. If you are typesetting in a language other than
English, you should use the \package{babel}
package, which alters many things, including the spacing
and the naming of sections, to conform with the standards
of different countries and languages.} You can change this in the same way as any other
length.

In the printed copy of this document, the paragraph
indentation is set to \the\parindent and the space
between paragraphs is set to \the\parskip. These values do not
apply in the Web (HTML\index{HTML@HTML}) version because not all browsers are
capable of that fine a level of control, and because users can
apply their own stylesheets regardless of what this document
proposes.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{6}Start typing!}
\subsubsection*{Start typing!}\begin{enumerate}\item
Type some paragraphs of text. Leave a blank line
between each. Don't bother about line-wrapping or
formatting\mdash{}\LaTeX{} will take care of all
that.

\item
If you're feeling adventurous, add a
\command{section} command with the title of a
section within your first chapter, and continue typing
paragraphs of text below that.

\item
Add one or more \command{setlength}
commands to your Preamble if you want to experiment with
changing paragraph spacing and indentation.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

To turn off indentation completely, set it to zero (but
you still have to provide units: it's still a
measure!).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\parindent}{0in}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you do this, though, and leave \length{parskip} set to zero, your readers
won't be able to tell easily where each paragraph begins!
If you want to use the style of having no indentation with a
space between paragraphs, use the
\package{parskip} package, which does it for
you (and makes adjustments to the spacing of lists and other
structures which use paragraph spacing, so they don't get
too far apart).
\section{Table of contents}
\label{toc}
\index{table of contents!automated entries}
All auto-numbered headings get entered in the Table of
Contents (ToC) automatically. You don't have to print a
ToC, but if you want to, just add the command
\command{tableofcontents} at the point where you want
it printed (usually after the Abstract or Summary).

Entries for the ToC are recorded each time you process
your document, and reproduced the \emph{next}
time you process it, so you need to re-run \LaTeX{} one extra
time to ensure that all ToC page-number references
are correctly calculated.

We've already seen in \S\thinspace\ref{sections} how
to use the optional argument to the sectioning commands to add
text to the ToC which is slightly different from the one
printed in the body of the document. It is also possible to
add extra lines to the ToC, to force extra or unnumbered
section headings to be included.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{7}Inserting the table of contents}
\subsubsection*{Inserting the table of contents}\begin{enumerate}\item
Go back and add a \command{tableofcontents}
command after the \verb+\end{abstract}+ command
in your document.

\item
You guessed.

\end{enumerate}
\end{exercise}

\label{loflot}%
The commands \command{listoffigures}
and \command{listoftables} work in exactly the same
way as \command{tableofcontents} to automatically
list all your tables and figures. If you use them, they
normally go after the \command{tableofcontents}
command.

The \command{tableofcontents} command normally
shows only numbered section headings, and only down to the
level defined by the \counter{tocdepth} counter (see \S\thinspace\ref{secnum}), but you can add extra entries with the
\command{addcontentsline} command. For example if you
use an unnumbered section heading command to start a
preliminary piece of text like a Foreword or Preface, you can
write:\index{table of contents!adding manual entry}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\subsection*{Preface}
\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Preface}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This will format an unnumbered ToC entry for
`Preface' in the
`subsection' style. You can use
the same mechanism to add lines to the List of Figures or List
of Tables by substituting \url+lof+ or
\url+lot+ for \url+toc+.
\chapter{Typesetting, viewing and printing}
\label{process}
\index{typesetting}\index{viewing}\index{printing}
We've now got far enough to typeset what you've
entered. I'm assuming at this stage that you have typed
some sample text in the format specified in the previous
chapter, and you've saved it in a plain-text file with a
filetype of
\verb+.tex+ and a name of your own choosing.
\index{filenames}\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{8}Saving your file}
\subsubsection*{Saving your file}
If you haven't already saved your file, do so now
(some editors and interfaces let you typeset the document
without saving it!).

Pick a sensible filename in a sensible directory. Names
should be short enough to display and search for, but
descriptive enough to make sense. See the panel `Picking suitable filenames' \testpage[below]{filenames} for more details.
\end{exercise}
\begin{sidebar}\label{filenames}
\subsection*{Picking suitable filenames}
Never, ever use directories (folders) or file names
which contain spaces. Although your operating system
probably supports them, some don't, and they will
only cause grief and tears with \TeX{}.

Make filenames as short or as long as you wish, but
strictly avoid spaces. Stick to upper- and lower-case
letters without accents (A\ndash{}Z and a\ndash{}z), the
digits 0\ndash{}9, the hyphen (\verb+-+), and
the full point or period (\verb+.+), (similar
to the conventions for a Web URI\index{URI@URI}): it will let you refer to \TeX{}
files over the Web more
easily and make your files more portable.
\end{sidebar}\section{Typesetting}
\label{setting}

Typesetting your document is usually done by clicking
on a button in a toolbar or an entry in a menu. Which one you
click on depends on what output you want\mdash{}there are two
formats available:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The standard (default) \LaTeX{} program produces a
device-independent (DVI)\index{DVI@DVI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DVI@DVI|textbf} file which
can be used with any \TeX{} previewer or printer driver on any
make or model of computer. There are dozens of these
available: at least one of each (previewer and printer
driver) should have been installed with your distribution
of \TeX{}.

\item
The \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} program
produces an Adobe Acrobat PDF\index{PDF@PDF}
file which can be used with any suitable previewer, such
as \product{GSview},
\product{PDFview},
\product{Xpdf}, the
\product{Opera} browser, or Adobe's
own \product{Acrobat Reader}.

\end{itemize}

Depending on which one you choose, you may have to
[re]configure your editor so that it runs the right program.
They can all do all of them, but they don't always come
pre-set with buttons or menus for every possible option,
because they can't guess which one you want.
\subsection{Standard \LaTeX{}}

There are also two ways of running \LaTeX{}: from the
toolbar or menu, or from the command line. Toolbars and
menus are most common in graphical systems, and are the
normal way to run \LaTeX{}. Command lines are used in
non-graphical systems and in automated processes where
\LaTeX{} is run
unattended (so-called `batch' or
`scripted' processing).

Whichever way you run \LaTeX{}, it will process your
file and display a log or record of what it's doing
(see Exercise~\ref{terminal}: it looks the
same no matter what system you use). This is to let you see
where (if!) there are any errors or problems.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{9}Running from the toolbar or menu}
\subsubsection*{Running \LaTeX{} from the toolbar or menu}
Run \LaTeX{} on your file. According to which system
you're using this will either be the
\guiicon{\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon or the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
File} menu item.

Your editor may suggest you save your file if you
haven't already done so. Do it.
\end{exercise}

If \LaTeX{} reports any errors\mdash{}easily identifiable
as lines in the log beginning with an exclamation mark
(!)\mdash{}\emph{don't panic!} Turn to \S\thinspace\ref{errmsg}, identify what went wrong, and fix it in
your input file. Then re-run \LaTeX{}. If there were no
errors, your file is ready for displaying or
printing.
\subsection{Running \LaTeX{} from a command window}
\label{cmdwin}

This is worth practising even if you normally use a
GUI\index{GUI@GUI}, so that you understand what it
does. See Figure~\ref{cliex} for an example.
\begin{exercise}
\label{terminal}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{10}Running in a terminal or console
window}
\subsubsection*{Running \LaTeX{} in a terminal or console
window}\begin{itemize}
\item
Under graphical Unix-based systems (Linux and Mac)
you open a command (shell) window by clicking on the
shell or screen icon in the control panel at the
bottom of your screen.

\item
Under Microsoft Windows you open a command window
by clicking on the
\menuitem{Start}{Programs}[MS-DOS]
or
\menuitem{Start}{Command
Prompt} menu item.

\end{itemize}

When the command window appears, type
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small,commandchars=\\\{\}]
cd \textsl{\uline{documents}}
latex \textsl{\uline{mybook}}�
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Substitute the relevant directory and file name.
Remember to press the \key{Enter} key at the
end of each line.
\end{exercise}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Command-line usage}
\label{cliex}
\begin{center}
\label{clidemo}\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{terminal}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsection{pdf\LaTeX{}}

If your editor is set up to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files, then you can click the
\guiicon{pdf\LaTeX{}} toolbar icon or type the
command \texttt{pdflatex
\textsl{filename}} in a terminal
(console) window. \product{Emacs} does not
have a default menu configured for
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} but if you have
already run standard \LaTeX{} on the file, you can type ther
\verb+pdflatex+ command in the
\verb+*TeX-Shell*+ pane.
\section{Errors and warnings}
\label{errmsg}

\LaTeX{} describes what it's typesetting while it does it,
and if it encounters something it doesn't understand or can't
do, it will display a message saying what's wrong. It may
also display warnings for less serious conditions.

\emph{Don't panic if you see error
messages}: it's very common for beginners to
mistype or mis-spell commands, forget curly braces, type a
forward slash instead of a backslash, or use a special
character by mistake. Errors are easily spotted and easily
corrected in your editor, and you can then run \LaTeX{} again
to check you have fixed everything. Some of the most common
errors are described in \S\thinspace\ref{errmsg} with an
explanation of how to fix them.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{dontpanic}
\end{center}
\subsection{Error messages}
\label{errs}

The format of an error message is always the same. Error
messages begin with an exclamation mark at the start of the
line, and give a description of the error, followed by another
line starting with the number, which refers to the line-number
in your document file which \LaTeX{} was processing when the
error was spotted. Here's an example, showing that the user
mistyped the \command{tableofcontents}
command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Undefined control sequence.
l.6 \tableofcotnetns
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When \LaTeX{} finds an error like this, it displays the
error message and pauses. You must type one of the following
letters to continue:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cp{4in}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Key}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\key{x}&Stop immediately and e\emph{\textbf{x}}it the program.\\
\key{q}&Carry on \emph{\textbf{q}}uietly as best you can and
don't bother me with any more error
messages.\\
\key{e}&Stop the program but re-position the text in my
\emph{\textbf{e}}ditor at the point
where you found the error.\tablefootnote{TF-1}\\
\key{h}&Try to give me more \emph{\textbf{h}}elp.\\
\key{i}&(followed by a correction) means \emph{\textbf{i}}nput the correction in
place of the error and carry on.\tablefootnote{TF-2}\\
\end{tabular}
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\textit{\alph{enumi}}}\footnotesize\begin{enumerate*}\item This only works if you're using an editor
which \LaTeX{} can communicate with.\label{TF-1}\item This is only a temporary fix to get the file
processed. You still have to make that
correction in the editor.\label{TF-2}\end{enumerate*}\end{center}
\endgroup
Some systems (\product{Emacs} is one
example) run \LaTeX{} with a
`non-stop' switch turned on, so it
will always process through to the end of the file,
regardless of errors, or until a limit is reached.
\subsection{Warnings}
\label{warn}

Warnings don't begin with an exclamation mark: they are
just comments by \LaTeX{} about things you might want to look
into, such as
overlong or underrun lines (often caused by unusual hyphenations, for
example), pages running short or long, and other typographical
niceties (most of which you can ignore until later).

Unlike other systems, which try to hide unevennesses in
the text\mdash{}usually unsuccessfully\mdash{}by interfering
with the letter-spacing, \LaTeX{} takes the view that the
author or editor should be able to contribute. While it is
certainly possible to set \LaTeX{}'s parameters so that
the spacing is sufficiently sloppy that you will almost never
get a warning about badly-fitting lines or pages, you will
almost certainly just be delaying matters until you start to
get complaints from your readers or publishers.
\subsection{Examples}

Only a few common error messages are given here: those
most likely to be encountered by beginners. If you find
another error message not shown here, and it's not
clear what you should do, ask for help.

Most error messages are self-explanatory, but be aware
that the place where
\LaTeX{} spots and reports an error may be later in the file
than the place where it actually occurred. For example if
you forget to close a curly brace which encloses, say,
italics, \LaTeX{} won't report this until something else
occurs which can't happen until the curly brace is
encountered (eg the end of the document!) Some errors can
only be righted by humans who can read and understand what
the document is supposed to mean or look like.

Newcomers should remember to check the list of special
characters in (\S\thinspace\ref{specials}): a very large
number of errors when you are learning \LaTeX{} are due to
accidentally typing a special character when you didn't
mean to. This disappears after a few days as you get used to
them.
\subsubsection{Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}
\label{toomany}
\index{Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}\index{Error messages!Too many {\ttfamily\char'175}'s}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Too many }'s.
l.6 \date December 2004}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The reason \LaTeX{} thinks there are too many
\verb+}+'s here is that the opening curly
brace is missing after the \command{date} control
sequence and before the word \verb+December+,
so the closing curly brace is seen as one too many (which
it is!).

In fact, there are other things which can follow the
\command{date} command apart from a date in curly
braces, so \LaTeX{} cannot possibly guess that
you've missed out the opening curly brace\mdash{}until
it finds a closing one!
\subsubsection{Undefined control sequence}
\label{undefcs}
\index{Undefined control sequence}\index{Error messages!Undefined control sequence}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! Undefined control sequence.
l.6 \dtae
{December 2004}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

In this example, \LaTeX{} is complaining that it has
no such command (`control
sequence') as \verb+\dtae+.
Obviously it's been mistyped, but only a human can
detect that fact: all \LaTeX{} knows is
that \verb+\dtae+ is not a command it knows
about\mdash{}it's undefined.

Mistypings are the commonest source of error. If your
editor has drop-down menus to insert common commands and
environments, use them!
\subsubsection{Runaway argument}
\label{runaway}
\index{Runaway argument}\index{Error messages!Runaway argument}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Runaway argument?
{December 2004 \maketitle
! Paragraph ended before \date was complete.
<to be read again>
\par
l.8
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

In this error, the closing curly brace has been
omitted from the date. It's the opposite of the error in
\S\thinspace\ref{toomany}, and it results in
\command{maketitle} trying to format the title
page while \LaTeX{} is still expecting more text for the
date! As
\command{maketitle} creates new paragraphs on the
title page, this is detected and \LaTeX{} complains that
the
previous paragraph has ended but \command{date}
is not yet finished.
\subsubsection{Underfull hbox}
\label{underfull}
\index{Underfull hbox}\index{Error messages!Underfull hbox}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Underfull \hbox (badness 1394) in paragraph
at lines 28--30
[][]\LY1/brm/b/n/10 Bull, RJ: \LY1/brm/m/n/10
Ac-count-ing in Busi-
[94]
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is a warning that \LaTeX{} cannot stretch the
line wide enough to fit, without making the spacing bigger
than its currently permitted maximum. The
\textbf{\textit{badness}}\label{badness}\index{badness@\textbf{\textit{badness}}} (0\ndash{}10,000) indicates
how severe this is (here you can probably ignore a badness
of 1394). It says what lines of your file it was
typesetting when it found this, and the number in square
brackets is the number of the page onto which the
offending line was printed.

The codes separated by slashes are the typeface and
font style and size used in the line. Ignore them for the
moment: details are in step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles} if you're
curious.
\subsubsection{Overfull hbox}
\label{overfull}
\index{Overfull hbox}\index{Error messages!Overfull hbox}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
[101]
Overfull \hbox (9.11617pt too wide) in paragraph
at lines 860--861
[]\LY1/brm/m/n/10 Windows, \LY1/brm/m/it/10 see
\LY1/brm/m/n/10 X Win-
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

And the opposite warning: this line is too
long by a shade over 9pt. The chosen hyphenation point
which minimises the error is shown at the end of the line
(\emph{Win-}). Line numbers and page numbers
are given as before. In this case, 9pt is too much to
ignore (over 3mm or more than $\frac{1}{8}$$''$), and a manual correction needs
making (such as a change to the hyphenation), or the
flexibility settings need changing (outside the scope of
this book).
\subsubsection{Missing package}
\label{nopkg}
\index{File not found}\index{Error messages!File not found}\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
! LaTeX Error: File `paralisy.sty' not found.

Type X to quit or <RETURN> to proceed,
or enter new name. (Default extension: sty)

Enter file name:
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When you use the \command{usepackage} command
to request \LaTeX{} to use a certain package, it will look
for a file with the specified name and the filetype
\url+.sty+. In this case the user has
mistyped the name of the \package{paralist}
package, so it's easy to fix. However, if you get the name
right, but the package is not installed on your machine,
you will need to download and install it before continuing
(see \chaptername~\ref{ctan}).
\section{Screen preview}
\label{dvi}
\index{preview}
Once the file has been processed without errors (or even
if there are still errors, but you want to see what it's
doing with them), standard \LaTeX{} will have created a
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file with the same name as your
document but the filetype
\verb+.dvi+. If you're using
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file will have been created, and you
can skip to
\S\thinspace\ref{pdfview}.
\subsection{Previewing DVI output}
\label{dvipreview}

To see the typeset output, click on the
\guiicon{dvi} Preview toolbar icon or use the
\menuitem{TeX}{TeX View}
menu item. A WYSIWYG\index{WYSIWYG@WYSIWYG} preview window will appear with
your typeset display (see Figure~\ref{dviview}).
\begin{warning}
\label{bitmappreview}
\subsubsection*{Bitmap preview fonts in DVI viewers}
The first time you display your DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output with a new installation of
\TeX{}, there may be a short pause if the previewer needs
to create the special bitmaps used for screen previews of
some fonts. These give greater accuracy on low-resolution
devices like screens. As you continue to work with
\LaTeX{} and your system accumulates these font files, the
pause for generating them will disappear. Recent versions
of \TeX{} work directly with Type�1 fonts, however,
and don't have this delay.
\end{warning}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small DVI preview}
\label{dviview}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{xdvi}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Most previewers have a wide range of scaling, zooming,
and measuring functions, but remember this is a
\emph{picture} of your output: you cannot edit
the image. To change it, you always edit your source text
and reprocess the file.

With \product{xdvi} and its derivatives
like \product{dviview}, you can leave the
display window open, and after you've reprocessed your
document through \LaTeX{}, moving your mouse back into the
window will make the display update automatically (click
your mouse if your windowing system needs a
click to focus).

Figure~\ref{dviview} shows
\product{xdvi} displaying a page. With a
standard three-button mouse you get three levels of
micro-zoom to let you inspect fine details.
\subsection{Previewing with PostScript}
\label{makeps}

PostScript\index{PostScript} is a page description
language invented by Adobe and used in laser printers and
high-end typesetters. It's been the universal standard
for electronically-formatted print files for nearly two
decades, and all printers and publishers are accustomed to
using it. PDF\index{PDF@PDF} is a descendant of
PostScript, and is rapidly taking over, but
PostScript\index{PostScript} itself is still extremely
common, largely because it is very robust, and is usually an
ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} file, which makes it very
portable and easy to generate (it is actually a programming
language in its own right). The drawback is the large size
of PostScript\index{PostScript} files, especially if
they contain bitmapped graphics.

The \product{dvips} program which comes
with all \TeX{} systems is used to generate
PostScript\index{PostScript} files directly from your
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} output. These
\url+.ps+ files can be viewed, printed, sent
to a platemaker or filmsetter, or put online for
downloading.

DVI\index{DVI@DVI} viewers cannot render some
PostScript\index{PostScript} graphical manipulations
like rotating and deforming, so an alternative to viewing
the DVI file direct is to generate a
PostScript\index{PostScript} file and use a
PostScript\index{PostScript} viewer. You may have to to
do this for your publisher anyway, and many editors can be
configured to do this by default. Look for a
\guiicon{dvips} toolbar icon or menu entry and
click on it.

It's also very simple to do manually: let's
assume your \LaTeX{} file was called
\url+mydoc.tex+, so processing it has created
\url+mydoc.dvi+. Just type:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvips -o mydoc.ps mydoc
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent in a command window (see Exercise~\ref{terminal} for how to use one)
and \product{dvips} will create
\url+mydoc.ps+ which can be used both for
previewing and printing.

To view a PostScript\index{PostScript} file, you
need a PostScript\index{PostScript} previewer like
\product{GSview}, which works with the
PostScript\index{PostScript} interpreter
\product{Ghostscript}, which should have
been installed automatically along with your \TeX{} system
(if not, install both now: \product{GSview}
is separately licensed and cannot legally be included in
some older \TeX{} distributions, so you may have to download
it yourself).

\product{GSview} can be set to watch
the PostScript\index{PostScript} file and automatically
update the display any time the file is changed, without you
even having to click on the window.
\subsection{Previewing with PDF}
\label{pdfview}

The Portable Document Format (PDF)\index{PDF@PDF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PDF@PDF|textbf}
is a derivative of PostScript\index{PostScript}.
Whereas PostScript\index{PostScript} is a programming
language in itself, PDF\index{PDF@PDF} is in effect
the \emph{result} of processing a document
through PostScript\index{PostScript}: it's a binary
file format, extremely compact, and well-supported on all
platforms.

If your system is configured to generate PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files direct instead of DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files, just open the
\url+.pdf+ file using any PDF\index{PDF@PDF} previewer or browser.

Most editors are configured to display a toolbar icon
which will pop up \product{Acrobat Reader}
or some other viewer with the current PDF\index{PDF@PDF} output file.

Adobe's \product{Acrobat Reader}
cannot automatically update the view if you reprocess your
document, in the way that \product{xdvi}
and \product{GSview} can. You
have to close the display with \key{Ctrl}--\key{W}~ and reload the file with \key{Alt}--\key{F}~\thinspace{}\key{1}.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Bitmap preview fonts in Acrobat Reader}
Acrobat Reader is extremely poor at rendering
Type�3 (bitmap) fonts. If you are using these (either
in an old \LaTeX{} installation which has not been
upgraded to Type�1, or with files using specialist
fonts only available in Type�3 format), you will see
a very fuzzy display at low magnifications. It will print
perfectly, but Acrobat Reader's display is
disappointing. The solution is to use a better previewer
or to upgrade to the Type�1 versions of the fonts
if possible, or both. If you need to
use Type�3 fonts in PDF\index{PDF@PDF}s,
you probably need to warn your readers to expect a fuzzy
display from Acrobat Reader (but good printout), and to
change to a better reader if they can.
\end{warning}
\section{Printer output}
\label{print}
\index{printing}
\TeX{} systems print on almost anything from the simplest
dot-matrix printers to the biggest phototypesetters, including
all the laser printers and a host of other devices in between.
\emph{How} you do it varies slightly according
to how you do your typesetting and previewing:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily If you are using DVI]
and you have a previewer which has a
\textbf{print} function configured for your
printer, you can use that. If not, create a
PostScript\index{PostScript} file and use
\product{GSview} instead.
\item[\sffamily If you are using PDF]
you can print directly from your PDF\index{PDF@PDF} viewer. Be careful about using
the `Fit to page' options, as they will
change the size of your document so all your
measurements will be different.
\item[\sffamily Non-PostScript\index{PostScript} printers]
You can create a PostScript\index{PostScript}
file with \product{dvips} (see \S\thinspace\ref{makeps}) and use
\product{GSview} to print it
(\product{GSview} can print
PostScript\index{PostScript} files to almost any
make or model of non-PostScript\index{PostScript}
printer).

\item[\sffamily If you have a real PostScript\index{PostScript}
printer]
or you are using a system with built-in
PostScript\index{PostScript} printing support (such
as Linux or Mac), you can create and send
PostScript\index{PostScript} output directly from
your editor to the printer without the need to open it
in a previewer first. In
\product{Emacs}, for example, this is
what happens when you use the
\menuitem{\TeX{}}{\TeX{}
Print} menu item.
\end{description}

Both the \product{dvips} program and all
the previewers that print tend to have facilities for printing
selected pages, printing in reverse, scaling the page size,
\index{page size!scaling}\index{printing!reverse order}\index{printing!selected pages} and printing only odd or even pages for two-sided
work. If you are using PostScript\index{PostScript} there
are programs for manipulating the output
(\product{pstops}), for example to perform
page imposition to get 4, 8, or 16 pages to a sheet for making
booklets (\product{psnup}).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{11}Print it!}
\subsubsection*{Print it!}
Show that you have understood the process of
typesetting, previewing, and printing, by displaying your
document and printing it.
\end{exercise}

If you need a
non-PostScript\index{PostScript}/\product{Ghostscript}
solution, install a separate \TeX{} print driver for your
printer. Some
may be supplied with your \TeX{} installation, and there are
dozens more on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}. Their names all
start with \url+dvi+ and are followed by an
abbreviation for the printer make or model like
\product{dvieps} for Epson,
\product{dvihp} for Hewlett-Packard,
\product{dvialw} for Apple LaserWriters,
etc.. Configure the driver to print directly to the print
queue, or pipe it to the print queue manually. On Linux with
an HP printer, for example, this would be
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc | lpr
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Microsoft Windows has no easy way to bypass the print
spool, but you can do it from an MS-DOS command window
with (using a HP printer as an example):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
dvihp mydoc -o mydoc.hp
copy /b mydoc.hp LPT1:
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Read the documentation for the driver, as the options and
defaults vary.
\chapter[CTAN, packages, and online help]{CTAN, packages, \newline{}and online help}
\label{ctan}

The Comprehensive \TeX{} Archive
Network (CTAN)\index{CTAN@CTAN|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CTAN@CTAN|textbf} is a repository of Web and FTP\index{FTP@FTP} servers worldwide which contain copies of
almost every piece of free software related to \TeX{} and
\LaTeX{}.

CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} is based on three main
servers, and there are several online indexes available. There
are complete \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} systems for all platforms,
utilities for text and graphics processing, conversion programs
into and out of \LaTeX{}, printer drivers, extra typefaces, and
(possibly the most important) the \LaTeX{} packages. The three
main servers are:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\TeX{} Users Group: \url+http://www.ctan.org/+

\item
UK \TeX{} Users Group: \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/+

\item
Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung \TeX{} e.V. (DANTE,
the German-speaking \TeX{} Users Group); \url+http://dante.ctan.org/+

\end{itemize}
\begin{sidebar}
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} should
\emph{always} be your first port of call when
looking for a software update or a feature you want to use.
Please don't ask the network help
resources (\S\thinspace\ref{help}) until you have checked CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} and the FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} (\S\thinspace\ref{faq}).
\end{sidebar}\section{Packages}
\label{packages}
\index{packages!using}
Add-on features for \LaTeX{} are known as \textbf{\textit{packages}}\label{pack}\index{packages@\textbf{\textit{packages}}}. Dozens of these are
pre-installed with \LaTeX{} and can be used in your documents
immediately. They should all be stored in subdirectories of
\url+texmf/tex/latex+ named after each package.
To find out what other packages are available and what they
do, you should use the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} search page\footnote{\url+http://www.ctan.org/search+} which includes a
link to Graham Williams' comprehensive package
catalogue.

A package is a file or collection of files containing
extra \LaTeX{} commands and programming which add new styling
features or modify those already existing. Installed package
files all end with \url+.sty+ (there may be
ancillary files as well).

When you try to typeset a document which requires a
package which is not installed on your system, \LaTeX{} will
warn you with an error message that it is missing (see \S\thinspace\ref{nopkg}), and you can
then download the package and install it using the
instructions in \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}. You can also
download updates to packages you already have (both the ones
that were installed along with your version of \LaTeX{} as
well as ones you added).

There is no limit to the number of packages you can have
installed on your computer (apart from disk space!), but there
is probably a physical limit to the number that can be used
inside any one \LaTeX{} document at the same time, although it
depends on how big each package is. In practice there is no
problem in having even a couple of dozen packages active (the
style file for this document uses over 30).
\subsection{Using an existing package}
\label{colorpkg}

To use a package already installed on your system,
insert a \command{usepackage} command in your
document preamble with the package name in curly braces, as
we have already seen in earlier chapters. For example, to
use the \package{color} package, which lets
you typeset in colours (I warned you this was
coming!), you would type:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{color}
\begin{document}
..
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can include several package names in one
\command{usepackage} command by separating the
names with commas, and you can have more than one
\command{usepackage} command.

Some packages allow optional settings in square
brackets. If you use these, you must give the package its
own separate \command{usepackage} command, like
\package{geometry} shown below:
\begin{sourcecode}\label{oldtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\usepackage{pslatex,palatino,avant,graphicx,color}
\usepackage[margin=2cm]{geometry}
\begin{document}

\title{\color{red}Practical Typesetting}
\author{\color{blue}Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{\color{green}December 2005}
\maketitle

\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(Incidentally, this is a rather crude way to do colours in
titling on a once-off basis: if it's for a repeatable
style we'll see in \chaptername~\ref{macros} how it can
be automated and kept out of the author's way.)

Many packages can have additional formatting
specifications in optional arguments in square brackets, in
the same way as \package{geometry}
does. Read the documentation for the package concerned to
find out what can be done.
\begin{exercise}
\label{geoex}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{12}Add colour}
\subsubsection*{Add colour}
Use the \package{color} package to add
some colour to your document. Stick with primary colours
for the moment.

Use the \package{geometry}
package to change the margins.

Reprocess and print your document if you have a colour
printer (monochrome printers should print it in shades of
grey).
\end{exercise}

CMYK\index{CMYK@CMYK} and RGB\index{RGB@RGB} are not the only colour
models. \person{Uwe Kern}'s
\package{xcolor} package defines half a
dozen, and includes facilities for converting colour
values from one model to another.
\subsection{Package documentation}
\label{packagedoc}
\index{packages!documentation}
To find out what commands a package provides (and thus
how to use it), you need to read the documentation. In the
\url+texmf/doc+ subdirectory of your
installation there should be directories full of
\url+.dvi+ files, one for every package
installed. These can be previewed or printed like any other
DVI\index{DVI@DVI} file (see
\S\thinspace\ref{dvipreview}). If your installation
procedure has not installed the documentation, the DVI\index{DVI@DVI} files can all be downloaded from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.

Before using a package, you should read the
documentation carefully, especially the subsection usually
called `User Interface', which
describes the commands the package makes available. You
cannot just guess and hope it will work: you have to read it
and find out.

See the next section for details of how to create the
documentation \url+.dvi+ file for additional
packages you install yourself.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{13}Read all about it}
\subsubsection*{Read all about it}
Find and view (or print) the documentation on the
\package{geometry} package you used in
Exercise~\ref{geoex}.

Investigate some of the other package documentation
files in the directory.
\end{exercise}
\section{Downloading and installing packages}
\label{pkginst}
\index{packages!downloading}\index{packages!installing}
Once you have identified a package you need and
haven't already got (or you have got it and need to
update it), use the indexes on any CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} server to find the package you need
and the directory where it can be downloaded from.
\subsection{Downloading packages}
\label{downloadpkg}

What you need to look for is always \emph{two
files}, one ending in \url+.dtx+
and the other in \url+.ins+. The first is a
DOC\TeX{}\index{DOC} file, which combines the package program and its
documentation in a single file. The second is the
installation routine (much smaller). You \emph{must
always} download \emph{both}
files.

If the two files are not there, it means one of two
things:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\emph{Either} the package is part of a
much larger bundle which you shouldn't normally update
unless you change version of \LaTeX{};\footnote{For example, there is no
\url+color.dtx+ and
\url+color.ins+ for the
\package{color} package because it
forms part of the \package{graphics}
bundle, which is installed on all \LaTeX{} systems
anyway. Such packages change very rarely, as they

form part of the core of \LaTeX{} and are very
stable. In
general you should never try to update these
packages in isolation.}

\item
\emph{or} it's one of a few rare or
unusual packages still supplied as a single
\url+.sty+ file intended for the now
obsolete \LaTeX{}\thinspace{}2.09.\footnote{You can try to use these if you wish but they
are not guaranteed to work, and have now almost all
been replaced by \LaTeXe{} versions. Always look for
the
\url+.dtx+ and
\url+.ins+ pair of files
first.}

\end{itemize}

\label{packinst}%
Download both files to a \textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}\label{tempdir}\index{temporary directory@\textbf{\textit{temporary directory}}}. If you use
Windows, keep a folder like \url+C:\tmp+ or
\url+C:\temp+ for this; Mac and Linux systems
already have a \url+/tmp+ directory.
\subsection{Installing a package}
\label{installpkg}

There are four steps to installing a \LaTeX{}
package:
\index{packages!installing}\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Extract the files}\\\label{extract}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.ins+ file.
That is, open the file in your editor and process it as
if it were a \LaTeX{} document (which is it), or if you
prefer, type \verb+latex+ followed by the
\url+.ins+ filename in a command window
in your temporary directory.

This will extract all the files needed from the
\url+.dtx+ file (which is why you must
have both of them present in the temporary directory).
Note down or print the names of the files created if
there are a lot of them (read the log file if you want
to see their names again).
\item \textbf{Create the documentation}\\\label{dtxdoc}%
Run \LaTeX{} on the \url+.dtx+ file
twice. This will create a \url+.dvi+ file
of documentation explaining what the package is for and
how to use it. Two passes through \LaTeX{} are needed in
order to resolve any internal crossreferences in the
text (a feature we'll come onto later). If you
prefer to create PDF\index{PDF@PDF} then run
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} instead. View or
print this file in the usual manner (see \S\thinspace\ref{dvi}).
\item \textbf{Install the files}\\
While the documentation is printing, move or copy
the files created in step~\ref{extract}
from your temporary directory to the right place[s] in
your \TeX{}�\emph{local} installation
directory tree\mdash{}always your `local'
directory tree, \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item to prevent your new package accidentally
overwriting files in the main \TeX{}
directories; and \item to avoid your newly-installed files being
overwritten when you next update your version of
\TeX{}\end{inparaenum}.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Where to put files from packages}
\label{where}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}l>{\pbs{\raggedright}\footnotesize}p{1.5in}@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Directory (under
\url+texmf-local/+)}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Description}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\url+.cls+&tex/latex/base&Document class file\\
\url+.sty+&tex/latex/\textsl{packagename}&Style file: the normal package
content\\
\url+.bst+&bibtex/bst/\textsl{packagename}&\BibTeX{} style\\
\url+.mf+&fonts/source/public/\textsl{typeface}&\mf{} outline\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/mfnfss&Font Definition files for \mf{} fonts\\
\url+.fd+&tex/latex/psnfss&Font Definition files for PostScript
Type�1 fonts\\
\url+.pfb+&/fonts/type1/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&PostScript Type�1 outline\\
\url+.afm+&/fonts/afm/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&Adobe Font Metrics for Type�1
fonts\\
\url+.tfm+&/fonts/tfm/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&\TeX{} Font Metrics for \mf{} and
Type�1 fonts\\
\url+.vf+&/fonts/vf/\textsl{foundry}/\textsl{typeface}&\TeX{} virtual fonts\\
\url+.dvi+&/doc&package documentation\\
\url+.pdf+&/doc&package documentation\\
others&tex/latex/\textsl{packagename}&other types of file unless instructed
otherwise\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

`The right place' sometimes causes
confusion, especially if your \TeX{} installation is old
or does not conform to the \TeX{}
Directory Structure% no definition for this acronym (maybe OK)
For a TDS\index{TDS@TDS}-conformant system, this is either
\begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item for \LaTeX{} packages, a suitably-named
subdirectory of
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/+\footnote{See \S\thinspace\ref{rightplace} for how
to create a parallel structure in your local
directory if your installation didn't create
one for you.}; or \item a suitably-named subdirectory of
\url+texmf-local/+ for files like
\BibTeX{} styles which are not just for \LaTeX{} but can
be used in other \TeX{} systems\end{inparaenum}.

`Suitably-named' means sensible and
meaningful (and probably short). For a package like
\package{paralist}, for example, I'd call
the directory \url+paralist+.

Often there is just a \url+.sty+ file
to move but in the case of complex packages there may be
more, and they may belong in different locations. For
example, new \BibTeX{} packages or font packages will
typically have several files to install. This is why it
is a good idea to create a subdirectory for the package
rather than dump the files into
\url+misc+ along with other unrelated
stuff.

If there are configuration or other files, read the
documentation to find out if there is a special or
preferred location to move them to.
\item \textbf{Update your index}\\\label{texindex}%\index{packages!indexing}
Finally, run your \TeX{} indexer program to update
the package database. This program comes with every
modern version of \TeX{} and is variously called
\product{texhash},
\product{mktexlsr}, or even
\product{configure}, or it might just
be a mouse click on a button or menu in your editor.
Read the documentation that came with your installation
to find out which it is.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{warning}

This last step is \emph{utterly
essential}, otherwise nothing will
work.
\end{warning}
\begin{exercise}
\label{insttest}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{14}Install a package}
\subsubsection*{Install a package}
Download and install the
\package{paralist} package (which
implements inline lists).
\end{exercise}

The reason this process has not been automated widely is
that there are still thousands of installations which do not
conform to the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}, such as old
shared Unix systems and some Microsoft Windows systems, so
there is no way for an installation program to guess where
to put the files: \emph{you} have to know
this. There are also systems where the owner, user, or
installer has chosen \emph{not} to follow the
recommended TDS\index{TDS@TDS} directory
structure, or is unable to do so for political or security
reasons (such as a shared system where she cannot write to a
protected directory).

The reason for having the
\url+texmf-local+ directory (called
\url+texmf.local+ on some systems) is to
provide a place for local modifications or personal updates,
especially if you are a user on a shared or managed system
(Unix, Linux, VMS, Windows NT/2000/XP, etc.) where you may
not have write-access to the main \TeX{}
installation directory tree. You can also have a personal
\url+texmf+ subdirectory in your own login
directory. Your installation must be configured to look in
these directories first, however, so that any updates to
standard packages will be found there
\emph{before} the superseded copies in the
main \url+texmf+ tree. All modern \TeX{}
installations should do this anyway, but if not, you can
edit \url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+ yourself.
There is an example in Appendix~\ref{cnf}.
\subsection{Replicating the TDS}
\label{rightplace}

The \TeX{} Directory
Structure (TDS)\index{TDS@TDS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TDS@TDS|textbf} is documented at \url+http://www.tug.org/tds/+. I find it useful to
make the directory structure of
\url+texmf-local+ the same as that of
\url+texmf+. Examine the subdirectories of
\url+texmf/tex/latex/+ for examples. For
updates of packages which came with your \LaTeX{}
distribution (as distinct from new ones you are adding
yourself), you can then use the same subdirectory name and
position in \url+texmf-local/...+ as the
original used in \url+texmf/...+.

If you want to create the entire subdirectory structure
ready for use, you can do it under Unix with the following
commands:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cd /usr/TeX/texmf
find . -type d -exec mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/{} \;
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you are using Microsoft Windows, you can download
\product{Cygwin}, which provides you with
the standard Unix tools in a shell window. The above command
should also work on a Mac running OS\thinspace{}X. In all cases,
if your installation directory is not
\url+/usr/TeX+, you need to substitute the
actual paths to your \url+texmf+ and
\url+texmf-local+ directories.
\section{Online help}
\label{help}
\index{help}
The indexes and documentation files on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} are the primary online resource for
self-help on specific packages, and you should read these
carefully before asking questions about packages.
\subsection{The FAQ}
\label{faq}

For general queries you should read the Frequently-Asked Questions (FAQ)\index{FAQ@FAQ|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!FAQ@FAQ|textbf} document so
that you avoid wasting online time asking about things for
which there is already an easily-accessible answer.

The FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} is managed by the UK
\TeX{} Users Group and can be found at \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/faq/+\thinspace{}.
\subsection{The \TeX{}hax mailing list}

Another support resource is the mailing list \[email protected]+. Again, feel free to ask
questions, but again, try to answer the question yourself
first (and say what you've tried in your
message).
\subsection{Web sites}

The \TeX{} Users Group, as well as most local user
groups, maintains a web site (\url+http://www.tug.org+) with lots of information
about various aspects of the \TeX{}
system. See Appendix~\ref{tugform} for information on
joining TUG.
\subsection{News}

The Usenet newsgroup \url+comp.text.tex+ is the principal forum for other
questions and answers about \LaTeX{}. Feel free to ask
questions, but
please do not ask frequently-asked questions: read the
FAQ\index{FAQ@FAQ} instead. The people who answer
the questions do so voluntarily, unpaid, and in their own
time, so please don't treat this as a commercial
support service.

To access Usenet news, type the following URI\index{URI@URI} into your browser's
`Location' or
`Address' window:
\verb+news:comp.text.tex+ (if your browser
doesn't support Usenet news properly, change it for one
that does, like \product{Mozilla}\footnote{\url+http://www.mozilla.org/+}), or download one of the many free newsreaders.\footnote{Note that this means newsreaders for the Usenet News
(NNTP) service. It does \emph{not} mean
syndication readers for RSS, which are a different thing
entirely\mdash{}these are unfortunately also sometimes
referred to as `newsreaders'.}
\subsection{Commercial support}

If you need commercial levels of support, such as
24-hour phone contact, or macro-writing services, you can
buy one of the several excellent commercial versions of
\TeX{}, or contact a consultancy which deals with \TeX{}
(details on the TUG Web site).
\chapter{Other document structures}
\label{otherdoc}

It is perfectly possible to write whole documents using
nothing but section headings and paragraphs. As mentioned in
\S\thinspace\ref{sections}, novels, for example, usually consist
just of chapters divided into paragraphs. However, it's more
common to need other features as well, especially if the
document is technical in nature or complex in structure.

It's worth pointing out that
`technical' doesn't necessarily mean
`computer technical' or
`engineering technical': it just means it
contains a lot of $\tau\eta\chi\nu\epsilon$ (\emph{tekne}), the
specialist material or artistry of its field. A literary
analysis such as \titlecite{macnamara} (on the
marginal notes in the manuscripts of \authorof{bovary}'s novel) is every bit as
technical in the literary or linguistic field as the maintenance
manual for the Airbus 380 is in the aircraft engineering
field.

This chapter covers the most common features needed in
writing structured documents: lists, tables, figures (including
images), sidebars like boxes and panels, and verbatim text
(computer program listings). In \chaptername~\ref{texttools} we
will cover footnotes, cross-references, citations, and other
textual tools.
\section{A little think about structure}
\label{briefstruct}

It's very easy to sit down at a keyboard with a
traditional wordprocessor and just start typing. If it's
a very short document, or something transient or relatively
unimportant, then you just want to type it in and make it look
`right' by highlighting with the mouse
and clicking on font styles and sizes.

In doing so, you may achieve the effect you wanted, but
your actions have left no trace behind of
\emph{why} you made these changes. This is
usually unimportant for trivial or short-term documents, but
if you write longer or more complex documents, or if you often
write documents to a regular pattern, then making them
consistent by manual methods becomes a nightmare.
\LaTeX{}'s facilities for automation are based on you
providing this `why'
information.

If your documents have any of the features below, then you
have probably already started thinking about structure.
\begin{itemize}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\Square}}
\item
The document naturally divides into sections (parts,
chapters, etc.).

\item
The document is long.

\item
There is lots of repetitive formatting in the
document.

\item
The document is complex (intellectually or
visually).

\item
There are lots of figures or tables (or examples,
exercises, panels, sidebars, etc.).

\item
Accuracy is important in formatting the
document.

\item
A master copy is needed for future reference or
reprinting.

\item
This is a formal or official document needing special
care and attention.

\item
It's \emph{my} thesis, book,
leaflet, pamphlet, paper, article, etc.
\emph{That}'s why I care.

\item
The document (or part of it) may need ongoing or
occasional re-editing and republishing.

\end{itemize}

If you've got that far, you're over half-way
done. Using a structural editor\mdash{}even a simple
outliner\mdash{}can make a huge difference to the quality of
your thinking because you are consciously organising your
thoughts before setting them down. And it can make just as big
a difference to your formatting as well: more consistent,
better presented, easier for the reader to navigate through,
and more likely to be read and understood\mdash{}which is
presumably why you are writing the document in the first
place.
\section{Lists}
\label{lists}
\index{lists}
Lists are useful tools for arranging thoughts in a
digestible format, usually a small piece of information at a
time. There are four basic types of list, shown in Table~\ref{listtypes}.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small Types of lists}
\label{listtypes}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.48\columnwidth}>{\pbs{\raggedright}}p{0.48\columnwidth}@{}}
\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Random or arbitrary lists](sometimes called
`itemized' or
`bulleted' lists) where the
order of items is unimportant. The
items are often prefixed with a bullet or other
symbol for clarity or decoration, but are
sometimes simply left blank, looking like
miniature paragraphs (when they are known as
`simple' or
`trivial' lists).\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Enumerated or sequential lists](sometimes called
`numbered' lists) where the
order of items is critical, such as sequences of
instructions or rankings of importance. The
enumeration can be numeric (Arabic or Roman), or
lettered (uppercase or lowercase), and can even be
programmed to be hierarchical (1.a.viii, 2.3.6,
etc.).\end{description}\\
\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Descriptive or labelled lists](sometimes called
`discussion' lists), which
are composed of subheadings or topic labels
(usually unnumbered but typographically distinct),
each followed by one or more indented paragraphs
of discussion or explanation.\end{description}&\begin{description}\item[\sffamily Inline lists]which are sequential in nature, just like
enumerated lists, but are
\begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted \emph{within}
their paragraph; and \item usually labelled with letters,\end{inparaenum}�like this example. The items
are often mutually inclusive or exclusive, with
the final item prefixed by
`and' or
`or' respectively.\end{description}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

There are actually two other types, segmented lists and
reference lists, but these are much rarer, and outside the
scope of this document.
\index{environment}
The structure of lists in \LaTeX{} is identical for each
type, but with a different environment name. Lists are another
example of this \LaTeX{} technique (environments), where a pair
of matched commands surrounds some text which needs special
treatment.

Within a list environment, list items are always
identified by the command \command{item} (followed by
an item label in [square brackets] in the case of labelled
lists). You don't type the bullet or the number or the
formatting, it's all automated.
\subsection{Itemized lists}
\index{lists!itemized}\index{lists!bulleted}
To create an itemized list, use the the
\env{itemize} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{itemize}

\item Itemized lists usually have a bullet;

\item Long items use `hanging indentation',
whereby the text is wrapped with a margin
which brings it clear of the bullet used in
the first line of each item;

\item The bullet can be changed for any other
symbol, for example from the \textsf{bbding}
or \textsf{pifont} package.

\end{itemize}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{itemize}
\label{labelitem}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}}
\item
Itemized lists usually have a bullet;

\item
Long items use `hanging
indentation', whereby the text is
wrapped with a margin which brings it clear of the
bullet used in the first line of each item;

\item
The bullet can be changed for any other symbol,
for example from the \package{bbding}
or \package{pifont} package.

\end{itemize}
\end{quote}\end{example}

The default list bullet is round and solid\footnote{If your browser font doesn't show it, don't
worry: most don't. \LaTeX{} will.} (\textbullet{}) which is also available with the
command \command{textbullet} if you load the
\package{textcomp} package. See \S\thinspace\ref{bullets} for details of how to change the
settings for list item bullets.
\subsection{Enumerated lists}
\index{lists!numbered}\index{lists!enumerated}
To create an enumerated list, use the
\env{enumerate} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{enumerate}

\item Enumerated lists use numbering on each
item (can also be letters or roman numerals);

\item Long items use `hanging indentation'
just the same as for itemized lists;

\item The numbering system can be changed for
any level.

\end{enumerate}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{enumerate}\item
Enumerated lists use numbering on each
item (can also be letters or roman numerals);

\item
Long items use `hanging
indentation', just the same as for
itemized lists;

\item
The numbering system can be changed for any
level.

\end{enumerate}
\end{quote}\end{example}

See \S\thinspace\ref{numberschemes} for details of how
to change the numbering schemes for each level.

In standard \LaTeX{} document classes, the vertical
spacing between items, and above and below the lists as a
whole, is more than between paragraphs. If you want
tightly-packed lists, use the
\package{mdwlist} package, which provides
`starred' versions
(\env{itemize*},
\env{enumerate*}, etc).
\subsection{Description lists}
\label{desc}
\index{lists!description}\index{lists!discussion}
To create a description list, use the
\env{description} environment:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{description}

\item[Identification:] description lists
require a topic for each item given in
square brackets;

\item[Hanging indentation:] Long items use
this in the same way as all other lists;

\item[Reformatting:] Long topics can be
reprogrammed to fold onto multiple lines.

\end{description}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Identification:]
description lists require a topic for each item
given in square brackets;
\item[\sffamily Hanging indentation:]
Long items use this in the same way as all other
lists;
\item[\sffamily Reformatting:]
Long topics can be reprogrammed to fold onto
multiple lines.
\end{description}
\end{quote}\end{example}

All three of these types of lists can have multiple
paragraphs per item: just type the additional paragraphs in
the normal way, with a blank line between each. So long as
they are still contained within the enclosing environment,
they will automatically be indented to follow underneath their
item.
\subsection{Inline lists}
\label{inlinelists}
\index{lists!inline}
Inline lists are a special case as they require the use
of the \package{paralist} package which
provides the \env{inparaenum} environment
(with an optional formatting specification in square
brackets):
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{paralist}
..
\textbf{\itshape Inline lists}, which are
sequential in nature, just like enumerated
lists, but are \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape
a\upshape)]\item formatted within their
paragraph; \item usually labelled with
letters; and \item usually have the final
item prefixed with `and' or
`or'\end{inparaenum}, like this example.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}\label{inlines}\index{Inline lists@\textbf{\textit{Inline lists}}},
which are sequential in nature, just like enumerated
lists, but are \begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item formatted within their paragraph; \item usually labelled with letters; and \item usually have the final
item prefixed with `and' or
`or'\thinspace\end{inparaenum}, like this example.
\end{quote}\end{example}

See \chaptername~\ref{typo} for details of the
font-changing commands used in the optional argument to
\env{inparaenum}.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{15}List practice}
\subsubsection*{List practice}
Add some lists to your document. Pick any two of the
ones described here to practice with.

If you successfully installed
\package{paralist} in Exercise~\ref{insttest} then you can use inline lists as
described in \S\thinspace\ref{inlinelists}.
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Reference lists and segmented lists}

Reference lists are visually indistinguishable from
numbered or lettered lists, but the numbering or lettering
does \emph{not} imply a sequence. The numbers
or letters are just used as labels so that the items can be
referred to from elsewhere in the text (as in `see
item 501(c)3'). In this sense they are really a
kind of sub-sectional division, and \LaTeX{}'s
\command{paragraph} or
\command{subparagraph} commands (with appropriate
renumbering) would probably be a far better solution than
using a list. Label them and refer to them with
\command{label} and \command{ref} as for
any other cross-reference (see \S\thinspace\ref{xrefs}).

Segmented lists are a highly specialised structure and
outside the scope of this document. For details of their
usage, see the the chapter `Segmentation and
Alignment' in \titlecite{teiguide}.
\subsection{Lists within lists}
\label{numberschemes}

You can start a new list environment within the item of
an existing list, so you can embed one list inside another
up to four deep. The lists can be of any type, so you can
have a description list containing an item in which there is
a numbered sub-list, within which there is an item
containing a bulleted sub-sub-list.
\begin{enumerate}\item
by default an outer enumerated list is numbered in
Arabic numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item
an embedded enumerated list is lettered in
lowercase;
\begin{enumerate}\item
a third level is numbered in lowercase Roman
numerals;
\begin{enumerate}\item
the fourth level uses uppercase
alphabetic letters.

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

\end{enumerate}

Multiple embedded lists automatically change the bullet
or numbering scheme so that the levels don't get
confused, and the spacing between levels is adjusted to
become fractionally tighter for more deeply nested
levels.

These are only defaults and can easily be changed by
redefining the relevant set of values. You could also add a
fifth and further levels, although I suspect that would mean
your document structure needed some careful analysis, as
lists embedded five deep will probably confuse your
readers.

The values for lists come in pairs: for each level there
is a counter to count the items and a command to produce the
label:\footnote{In fact, any time you define a counter in \LaTeX{},
you automatically get a command to reproduce its value.
So if you defined a new counter \counter{example} to use in a teaching
book, by saying \url+\newcounter{example}+,
that automatically makes available the command
\url+\theexample+ for use when you want to
display the current value of \counter{example}.}
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rcll}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Level}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Default}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Counter}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Label command}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
1&digit.&\counter{enumi}&\command{theenumi}\\
2&(letter)&\counter{enumii}&\command{theenumii}\\
3&roman.&\counter{enumiii}&\command{theenumiii}\\
4&LETTER.&\counter{enumiv}&\command{theenumiv}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Note that each counter and command ends with the Roman
numeral value of its level (this is to overcome the rule
that \LaTeX{} commands can only be made of
letters\mdash{}digits wouldn't work here). To
change the format of a numbered list item counter, just
renew the meaning of its label:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}
\renewcommand{\theenumii}{\roman{enumii}}
\renewcommand{\theenumiii}{\arabic{enumiii}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent \label{thecounter}%
This would make the
outermost list use uppercase letters, the second level use
lowercase roman, and the third level use ordinary Arabic
numerals. The fourth level would remain unaffected.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{16}Nesting}
\subsubsection*{Nesting}
Extend your use of lists by nesting one type inside a
different one.
\end{exercise}
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Lists: a caution to the unwary}
Treat lists with care: people sometimes use tables for
labelled information which is really a list and would be
better handled as such. They often do this because their
wordprocessor has no way to do what they want (usually to
place the item label level with the description or
explanation) \emph{except} by using a table,
hence they are misled into believing that their text is
really a table when it's actually not.
\end{warning}
\section{Tables}
\label{tables}
\index{tables}
Tabular typesetting is the most complex and time-consuming
of all textual features to get right. This holds true whether
you are typing in plain-text form, using a wordprocessor,
using \LaTeX{}, using HTML\index{HTML@HTML} or
XML\index{XML@XML}, using a DTP\index{DTP@DTP} system, or some other text-handling
package. Fortunately, \LaTeX{} provides a
table model with a mixture of defaults and configurability to
let it produce very high quality tables with a minimum of
effort.
\begin{warning}
\subsubsection*{Terminology}
\LaTeX{}, in common with standard typesetting
practice, uses the word `Table' to
mean a formal textual feature, numbered and with a caption,
referred to from the text (as in `See
Table�5'). Sometimes you can get
`informal' tables, which simply occur
between two paragraphs, without caption or number.

The arrangement of information in rows and columns
\emph{within} either of these structures is
called a `tabulation' or
`tabular matter'.

It is important to keep this distinction firmly in mind
for this section.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Floats}
\label{floats}
\index{floats}
Tables and Figures are what printers refer to as
`floats'. This means they are not
part of the normal stream of text, but separate entities,
positioned in a part of the page to themselves (top, middle,
bottom, left, right, or wherever the designer specifies).
They always have a caption describing them and they are
always numbered so they can be referred to from elsewhere in
the text.

\LaTeX{} automatically floats Tables and Figures,
depending on how much space is left on the page at the point
that they are processed. If there is not enough room on the
current page, the float is moved to the top of the next
page. This can be changed by moving the Table or Figure
definition to an earlier or later point in the text, or by
adjusting some of the parameters which control automatic
floating.

Authors sometimes have many floats occurring in rapid
succession, which raises the problem of how they are
supposed to fit on the page and still leave room for text.
In this case, \LaTeX{} stacks them all up and prints them
together if possible, or leaves them to the end of the
chapter in protest. The skill is to space them out within
your text so that they intrude neither on the thread of your
argument or discussion, nor on the visual balance of the
typeset pages. But this is a skill few authors have, and
it's one point at which professional typographic advice
or manual intervention may be needed.

There is a \env{float} package which lets
you create new classes of floating object (perhaps Examples
or Exercises).
\subsection{Formal tables}

To create a \LaTeX{} Table, use the \env{table}
environment containing a \command{caption} command
where you type the caption, and a \command{label}
command to give the Table a label by which you can refer to
it.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
\label{ye2006exp}
..
\end{table}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Numbering is automatic, but the \command{label}
command \emph{must follow} the
\command{caption} command, not precede it. The
numbering automatically includes the chapter number in
document classes where this is appropriate (but this can of
course be overridden). The \command{caption}
command has an optional argument to provide a short caption
if the full caption would be too long for the List of Tables (\S\thinspace\ref{loflot}):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\caption[Something short]{Some very long caption that
will only look reasonable in the full figure.}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Tabular matter}

Within a Table, you can either typeset the tabular
matter using \LaTeX{}, or include a table captured as an
image from elsewhere. We will see how to include images in
\S\thinspace\ref{figures} on Figures, where they are more
common.

To typeset tabular matter, use the
\env{tabular} environment. The
\verb+\begin{tabular}+ command must be followed
by a compulsory second argument in curly braces giving the
alignment of the columns. These are specified for each
column using one of single letters \verb+l+,
\verb+c+, and \verb+r+ for
left-aligned, centered, or right-aligned text, or the letter
\verb+p+ followed by a width argument if you
want a long entry to wrap to several lines (a miniature
paragraph as a single cell on each row).

\TeX{}'s original tabular settings were designed
for classical numerical tabulations, where each cell
contains a single value. The \verb+p+
specification allows a cell to be a miniature paragraph set
to a specific width. These are \verb+p+ column
specifications are \emph{not} multi-row
entries, they are single cells which contain multiple lines
of typesetting: the distinction is very important.
Auto-adjusting space between columns is possible with the
\package{tabularx} package, but the
auto-resizing column widths used in web pages are not
available in \LaTeX{}.

The \package{array} package provides for
many other typographic variations such as left-aligned,
right-aligned, and centred multi-line columns, and other
packages provide decimal-aligned columns, row-spanning and
column-spanning, multi-page, and rotated (landscape format)
tables.
\begin{table}[b]\small \caption{\small Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
\label{ye2006exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clr}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape }&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Item}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape \EUR{} Amount}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
&Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
&Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
&Software&3,562\\
b)&Rent, light, heat, etc.&1,500\\
\cline{3-3}\vrule height1.1em width0pt \textbf{}&\textbf{Total}&\textbf{64,783}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and
(b).\end{center}
\end{table}

As an example, a tabular setting with three columns, the
first one centered, the second left-aligned, and the third
one right-aligned, would therefore be specified as
\verb+{clr}+, as in the example below. Note the
use of indentation to make the elements of the table clear
for editing, and note also how the typeset formatting is
unaffected by this (see Table~\ref{ye2006exp}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{table}
\caption{Project expenditure to year-end 2006}
\label{ye2006exp}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{clr}
&Item&\EUR\ Amount\\
\hline
a)&Salaries (2 research assistants)&28,000\\
&Conference fees and travel expenses&14,228\\
&Computer equipment (5 workstations)&17,493\\
&Software&3,562\\
b)&Rent, light, heat, etc.&1,500\\\cline{3-3}
&Total&64,783
\end{tabular}
\par\medskip\footnotesize
The Institute also contributes to (a) and (b).
\end{center}
\end{table}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You do not need to format the tabular data in your
editor: \LaTeX{} does this for you when it typesets the
table, using the column specifications you provided. Extra
space is automatically added between columns, and can be
adjusted by changing the \length{tabcolsep} dimension.
\person{Takaaki Ota} provides an excellent Tables mode for
\product{Emacs} which provides a
spreadsheet-like interface and can generate \LaTeX{} table
source code (see Figure~\ref{tabmode}).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Tables mode for
\emph{Emacs}}
\label{tabmode}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{table}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

It is conventional to centre the tabular setting within
the Table, using the \env{center} environment
(note US spelling) or the \command{centering}
command. The entries for each cell are separated by an
ampersand character (\verb+&+) and the end
of a row is marked by
the double-backslash (\verb+\\+).

The \command{hline} command draws a rule across
all columns and the \command{cline} command draws a
rule across a range of columns (here, under column three
only\mdash{}the argument needs a range). If used, these commands \emph{follow}
the
\verb+\\+ of the row they apply to. There are
some extra formatting commands after the tabular material in
the example. These are explained in
\chaptername~\ref{typo}.

If there is no data for a cell, just don't type
anything\mdash{}but you still need the
\verb+&+ separating it from the next
column's data. The astute reader will already have
deduced that for a table of
$n$ columns, there must always be
$n\ifmmode-\else$-$\fi{}1$ ampersands in each row. The exception to
this is when the \command{multicolumn} command is
used to create cells which span multiple columns. There is
also a package (\env{multirow}) to enable
cells to span multiple rows, but both of these techniques
are outside the scope of this document.
\subsection{Tabular techniques for alignment}

As mentioned earlier, it's also perfectly possible
to typeset tabular matter outside a formal Table, where you
want to lay out an informal tabulation between paragraphs
where a fully floating formal Table would be unnecessary
(these are usually quite short: there are several of them in
this document).

Tabular mode can also be used wherever you need to align
material side by side, such as in designing letterheads,
where you may want your company logo and address on one side
and some other information on the other.

By default, \LaTeX{} typesets
\env{tabular} environments inline to the
surrounding text, so if you want your alignment displayed by
itself, put it inside a positioning environment like
\env{center},
\env{flushright}, or
\env{flushleft}, or leave a blank line or
\command{par} before and after so it gets typeset
separately.

There is much more to tabular setting:
full details are in the manuals mentioned in
the last paragraph of the Foreword on p.\thinspace\pageref{docs}. One final note to remind you of the
automated crossreferencing features: because the example
table is labelled, it can be referenced from anywhere in the
document as Table~\ref{ye2006exp} just by using
\verb+\ref{ye2006exp}+, regardless of how much
the surrounding document or structure is moved or
edited.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{17}Create a tabulation}
\subsubsection*{Create a tabulation}
Create one of the following in your document:
\begin{itemize}
\item
a formal Table with a caption showing the number
of people in your class broken down by age and
sex;

\item
an informal tabulation showing the price for three
products;

\item
the logo \setlength{\fboxsep}{-3pt}\setlength{\fboxrule}{.4pt}
\fbox{\begin{tabular}{cc}\tiny YEAR\\[-.8em]\tiny 2
0 0 0\vrule depth1em
width0pt\end{tabular}} (hint: \S\thinspace\ref{fbox})

\end{itemize}
\end{exercise}
\section{Figures}
\label{figures}
\index{figures}\index{floats}
As explained in \S\thinspace\ref{floats}, Figures and
Tables float to a vacant part of the page, as they are not
part of the sequence of sentences making up your text, but
illustrative objects that you refer to.

Figures can contain text, diagrams, pictures, or any other
kind of illustration. To create a figure, use the
\env{figure} environment: like Tables, they
automatically get numbered, and must include a caption (with a
label after the caption, if needed, exactly the same as for
Tables)
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{figure}
\caption{Total variable overhead variance (after
\citeauthor[p.191]{bull}}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=.75\columnwidth]{diagram}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Total variable overhead variance (after \citeauthoryear{bull} \textsl{p.191})}
\label{workeff}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{diagram}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

You can see that the structure is very similar to the
\env{table} environment, but in this case we
have a graphic included. Details of this command
(\command{includegraphics}) are in the next section.
Details of the bibliographic citation mechanism are in \S\thinspace\ref{bib}

The content of the Figure could of course also be textual,
in the form of a list or a text diagram. \LaTeX{} has a simple
drawing environment called \env{picture}, which
lets you create a limited set of lines and curves, but for a
diagram of any complexity, you should use a standard vector
drawing program (see \S\thinspace\ref{graphictypes}).
\section{Images}
\label{images}
\index{images}\index{graphics}
Images (graphics) can be included anywhere in a \LaTeX{}
document, although in most cases of formal documents they will
occur in Figures (see preceding section). To use graphics, you
need to use the \package{graphicx} package in
your preamble:
\verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+\footnote{You may find a lot of old files which use a package
called \package{epsf}. Don't use it.
It's obsolete.}

This enables the command
\command{includegraphics} which is used to insert an
image in the document. The command is followed by the name of
your graphics file \emph{without the filetype},
for example: \verb+\includegraphics{myhouse}+
(we'll see in a minute why you don't include the
filetype).

In most cases you should just make sure the image file is
in the same folder (directory) as the document you use it in.
This avoids a lot of messing around remembering where you put
the files. If you have images you want to use in several
different documents in different places on your disk, there is
a way to tell \LaTeX{} where to look (see \S\thinspace\ref{graphicsdir}).

For standard \LaTeX{} with
\product{dvips}, graphics files
\emph{must} be in Encapsulated
PostScript (EPS)\index{EPS@EPS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!EPS@EPS|textbf} format: this has been the publishing
industry standard for portable graphics for many years, and no
other format will work portably in standard \LaTeX{}.\footnote{Some distributions of \TeX{} systems allow other
formats to be used, such as PNG\index{PNG@PNG},
Microsoft Bitmap (BMP)\index{BMP@BMP|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!BMP@BMP|textbf} files,
Hewlett-Packard's Printer Control
Language (PCL)\index{PCL@PCL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PCL@PCL|textbf} files, and others; but you cannot
send such documents to other \LaTeX{} users and expect
them to work if they don't have the same distribution
installed as you have. Stick to EPS\index{EPS@EPS}.}

All good graphics packages can save images as EPS\index{EPS@EPS}, but be very careful because some
packages, especially on Microsoft Windows platforms, use a
very poor quality driver, which creates very poor quality
EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files. If in doubt, check with
an expert. If you find an EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
graphic doesn't print, the chances are it's been
badly made by the graphics software. Download Adobe's own
PostScript driver from their Web site instead.

For \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, graphics files
can be in Portable Network
Graphic (PNG)\index{PNG@PNG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PNG@PNG|textbf}, Joint Photographic
Experts Group (JPG)\index{JPG@JPG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!JPG@JPG|textbf}, or PDF\index{PDF@PDF}
format, \emph{not}�EPS\index{EPS@EPS}. This means if you want to use both
standard \LaTeX{} as well
as \product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, you need to keep
your graphics in two formats, EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
and one of the others. This is why you don't include the
filetype in the filename you give with
\command{includegraphics}: \LaTeX{} will assume
EPS\index{EPS@EPS} and
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} will look for JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG} or
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} files matching the name.

The \command{includegraphics} command can take
optional arguments within square brackets before the filename
to specify either the height or width, and the other dimension
will automatically change to scale. If you specify both, the
image will be distorted to fit. You can scale an image by a
factor instead of specifying height or width; clip it to
specified coordinates; and rotate it in either direction.
Multiple optional arguments are separated with commas.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=3cm]{twithcat}
\end{center}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=3cm]{twithcat}
\end{center}
\end{quote}\end{example}

For details of all the arguments, see the documentation on
the \package{graphicx} package or a copy of the
\titlecite{companion}. This package also
includes commands to \raisebox{1ex}{\rotatebox{180}{rotate}},
\scalebox{-1}[1]{mirror}, and
\scalebox{2}[1]{scale} text.
\index{rotate}\index{mirror}\index{scale}

It is in fact possible to tell \LaTeX{} to generate the
right file format by itself, but this requires an external
command-line graphics converter, and as it gets done afresh
each time, it slows things down rather a lot.

EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files, especially bitmaps,
can be very large indeed, because they are stored in ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} format.
\person{Staszek Wawrykiewicz} has drawn my attention to a useful MS-DOS program to
overcome this, called \product{cep}
(`Compressed Encapsulated Postscript') available
from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} in the
\url+support/pstools+ directory, which can
compress EPS\index{EPS@EPS} files to a fraction of
their original size. The original file can be replaced by the
new smaller version and still used directly with
\command{includegraphics}.
\subsection{Making images}
\label{graphictypes}

There are two types of image: bitmaps and
vectors.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Bitmaps]
Bitmap images are made of coloured dots, so if you
enlarge them, they go jagged at the edges, and if you
shrink them, they go blurry. Bitmaps are fine for
photographs, where every dot is a different colour,
and no-one will notice if you don't shrink or enlarge
too much. Bitmaps for diagrams and drawings, however,
are almost always the wrong choice, and
often disastrously bad.
\item[\sffamily Vectors]
Vector drawings are made from instructions (eg
`draw this from here to here, using a line this
thick'). They can be enlarged or shrunk as
much as you like, and never lose accuracy, because
they \emph{get redrawn} automatically at
any size. You can't do photographs as vectors, but
it's the only acceptable method for drawings or
diagrams.
\end{description}

Vector graphic packages are also better suited for
saving your image directly in EPS\index{EPS@EPS}
or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} format (both of which use
vectors internally). All the major graphics-generating
packages in all disciplines output vector formats:
\product{AutoCAD},
\product{ChemDraw},
\product{MathCAD},
\product{Maple},
\product{Mathematica},
\product{ArcInfo}, and so on. EPS\index{EPS@EPS} is the universally-accepted format
for creating vector graphics for publication, with PDF\index{PDF@PDF} a close second. Most of the major
graphics (drawing) packages can also save as EPS\index{EPS@EPS}, such as
\product{PhotoShop}, \product{PaintShop
Pro}, Adobe
\product{Illustrator}, Corel
\product{Draw}, and
\product{GIMP}. There are also some free
vector plotting and diagramming packages available like
\product{tkPaint} and
\product{GNUplot} which do the same. Never,
ever (except in the direst necessity) save any
\emph{diagram} as a bitmap.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small The diagram from Figure~\ref{workeff} shrunk and
enlarged}
\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[width=3.95cm]{diagram}}\quad\fbox{\includegraphics[scale=2,viewport=250 250 300 300,clip]{diagram}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Bitmap formats like JPG\index{JPG@JPG} and
PNG\index{PNG@PNG} are ideal for photographs, as
they are also able to compress the data substantially
without too much loss of quality. However, compressed
formats are bad for screenshots, if you are documenting
computer tasks, because too much compression makes them
blurry. The popular Graphics Interchange
Format (GIF)\index{GIF@GIF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!GIF@GIF|textbf} is good for screenshots, but is not
supported by \TeX{}: use PNG\index{PNG@PNG}
instead, with the compression turned down to minimum. Avoid
uncompressible formats like BMP\index{BMP@BMP} as
they produce enormous and unmanageable files. The Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)\index{TIFF@TIFF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TIFF@TIFF|textbf}, popular with
graphic designers, should also be avoided because far too
many companies have designed and implemented non-standard,
conflicting, proprietary extensions to the format, making it
virtually useless for transfer between different types of
computers (except in faxes, where it's still used in a
much stricter version).
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{18}Adding pictures}
\subsubsection*{Adding pictures}
Add \verb+\usepackage{graphicx}+ to the
preamble of your document, and copy or download an image
you want to include. Make sure it is a JPG\index{JPG@JPG}, PNG\index{PNG@PNG}, or
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} image if you use
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, or an EPS\index{EPS@EPS} image if you use standard
\LaTeX{}.

Add \command{includegraphics} and the
filename in curly braces (without the filetype), and
process the document and preview or print it.

Make it into a figure following the example in \S\thinspace\ref{figures}.

Be aware that some DVI\index{DVI@DVI}
previewers are not able to display all types of graphics,
and some cannot display colour. For best results, use
PDF\index{PDF@PDF} or
PostScript\index{PostScript} preview.
\end{exercise}
\subsection{Graphics storage}
\label{graphicsdir}

I mentioned earlier that there was a way to tell
\LaTeX{} where to look if you had stored images centrally
for use in many different documents. The answer is in a
command \command{graphicspath} which you supply
with an argument giving the name of an additional directory
path you want searched when a file uses the
\command{includegraphics} command, for
example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\graphicspath{c:\mypict~1\camera}
\graphicspath{/var/lib/images}
\graphicspath{HardDisk:Documents:Reports:Pictures}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

I've used the `safe'
(MS-DOS) form of the Windows \url+My
Pictures+ folder because it's A Bad Idea to
use directory names containing spaces (see the panel `Picking suitable filenames' \testpage[above]{filenames}). Using
\command{graphicspath} does make your file less
portable, though, because file paths tend to be specific
both to an operating system and to your computer, like the
examples above.
\section{Verbatim text}
\label{verbatim}
\index{verbatim text}
If you are documenting computer procedures, you probably
need fixed-width type for examples of programming or data
input or output. Even if you are writing about completely
non-computer topics, you may often want to quote a URI\index{URI@URI} or email address which needs to be
typeset specially. It is particularly important in these two
examples to avoid hyphenating them if they have to break over
a line-end, because the hyphen might be taken by the user as a
part of the address.

Standard \LaTeX{} includes two features for handling
fixed-format text, and there are many more available in
packages.
\subsection{Inline verbatim}
\label{inlineverb}

To specify a word or phrase as verbatim text in
typewriter type within a sentence, use the special command
\command{verb}, followed by your piece of text
surrounded by any suitable character which does
\emph{not} occur in the text itself. This is a
very rare exception to the rule that arguments go in curly
braces. I often use the plus sign for this, for example to
show a \LaTeX{} command, I type
\verb`\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+`
in order to display
\verb+\includegraphics[width=3in]{myhouse}+, but
sometimes I use the
\textbf{\textit{grave accent}}\label{grave}\index{grave accent@\textbf{\textit{grave accent}}} (\textbf{\textit{backtick}}\label{backtick}\index{backtick@\textbf{\textit{backtick}}} or open-quote) or the
vertical bar when the phrase already has a plus sign in it,
like \verb`\verb|$y=a+2x^2$|` when
illustrating the \LaTeX{} equation
\verb|$y=a+x^2$|.

This command has the advantage that it turns off all
special characters (see \S\thinspace\ref{specials}) except
the one you use as the delimiter, so you can easily quote
sequences of characters in any computer syntax without
problems. However, \LaTeX{} will never break the argument of
\command{verb} at a line-end when formatting a
paragraph, even if it contains spaces, so if it happens to
be long, and falls towards the end of a line, it will stick
out into the margin. See \S\thinspace\ref{hyph} for more
information on line-ends and hyphenation.

The \package{url} package avoids this by
providing the command \command{url} which works in
the same way as \command{verb}, with the argument
enclosed in a pair of characters, but performs a hyphenless
break at punctuation characters, as in \url+http://www.ucc.ie:8080/cocoon/cc/docs/siteowner.xml+.
It was designed for Web URI\index{URI@URI}s,\footnote{The original term Uniform Resource
Locator (URL)\index{URL@URL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URL@URL|textbf} is now strongly deprecated in the Web
community in favour of the more accurate Uniform Resource Indicator (URI)\index{URI@URI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!URI@URI|textbf}. For
details see \url+http://www.w3.org/Addressing/+.
Unfortunately the older term still persists, especially
in \LaTeX{} and XML\index{XML@XML}
markup.} so it understands their syntax and will never
break mid-way through an unpunctuated word, only at slashes
and full points. Bear in mind, however, that spaces are
forbidden in URI\index{URI@URI}s, so using spaces
in \command{url} arguments will fail, as will using
other non-URI\index{URI@URI}-valid
characters.
\subsection{Display verbatim}

For longer (multiline) chunks of fixed-format text, use
the \env{verbatim} environment:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[11pt,a4paper,oneside]{report}
\begin{document}

\title{Practical Typesetting}
\author{Peter Flynn\\Silmaril Consultants}
\date{December 2004}
\maketitle

\end{document}
\end{verbatim}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Like \command{verb}, this turns off all special
characters, so you can include anything at all in the
verbatim text except the exact line
\verb+\end{verbatim}+

For more control over formatting, however, I recommend
the use of the \package{fancyvrb} package,
which provides a \env{Verbatim} environment
(note the capital letter) which lets you draw a rule round
the verbatim text, change the font size, and even have
typographic effects inside the \env{Verbatim}
environment. It can also be used in conjunction with the
\package{fancybox} package (see \S\thinspace\ref{fancybox}), and it can add reference line numbers
(useful for chunks of data or programming), and it can even
include entire external files.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{19}Try some fixed-format text}
\subsubsection*{Try some fixed-format text}
Add your email address and home page URI\index{URI@URI} using the \command{verb}
and \command{url} commands. You'll need to
\verb+\usepackage{url}+ for the latter.

If you know some programming, try a few lines enclosed
in \env{verbatim} and
\env{Verbatim} environments.
\end{exercise}
\section{Boxes, sidebars, and panels}
\label{boxes}
\index{boxes}\index{sidebars}\index{panels}
\LaTeX{}, like most typesetting systems, works by setting
text into boxes. The default box is the width of the current
page, and works like an old compositor's galley (tray)
from the days of metal type: it accumulates typeset text until
it's a bit longer than the specified page height. At this
stage \LaTeX{} works out how much of it really will fit on a
page, snips it off and ships it out to the DVI\index{DVI@DVI} or PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file,
and puts the rest back into the galley to accumulate towards
the following page.
\subsection{Boxes of text}
\label{boxtext}

Because of this `box' model,
\LaTeX{} can typeset any text into a box of any width
wherever on the page you need it.

The simplest command for small amounts of text is
\command{parbox}. This command needs two arguments
in curly braces: the first is the width you want the text
set to, and the second is the text itself, for
example:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\parbox{1in}{Please make sure you send in your
completed forms by January 1st
next year, or the penalty clause
2(a) will apply}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}
Please make sure you send in your completed
forms by January 1st next year, or the penalty
clause 2(a) will apply\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}

The text is typeset to the required width, and the box
is extended downwards for as long as is required to fit the
text. Note that the baseline of a \command{parbox}
is set to the midpoint of the box; that is, if you include a
\command{parbox} in mid-sentence, the centre of the
box will be lined up with the line of type currently being
set.\parbox{1cm}{
{\scriptsize{}\selectfont{}Like
this small paragraph.\par}
} You can specify that it should be the top or
bottom by adding an optional \opt{t} or
\opt{b} in square brackets before the width. For
example,
\verb+\parbox[t]{1in}{...}+ will produce
\parbox[t]{1in}{
a box with the baseline aligned with the top line of
the text in the box.
}

Notice that when setting very narrow measures with type
that is too large, the spacing may become uneven and there
may be too much hyphenation. Either use
\command{raggedright} or reduce the type size, or
(in extreme cases) reword the text or break each line by
hand. It is rare for \LaTeX{} to need this: the example above
was deliberately chosen to be obtuse as an
illustration.

Where the contents is more extensive or more
complicated, you can use the \env{minipage}
environment.

Within this you can use virtually everything
that occurs in normal text (e.g.�lists, paragraphs,
tabulations, etc.)�with the exception of floats like
tables and figures. The \env{minipage}
environment has an argument just like
\command{parbox} does, and it means the same: the
width you want the text set to.

Note that in \env{minipage}s and
\command{parbox}es, the paragraph indentation
(\length{parindent}) is
reset to zero. If you need to change it, set it inside the
\env{minipage} or \command{parbox}
using the \command{setlength} command (see \S\thinspace\ref{paragraphs}).
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{minipage}{3in}
Please make sure you send in your completed
forms by January 1st next year, or the
penalty clause 2(a) will apply.
\begin{itemize}
\item Incomplete forms will be returned to
you unprocessed.
\item Forms must be accompanied by the
correct fee.
\item There is no appeal. The adjudicators'
decision is final.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{p{3in}}
Please make sure you send in your
completed forms by January 1st next year, or the
penalty clause 2(a) will
apply.\begin{itemize}
\item
Incomplete forms will be returned to you
unprocessed.

\item
Forms must be accompanied by the correct
fee.

\item
There is no appeal. The
adjudicators' decision is final.

\end{itemize}
\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}

There are two other ways of typesetting text to widths
other than the normal text width: you can use a one-row,
one-cell \env{tabular} environment with the
\verb+p+ column type specification, or you
can use the \command{vbox} command, which is raw
\TeX{}, and outside the scope of this document.
\subsection{Framed boxes}
\label{fbox}

To put a frame round \fbox{some text}, use the
\command{fbox} command:
\verb+\fbox{some text}+. This works for a few
words in mid-line, but the framed box and its contents
won't break over the end of a line. To typeset
multiline text in a box, put it in a
\command{parbox}, or use a
\env{minipage} or
\env{tabular} environment as described above,
and enclose the whole thing in a
\command{fbox}.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{minipage}{3in}
This multiline text is more flexible than
a tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item it can contain any type of normal
\LaTeX{} typesetting;
\item it can be any specified width;
\item it can even have its own
footnotes\footnote{Like this}.
\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{center}\setlength{\fboxrule}{1pt}
\begin{minipage}{3in}

This multiline text is more flexible than a
tabular setting:
\begin{itemize}
\item
it can contain any type of normal \LaTeX{}
typesetting;

\item
it can be any specified width;

\item
it can even have its own footnotes.\footnote{Like this.}

\end{itemize}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
\end{quote}\end{example}

The spacing between text and box is controlled by the
value of \length{fboxsep}, and
the thickness of the line by \length{fboxrule}. The following values
were used above:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1em}
\setlength{\fboxrule}{2pt}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As we saw before, setting justified text in narrow
measures will produce poor spacing: either use the
\command{raggedright} command, or change the font
size, or add explicit extra hyphenation points.

Note the \verb+\begin{tabular}+ and
\verb+\begin{minipage}+ commands still need the
width specifying: in the case of the
\verb+\begin{tabular}+ by the use of the
\verb+p+ column type with its width
specification, and in the case of
\verb+\begin{minipage}+ by the second
argument.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fbox{\begin{tabular}{p{1in}}
Multiline text in a box typeset using
\textsf{tabular}
\end{tabular}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{6pt}
\begin{tabular}{|p{1in}|}\hline
Multiline text in a box typeset using
\package{tabular}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup\end{quote}\end{example}
\subsection{Sidebars and panels}
\label{fancybox}

The \package{fancybox} package lets you
extend the principle of \command{fbox} with
commands to surround text in square, oval (round-cornered),
and drop-shadow boxes (e.g. \command{ovalbox},
\command{shadowbox}, etc.: see the documentation
for details).

You can create panels of any size with these borders by
using the \env{minipage} environment to
typeset the text inside a special \env{Sbox}
environment which \package{fancybox} defines.
The \env{minipage} formats the text but the
\env{Sbox}�`captures'
it, allowing you to put the frame round it as it
prints.

The printed version of this document uses this extensively and
there is a useful example shown in \S\thinspace\ref{macenv}.
\chapter{Textual tools}
\label{texttools}
\index{tools}
Every text-handling system needs to support a repertoire of
tools for doing things with text. \LaTeX{} implements many
dozens, of which a small selection of the most frequently used
is given here:
\begin{itemize}
\item
offset quotations (sometimes called `block
quotes');

\item
footnotes and end-notes;

\item
marginal notes;

\item
cross-references, both normal ones and bibliographic
citations;

\item
indexes and glossaries;

\item
typesetting in multiple columns.

\end{itemize}
\section{Quotations}
\label{quotations}

Direct speech and short quotes within a sentence
`like this' are done with simple
quotation marks as described in \S\thinspace\ref{quotes}. Sometimes, however, you may want longer
quotations set as a separate paragraph. Typically these are
indented from the surrounding text. \LaTeX{} has two
environments for doing this.

Such quotations are often set in a smaller size of type,
although this is not the default, hence the use of the
\command{small} command in the second example. The
inclusion of the bibliographic citation at the end is
optional: here it is done with a non-standard command
\command{citequote} which I invented for this example
(there is more about how to do things like this in \chaptername~\ref{macros}).
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quote}}
environment]
is for up to a line of text each per (short)
quotation, with the whole thing indented from the
previous paragraph but with no additional indentation on
each quote;
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]

\begin{quote}
Do, Ronny, Do. \textit{Nancy Reagan}

Da Do Ron Ron. \textit{The Crystals}
\end{quote}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

Do, Ronny, Do. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Nancy
Reagan}

Da Do Ron Ron. {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}The
Crystals}
\end{quote}\end{example}
\item[\sffamily The {\fontseries{m}\selectfont{}\package{quotation}}
environment]
is for longer passages (a paragraph or more) of a
single quotation, where not only is the block of text
indented, but each paragraph of it also has its own
extra indentation on the first line.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{quotation}\small
At the turn of the century William Davy,
a Devonshire parson, finding errors in
the first edition of his \titleof{davy},
asked for a new edition to be printed.
His publisher refused and Davy purchased
a press, type, and paper. He harnessed
his gardener to the press and apprenticed
his housemaid to the typesetting. After
twelve years' work, a new edition
of fourteen sets of twenty-six volumes
was issued---which surely indicates that,
when typomania is coupled with religious
fervour, anything up to a miracle may be
achieved.\citequote[p.76]{ryder}
\end{quotation}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup
At the turn of the century William Davy, a
Devonshire parson, finding errors in the first
edition of his \titlecite{davy},
asked for a new edition to be printed. His publisher
refused and Davy purchased a press, type, and paper.
He harnessed his gardener to the press and
apprenticed his housemaid to the typesetting. After
twelve years' work, a new edition of fourteen
sets of twenty-six volumes was issued---which surely
indicates that, when typomania is coupled with
religious fervour, anything up to a miracle may be
achieved.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent [\citeauthortitleyear{ryder}], p.76\end{quotation}
\end{quote}\end{example}
\end{description}
\section{Footnotes and end-notes}
\label{footnotes}
\index{footnotes}
The command \command{footnote}, followed by the
text of the footnote in curly braces, will produce an
auto-numbered footnote with a raised small number where you
put the command, and the numbered text automatically printed
at the foot of the page.\footnote{Like this.} The number is reset to�1 at the start of each
chapter (but you can override that and make them run
continuously throughout the document, or even restart at�1 on
each page or section).

\LaTeX{} automatically creates room for the footnote, and
automatically reformats it if you change your document in such
a way that the point of attachment and the footnote would move
to the next (or preceding) page.

Because of the way \LaTeX{} reads the whole footnote before
doing anything with it, you can't use
\command{verb} (\S\thinspace\ref{inlineverb}) alone
in footnotes: either precede it with
\command{protect} or use [abuse?] the
\command{url} command instead, which you should be
using for Web and email addresses in any case).

Footnotes inside minipages (see \S\thinspace\ref{boxes}) produce lettered notes instead of
numbered ones, and they get printed at the bottom of the
minipage, \emph{not} the bottom of the physical
page (but this too can be changed).

There is a package to hold over your footnotes and make
them print at the end of the chapter instead
(\package{endnote}) or at the end of the whole
document, and there is a package to print many short footnotes
in a single footnoted paragraph so they take up less space
(\package{fnpara}). It is also possible to have
several separate series of footnotes active simultaneously,
which is useful in critical editions or commentaries: a
numbered series may be used to refer to an original
author's notes; a lettered series can be used for notes
by a commentator or authority; and a third series is available
for your own notes. It is also possible to format footnotes
within footnotes.

If your footnotes are few and far between, you may want to
use footnote symbols instead of numbers. You can do this by
redefining the output of the footnote counter to be the
\command{fnsymbol} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\thefootnote{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There are also ways to refer more than once to the
same footnote, and to defer the positioning of the footnote if
it occurs in a float like a Table or Figure, where it might
otherwise need to move to a different page.
\section{Marginal notes}
\label{marginals}
\index{marginal notes}
You can add marginal notes to your text\marginal{Like this.} instead of
(or as well as) footnotes. You need to make sure that you have
a wide-enough margin, of course: use the
\package{geometry} package (see \S\thinspace\ref{colorpkg}) to allocate enough space, otherwise
the notes will be too cramped. There are several packages to
help with formatting marginal notes, but the simplest way is
to define it yourself. Add this new command to your
preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\marginal}[1]{%
\leavevmode\marginpar{\tiny\raggedright#1\par}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Then you can use \verb+\marginal{Some text}+\marginal{Some text where you need
it.} Be careful, however, because marginal
notes are aligned with the line where the command starts, so a
very long one followed too closely by another will cause
\LaTeX{} to try and
adjust the position so they don't overlap.

We're jumping ahead a bit here, as we haven't
covered how to define your own commands yet. I won't even
try to explain it here, although the attentive reader can
probably deduce some of it by inspection. See \chaptername~\ref{macros} for more information about making up your
own commands.
\section{Cross-references}
\label{xrefs}
\index{cross-references}
This is one of the most powerful features of \LaTeX{}. You
can label any point in a document with a name you make up, and
then refer to it by that name from anywhere else in the
document, and \LaTeX{} will always work out the cross-reference
number for you, no matter how much you edit the text or move
it around.

A similar method is used to cite documents in a
bibliography or list of references, and there are packages to
sort and format these in the correct manner for different
journals.
\subsection{Normal cross-references}
\label{normalxref}

You label a place in your document by using the command
\command{label} followed by a short name you make
up, in curly braces:\footnote{This section is labelled
`\url+normalxref+',
for example.} we've already seen this done for labelling
Figures and Tables.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\section{New Research}
\label{newstuff}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can then refer to this point from anywhere in the
same document with the command \command{ref}
followed by the name you used, e.g.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
In \S~\ref{newstuff} there is a list of recent
projects.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

In \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}
there is a list of recent projects.
\end{quote}\end{example}

(The \command{S} command produces a section
sign (\S) and the
\command{P} command produces a paragraph sign
(\P).)

If the label is in normal text, the reference will
provide the current chapter or section number or both
(depending on the current document
class).\footnote{Thus I can
refer here to
\url+\ref{normalxref}+ and get the
value�\S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}.} If the label
was inside a Table or Figure, the reference provides the
Table number or Figure number prefixed by the chapter
number. A label in an enumerated list will provide a
reference to the item number. If there is no apparent
structure to this part of the document, the reference will
be null. Labels must be unique (that is, each value must
occur only \emph{once} as a label within a
single document), but you can have as many references to
them as you like.

Note the use of the unbreakable space
(\verb+~+) between the \command{ref}
and the word before it. This prints a space but prevents the
line ever breaking at that point, should it fall close to
the end of a line.

The command \command{pageref} followed by any
of your label values will provide the page number where the
label occurred, regardless of the document structure. This
makes it possible to refer to something by page number as
well as its \command{ref} number, which is useful
to readers in very long documents.

Unresolved references are printed as two question
marks, and also cause a warning message at the end of the
log file. There's never any harm in having
\command{label}s you don't refer to, but using
\command{ref} when you don't have a matching
\command{label} is an error.
\subsection{Bibliographic references}
\label{bib}
\index{bibliographies}\index{references}
The mechanism used for references to reading lists and
bibliographies is almost identical to that used for normal
cross-references. Although it is possible to type the
details of each citation manually, there is a companion
program to \LaTeX{} called \BibTeX{}, which manages
bibliographic references automatically. This reduces the time
needed to maintain and format them, and dramatically
improves accuracy. Using \BibTeX{} means you only ever have
to type the bibliographic details of a work once. You can
then cite it in any document you write, and it will get
formatted automatically to the style you specify.
\subsubsection{Citing references}
\label{citation}

\BibTeX{} works exactly the same way as other
bibliographic databases: you keep details of every
document you want to refer to in a separate file, using
\BibTeX{}'s own format (see example below). Many
writers make a habit of adding the details of every book
and article they read, so that when they write a document,
these entries are always available for reference. You give
each entry a short label, just like you do with normal
cross-references (see \S\thinspace\ref{normalxref}), and
it is this label you use to refer to in your own documents
when you cite the work using the \command{cite}
command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..as has clearly been shown by Fothergill~\cite{fg}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

By default, this creates a cross-reference number in
square brackets�[1] which is a common style in the
Natural Sciences (see \S\thinspace\ref{othercite} for
details of how to change this). There are dozens of
alternative citation formats in extra packages, including
the popular author/year format:
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..as has clearly been shown
by~\citeauthoryear{fg}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

\dots as has clearly been shown by�\citeauthoryear{fg}.
\end{quote}\end{example}

Note that in this case you don't type the
author's name because it is automatically extracted
by \BibTeX{}. There are lots of variants on this technique
in many packages, allowing you to phrase your sentences
with references in as natural a way as possible, and rely
on \BibTeX{} to insert the right data. (If you examine the
source of this document you'll find I use some
homebrew commands like \command{authorof} and
\command{titleof} which I use for a similar
purpose.)

To print the bibliographic listing (usually called
`References' in articles and
`Bibliography' in books and
reports), add these two lines towards the end of your
document, or wherever you want it printed, substituting
the name of your own \BibTeX{} file and the name of your
chosen bibliography style:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}
\bibliography{mybib}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{itemize}
\item
The \command{bibliography} command is
followed by the filename of your \BibTeX{} file
\emph{without} the
\url+.bib+ extension.

\item
The \command{bibliographystyle} command
is followed by the name of any of \LaTeX{}'s
supported bibliography styles, of which there are many
dozens available from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.\footnote{The style
shown in the example here provides formatting
according to the specifications for Transactions
of the IEEE (revised).}

\end{itemize}

The styles \opt{plain} and
\opt{alpha} are two common generic styles used
for drafts. The example above uses Transactions of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEETR)\index{IEEETR@IEEETR|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!IEEETR@IEEETR|textbf}.
\subsubsection{Running \emph{bibtex}}
\label{bibtex}

When you run the \product{bibtex}
program, the details of every document you have cited will
be extracted from your database, formatted according to
the style you specify, and stored in a temporary
bibliographic (\url+.bbl+) file with a
label corresponding to the one you used in your citation,
ready for \LaTeX{} to use. This is entirely automatic: all
you do is cite your references in your \LaTeX{} document
using the labels you gave the entries in your \BibTeX{}
file, and run the \product{bibtex}
program.

After processing your file with \LaTeX{}, run
\BibTeX{} on it by clicking on the
\guiicon{\BibTeX{}} toolbar icon (if your editor
has one), or use the
\menuitem{TeX}{BibTeX
File} menu entry, or type the command
\verb+bibtex+ followed by the name of your
document (without the \url+.tex+
extension). When you run \LaTeX{} again it will use the
\url+.bbl+ file which \BibTeX{} created,
and subsequent runs of \LaTeX{} will format the correct
citation numbers (or author/year, or whatever format you
are using).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
$ latex mybook
$ bibtex mybook
$ latex mybook
$ latex mybook
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Because of this three-stage process, you always get a
warning message about an `unresolved
reference' the first time you add a new
reference to a previously uncited work. This will
disappear after subsequent runs of
\product{bibtex} and \LaTeX{}.

In practice, authors tend to run \LaTeX{} from time to
time during writing anyway, so they can preview the
document. Just run \BibTeX{} after adding a new
\command{cite} command, and subsequent runs of
\LaTeX{} will incrementally incorporate all references
without you having to worry about it. You only need to
follow the full formal sequence (\LaTeX{}, \BibTeX{},
\LaTeX{}, \LaTeX{}) when you have finished writing and
want to ensure that all references have been
resolved.
\subsubsection{\BibTeX{} format}
\label{bibspec}

The format for the \BibTeX{} file is specified in the
\BibTeX{} documentation (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc}
for how to find and print it). You create a file with a
name ending in \url+.bib+, and add your
entries, for example:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
@book{fg,
title = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
author = {John Fothergill},
edition = {3rd},
publisher = {Penguin},
year = 1929,
address = {London}
}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

There is a prescribed set of fields for each of a
dozen or so types of document: book, article (in a
journal), article (in a collection), chapter (in a book),
thesis, report, paper (in a Proceedings), etc. Each entry
identifies the document type after the
`\verb+@+' sign,
followed by the entry label that you make up, and then
each field (in any order), using the format:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
keyword = {value},
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Most \TeX{}-sensitive editors have a \BibTeX{} mode
which understands these entries.
\product{Emacs} automatically uses its
\url+bibtex-mode+ whenever you open a
filename ending in \url+.bib+. When editing
\BibTeX{} databases, the rules are simple:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Omit the comma after the last field in the entry
(only\mdash{}eg after \verb+{London}+ in
the example).

\item
Titles may have their case changed in some styles:
to prevent this, enclose the title in double curly
braces as in the example.

\item
Values which are purely numeric (e.g.�years)
may omit the curly braces.

\item
Fields can occur in any order but the format must
otherwise be strictly observed.

\item
Fields which are not used do not have to be
included (so if your editor automatically inserts them
as blank or prefixed by \verb+OPT+
[optional], you can safely delete them as unused
lines).

\end{itemize}

To help with this, there are several interfaces to
creating and maintaining \BibTeX{} files, such as
\product{tkbibtex} (see Figure~\ref{tkbibtex}), or
\product{pybliographic}.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small tk\BibTeX{}, one of several graphical interfaces to
\BibTeX{} databases}
\label{tkbibtex}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{tkbibtex}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsubsection{Changing the layout}
\label{bibstyle}

To change the title printed over the reference
listing, just change the value of
\command{refname} (articles) or
\command{bibname} (books and reports) by adding a
line like this in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\bibname}{Reading List}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The formatting specifications (\BibTeX{} styles) are
based on standard settings for journals and books from
dozens of publishers: you just pick the one you want by
name. The \url+texmf/bib/bst+ subdirectory
of your installation contains the ones installed by
default, and you can search on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}
for others (look for \url+.bst+ files).
Many of them are named after university press styles
(e.g. \product{harvard},
\product{oxford}) or the publisher or
journal which specified them (e.g.
\product{elsevier},
\product{kluwer}, etc.).

Some of them have an accompanying package
(\url+.sty+) file which
you need to include with the normal
\command{usepackage} command in your preamble. In
this case the format may be distributed as
\url+.dtx+ and \url+.ins+
files and will need installing in the same way as any
other package (see \S\thinspace\ref{pkginst}). Always read
the documentation, because most of the formats are very
specific to the journal they were designed for, and may have
fairly absolute requirements.
\begin{warning}

If you are writing for a specific publisher, you
should remember that the rules or formats are laid down
by the typographic designer of that journal or
publisher: you cannot arbitrarily change the format just
because you don't happen to like it: it's not
your choice!
\end{warning}

It is also possible to write your own \BibTeX{}
(\url+.bst+) style files, although it uses
a language of its own which really needs a computer
science background to understand. However, this is
rendered unnecessary in most cases: there is an extensive
program (actually written in \LaTeX{}) called
\product{makebst}, which makes
\url+.bst+ files by asking you a (long)
series of questions about exactly how you want your
citations formatted. Just type
\verb+latex makebst+ in a command window, but
give it a dummy run first, because some of the questions
are very detailed, so you need to have thought through how
you want your citations to appear before you start.
\subsubsection{Other modes of citation}
\label{othercite}

The method of citing a work by numeric reference is
common in the Natural Sciences but is not used in Law or
the Humanities. In these fields, citations are usually
done with short references (author/short-title/year) in a
numbered footnote. Sometimes they are actually called
`footnotes' to the exclusion of
ordinary footnotes, although they are really citations
which happen by convention to be
\emph{displayed} as footnotes: an important
distinction rarely appreciated by authors until they come
to need a normal footnote.

For these fields, the bibliography at the back of the
document is printed \emph{unnumbered} in
alphabetic order of author, or perhaps chronologically if
the time-frame is very large. This unnumbered format is
why it is conventionally called
`References' rather than
`Bibliography': a sufficient working
citation has already been provided in the footnote, and
the list at the back is for reference purposes only;
whereas in the Natural Sciences, the citation is just a
number, or possibly an author and year only, so the full
listing is called a Bibliography.

The \package{jurabib} package
(originally intended for German law articles but now
extended to other fields in the Humanities, and to other
languages) has extensive features for doing this style of
citation and is strongly recommended.
\section{Indexes and glossaries}
\label{indexes}
\index{indexes}\index{glossaries}
\LaTeX{} has a powerful, automated indexing facility which
uses the standard \product{makeindex}
program. To use indexing, use the package
\package{makeidx} and include the
\command{makeindex} command in your preamble:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{makeidx}
\makeindex
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

When you want to index something, using the command
\command{index} followed by the entry in curly
braces, as you want it to appear in the index, using one of
the following formats:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Plain entry]
Typing \verb+\index{beer}+ will create
an entry for `beer' with the
current page
number.\index{beer}
\item[\sffamily Subindex entry]
For an entry with a subentry use an exclamation mark
to separate them:
\verb+\index{beer!lite}+.\index{beer!lite} Subsubentries like
\verb+\index{beer!lite!American}+ work to
another level deep.\index{beer!lite!American}
\item[\sffamily Cross-references]
`See' entries are done with
the vertical bar (one of the rare times it does
\emph{not} get interpreted as a math
character):
\verb+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}+\index{Microbrew|see{beer}}
\item[\sffamily Font changes]\label{indextypo}
To change the style of an entry, use the @-sign
followed by a font change command:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate
Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\noindent This example\index{Chocolate Stout@\textit{Chocolate Stout}} indexes `\product{Chocolate
Stout}' and italicises it
at the same time. Any of the standard
\verb+\text...+ font-change commands work
here: see the table on p.\thinspace\pageref{fontcmds} for details.

You can also change the font of the index number on
its own, as for first-usage references, by using the
vertical bar in a similar way to the
`see' entries above, but
substituting a font-change command name
(\emph{without} a backslash) such as
\verb+textbf+ for bold-face text (see the
index)\index{Chocolate Stout|textbf}:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\index{beer!Rogue!Chocolate Stout|textbf}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item[\sffamily Out of sequence]
The same method can be used as for font changes,
but using the alternate index word instead of the font
command name, so
\verb+\index{Oregon Brewing Company@Rogue}+\index{Oregon Brewing Company@Rogue} will add an entry for
`Rogue' in the
`O' section of the index, as if
it was spelled `Oregon Brewing
Company'.
\end{description}

When the document has been processed through \LaTeX{} it
will have created a \url+.idx+ file, which you
run through the \product{makeindex} program
by typing (for example):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
makeindex�mythesis
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Some editors may have a button or menu entry for this. The
program will look for the \url+.idx+ file and
output a \url+.ind+ file. This gets used by the
command \command{printindex} which you put at the end
of your document, where you want the index printed. The
default index format is two columns.

Glossaries are done in a similar manner using the command
\command{makeglossary} in the preamble and the
command \command{glossary} in the same way as
\command{index}. There are some subtle differences in
the way glossaries are handled: both the books by \citeauthoryear{latexbook} and by \citeauthoryear{companion} duck the issue, but
there is some documentation on \url+glotex+ on
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}.
\section{Multiple columns}
\label{multicols}
\index{columns}
Use the \package{multicol} package: the
environment is called \env{multicols} (note the
plural form) and it takes the number of columns as a separate
argument in curly braces:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{multicol}
..
\begin{multicols}{3}
..
\end{multicols}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{multicols}{3}
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}\footnotesize\noindent
\LaTeX{} has built-in support for two-column typesetting
via the \verb+twocolumn+ option in the standard
Document Class Declarations, but it is relatively inflexible
in that you cannot change from full-width to double-column
and back again on the same page, and the final page does not
balance the column heights. However, it does feature special
\env{figure*} and \env{table*}
environments which typeset full-width figures and tables
across a double-column setting.

The more extensive solution is the
\package{multicol} package, which will set up
to 10 columns, and allows the number of columns to be
changed or reset to one in mid-page, so that full-width
graphics can still be used. It also balances the height of
the final page so that all columns are the same
height\mdash{}if possible: it's not always
achievable\mdash{}and you can control the width of the gutter
by setting the \command{columnsep} length to a new
dimension.

Multi-column work needs some skill in typographic
layout, though: the narrowness of the columns makes
typesetting less likely to fit smoothly because it's hard to
hyphenate and justify well when there is little space to
man\oe uvre in.
\end{multicols}
\chapter{Fonts and layouts}
\label{typo}
\index{typographics}
This is the chapter that most users want first, because they
come to structured documents from a wordprocessing environment
where the \emph{only} way to convey different
types of information is to fiddle with the font and size
drop-down menus.

As I hope you have seen, this is normally completely
unnecessary in \LaTeX{}, which does most of the hard work for you
automatically. However, there are occasions when you need to
make manual typographic changes, and this chapter is about how
to do them.
\section{Changing layout}
\label{layouts}

The design of the page can be a very subjective matter,
and also rather a subtle one. Many organisations large and
small pay considerable sums to designers to come up with page
layouts to suit their purposes. Styles in page layouts change
with the years, as do fashions in everything else, so what may
have looked attractive in 1991 may look rather dated in
2011.

As with most aspects of typography, making the document
readable involves making it consistent, so the reader is not
interrupted or distracted too much by apparently random
changes in margins, widths, or placement of objects. However,
there are a number of different occasions where the layout
usually \emph{does} change, related to the
frequency with which the format appears.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The title page, the half-title, copyright page,
dedication, and other one-page preliminaries (if you use
them) are usually designed individually, as the information
on it only occurs once in that format anywhere in the
document.

\item
The table of contents and other related lists like
figures and tables all need to share one
design.

\item
The prelims like Foreword, Introduction, and Preface
should likewise follow the same format between
them.

\item
Chapter and Appendix start pages usually share a
layout.

\item
Other (normal) pages have a single layout, but it may
specify individual variations to handle tables, lists,
figures, sidebars, exercises, footnotes, etc.

\end{itemize}

If you are going to design a whole document, it's
probably a good idea to read a couple of books on layout
design first, to get a feel for the conventions which
contribute to making the reader comfortable reading.

While unusual or radical layouts have an important role in
attention-grabbing, or in making a socio-political statement
(\titlecite{wired} magazine is an obvious
recent example), they are usually out of place in business
reports, white papers, books, theses, and journals. In
ephemera, on the other hand, as in advertising, they are
probably critical.
\subsection{Spacing}
\label{spacing}
\index{page size!margins}\index{margins}
We mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{marginals} and
elsewhere the existence of the
\package{geometry} package which lets you
change margins. It also lets you set the text-area height
and width and a lot of other layout settings: read the
documentation for details (see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for how to read package
documentation).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage[left=2cm,top=1cm,bottom=2cm,right=3cm,
nohead,nofoot]{geometry}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The spacing around the individual textual components
(headings, paragraphs, lists, footnotes, etc.)�can
also be changed on a document-wide basis, as we saw with
paragraph spacing and indentation in \S\thinspace\ref{paraspace}.

Changing the spacing of section headings for the whole
document can be done with the
\package{sectsty} package, designed to let
you adjust section-head spacing without having to know about
the internal \LaTeX{} coding, which is quite complex.

The spacing for lists can be adjusted with the
\package{mdwlist} package. In both cases the
user with highly specific requirements such as a
publisher's Compositor's Specification should read
the relevant sections in the \titlecite{companion} or ask for expert help, as
there are many internal settings which can also be changed
to fine-tune your design, but which need some knowledge of
\LaTeX{}'s internals.

All the above are for automating changes so that they
occur every time in a consistent manner. You can also make
manual changes whenever you need:
\index{space|see{white-space}}\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily Flexible vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!flexible}
There are three commands
\command{smallskip},
\command{medskip}, and
\command{bigskip}. These output flexible
(dynamic, or `rubber') space,
approximately 3pt, 6pt, and 12pt high respectively,
and they will automatically compress or expand a
little, depending on the demands of the rest of the
page (for example to allow one extra line to fit, or a
heading to be moved to the next page without anyone
except a typographer noticing the change). These
commands can only be used after a paragraph break (a
blank line or the command
\command{par}).
\item[\sffamily Fixed vertical space]\index{white-space!vertical!fixed}\index{white-space!vertical!disappearing}
For a fixed-height space which will
\emph{not} stretch or shrink, use the
command \command{vspace} followed by a length
in curly braces, e.g. \verb+\vspace{18pt}+
(again, this has to be after a paragraph break). Bear
in mind that extra space which ends up at a page-break
when the document is formatted \emph{will get
discarded entirely} to make the bottom and
top lines fall in the correct places. To force a
vertical space to remain and be taken into account
even after a page break (very rare), use the starred
variant \command{vspace*}, e.g.
\verb+\vspace*{19pt}+.
\item[\sffamily Double spacing]\index{white-space!double-spacing}\index{double-spacing}
Double-spacing normal lines of text is usually a
bad idea, as it looks very ugly. It is still
unfortunately a requirement in some universities for
thesis submission, a historical relic from the days of
typewriters. Nowadays, 1\Frac13 or 1� line
spacing is considered acceptable, according to your
font size. If your institution still thinks they
should have double line spacing, they are probably
wrong, and just don't understand that the world has
moved on since the typewriter. Show them this
paragraph and explain that they need to enter the 21st
century and adapt to the features of computer
typesetting. If they still insist, use the
\package{setspace} package,which has
commands for double line-spacing and one-and-a-half
line spacing, but be prepared for some very ugly
output (so warn your supervisor and extern).

The space between lines is defined by the value of
the length variable \length{baselineskip} multiplied
by the value of the \command{baselinestretch}
command. In general, \emph{don't meddle with
\length{baselineskip} at
all}, and with
\command{baselinestretch} only if you know
what you are doing. (Both can, however, safely be used
as reference values in commands like
\verb+\vspace{\baselineskip}+ to leave a
whole line space.)
\index{spacing|see{white-space}}
The value of \length{baselineskip} changes with
the font size (see \S\thinspace\ref{fontsize}) but is conventionally set to
1.2 times the current nominal font size. This is a
value derived from long experience: only change it if
you understand what it means and what effect it will
have.

Quite separately, there are some perfectly genuine
and normal reasons for wanting wide line spacing,
\index{spacing|see{double-spacing}} for example when typesetting a proof of a
critical or variorum edition, where editors and
contributors are going to want to add notes manually
by writing between the lines, or where the text is
going to be overprinted by something else like
Braille, or in advertising or display text for special
effects.
\item[\sffamily Horizontal space]\index{white-space!horizontal}
There is a horizontal equivalent to the
\command{vspace} command:
\command{hspace}, which works in the same
way, so I can force a 1$''$ space like
this\hspace*{1in}in
mid-paragraph. There are also some predefined
(shorter) spaces available:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\command{thinspace}�(\Frac16em),
which we saw between single and double quotes in
the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{thinspace}. It's also
sometimes used between the full point after
abbreviations and a following number, as in page
references like p.\thinspace{}199, where a word space
would look too big, and setting it solid would
look too tight.

\item
\command{enspace}�(�em).
There is no direct equivalent predefined in
\LaTeX{} for mid and thick spaces as used by metal
typesetters, although it would be possible to
define them. The en as a unit is often used as the
width of a single digit in some fonts, as a
convenience so that tables of figures are easy to
line up.

\item
\command{quad}�(1em).

\item
\command{qquad}�(2em).

\end{itemize}

Beyond this, all horizontal space within
paragraphs is automatically flexible,
\index{tracking|see{letterspacing}}\index{letterspacing} as this is what
\LaTeX{} uses to achieve justification. Never be
tempted to try and change the spacing between letters
unless you have some professional training in
typography. Some systems use letterspacing
(incorrectly called `tracking') as an aid
to justification and it is almost always wrong to do
so (and looks it). While it \emph{is}
possible to change letterspacing (with the
\package{soul} package), it should only
be done by a typographer, and then only very rarely,
as the settings are very subtle and beyond the scope
of this book.
\end{description}
\subsection{Headers and footers}
\label{runningheads}

\LaTeX{} has built-in settings to control the page style
of its default page layouts. These are implemented with the
\command{pagestyle} command, which can take one of
the following arguments.
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \opt{plain}]
for a page number centered at the bottom;
\item[\sffamily \opt{empty}]
for nothing at all, not even a page number;
\item[\sffamily \opt{headings}]
for running heads based on the current chapter and
section;
\item[\sffamily \opt{myheadings}]
which lets you use your own reprogrammed
definitions of how \command{markright} and
\command{markboth} commands, which control
how chapter and section titles get into page
headers.
\end{description}

The command \command{thispagestyle} (taking the
same arguments) can be used to force a specific style for
the current page only.

However, the easiest way is to use the
\package{fancyhdr} package, which lets you
redefine the left-hand, centre, and right-hand page headers
and footers for both odd and even pages (twelve objects in
all). These areas can contain a page number, fixed text,
variable text (like the current chapter or section title, or
the catch-words of a dictionary), or even a small image.
They can also be used to do page backgrounds and frames, by
making one of them the top corner of an invisible box which
`hangs' text or images down over the whole
page.

The settings for the downloadable version of this
document can be used as an example: for the whole story you
have to read the documentation.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\pagestyle{fancy}\fancyhead{}
\renewcommand\headrulewidth{.1pt}
\fancyhead[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\leftmark}
\fancyhead[LE,RO]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\itshape
\rightmark}
\fancyfoot[C]{}
\fancyfoot[LE,RO]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox%
{\footnotesize\sffamily\thepage}}
\fancyfoot[LO,RE]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
\fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhf{}
\fancyfoot[R]{\setlength{\fboxsep}{2pt}\ovalbox{%
\footnotesize\sffamily\thepage}}
\fancyfoot[L]{\footnotesize\sffamily\lite\@title}
\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is probably more complex than most documents, but
it illustrates some common requirements:
\begin{enumerate}\item
Settings are prefixed by making the
\command{pagestyle}�`fancy'
and setting the \command{fancyhead} to
null to zap any predefined values.

\item
The thickness of the rule at the top of the page can
be changed (or set to 0pt to make it disappear).

\item
The header and footer settings are specified with L,
C, and R for left, centre, and right; and with O and E
for Odd and Even numbered pages. In each setting, the
typeface style, size, and font can be specified along
with macros which implement various dynamic texts (here,
the current chapter and section titles, which \LaTeX{}
stores in \command{rightmark} and
\command{leftmark}).

\item
The `plain' variant is used for chapter
starts, and resets some of the parameters
accordingly.

\end{enumerate}
\section{Using fonts}
\label{fontuse}
\index{fonts!in general}
The default typeface in \LaTeX{} is Computer Modern (CM)\index{CM@CM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CM@CM|textbf}. This typeface was
designed by Knuth for use with \TeX{} because it is a book
face, and he designed \TeX{} originally for typesetting books.
Because it is one of the very few book typefaces with a
comprehensive set of fonts, including a full suite of
mathematics, it has remained the default, rather than the
Times you find in wordprocessors, because until recently the
mathematical symbols for Times were a commercial product often
unavailable to users of free software.

\index{fonts!\mf{}}\index{fonts!Computer Modern}{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12pt}{12pt}\selectfont{}Computer Modern is based on
a 19th-century book typeface from Monotype, which is why it
looks a little like an old-fashioned school book. This
paragraph is set in Computer Modern so you can see what it
looks like. The typeface was designed using \mf{}, the
font-drawing program made by Knuth to accompany \TeX{}
systems, but it is now also available in Type�1 and
TrueType formats.}
\begin{warning}

If you are reading this in a web browser, the above
paragraph is only a low-resolution copy because browsers
don't usually have the Computer Modern font available.
All the rest of this document is set in \rmfontfamilyname{}, with
\sffontfamilyname{} for some of the headings and \ttfontfamilyname{} for the
fixed-width type.
\end{warning}

In addition to CM\index{CM@CM}, there are
many other \mf{} fonts which can be downloaded from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}, including a large collection
of historical, symbol, initial, and non-Latin fonts. \LaTeX{}
also comes with the `Adobe 35'
typefaces which are built into laser printers and other
DTP\index{DTP@DTP} systems, and some more fonts
donated by the X�Consortium. Plus, of course, standard
\LaTeX{} can use any of the thousands of
Type�1 fonts available, and
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} can use any of the
thousands of TrueType fonts as well.

In the following lists, if there is a package available,
its name is given in parentheses after the name of the
typeface. The font-family name is shown on the right-hand
side. If a non-standard font-encoding is needed, its name is
shown before the font-family name.
\index{fonts!TrueType}\index{fonts!metafont@\mf{}}\index{fonts!PostScript}\index{fonts!Type�1}\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\label{fontable-mf}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Roman\hfill\texttt{cmr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Sans\hfill\texttt{cmss}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmss}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Computer Modern Typewriter\hfill\texttt{cmtt}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{pandora})}\hfill\texttt{panr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{panr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora Sans\hfill\texttt{pss}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pss}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Pandora Typewriter\hfill\texttt{pntt}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pntt}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Universal\hfill\texttt{uni}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uni}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Concrete\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{ccr})}\hfill\texttt{ccr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ccr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut �{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\i}reannach\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{eiad})}\hfill\texttt{eiad}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{eiad}\selectfont
N{\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\'\i}l aon tinte�n mar do thinte�n f\'ein}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Rustic\hfill\texttt{rust}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{rust}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Uncial\hfill\texttt{uncl}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uncl}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut D�rer\hfill\texttt{zdu}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{zdu}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Fraktur\hfill\texttt{U\enspace yfrak}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{yfrak}\selectfont
Fuch\char'215 , Du hast die Gan\char'215 gestohlen, gib sie wieder her!}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Gothic\hfill\texttt{U\enspace ygoth}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{ygoth}\selectfont
If it plese any man spirituel or temporel}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Schw�bische\hfill\texttt{U\enspace yswab}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{yswab}\selectfont
Fuch\char'215 , Du hast die Gan\char'215 gestohlen, gib sie wieder her!}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet typefaces (PostScript Type 1) from
Adobe}\label{fontable-adobe}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet typefaces (PostScript Type 1) from
Adobe}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Avant Garde\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{avant})}\hfill\texttt{pag}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pag}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Bookman\footnote{Uses Avant Garde as the sans-serif and Courier for
monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{bookman})}\hfill\texttt{pbk}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pbk}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Courier\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{courier})}\hfill\texttt{pcr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pcr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Helvetica\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{helvet})}\hfill\texttt{phv}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut New Century Schoolbook\footnote{Uses Helvetica as the sans-serif font and Courier
for monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{newcent})}\hfill\texttt{pnc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pnc}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Palatino\footnote{Uses Avant Garde as the sans-serif and Courier for
monospace.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{palatino})}\hfill\texttt{ppl}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ppl}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Symbol\hfill\texttt{U\enspace psy}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{psy}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Times New Roman\footnote{Uses Helvetica as the sans-serif font and Courier
for monospace. Mathematical symbols for Times are
available both free and commercially.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{times})}\hfill\texttt{ptm}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ptm}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Zapf Chancery\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{zapfchan})}\hfill\texttt{pzc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{pzc}\selectfont\itshape
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Zapf Dingbats\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{pifont})}\hfill\texttt{U\enspace pzd}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{pzd}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\par\medskip
As mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{print}, the
`Adobe 35' fonts can be used with any
printer, not just a laser printer or typesetter. The
\product{Ghostscript} interpreter and the
\product{GSview} viewer come with a large set
of printer drivers, so you just create PostScript output and
print from \product{GSview}.

Incidentally, the 35 refers to the total number of fonts
for the 10 typefaces, including their bold, italic, and
bold-italic variants.

Postscript Type 1 fonts have been the mainstay of the
graphic arts industries for many years, as they allow much
better definition of variance
(`hinting') than most other formats.
However, the font format remains proprietary to Adobe, even
though they have released it for public use, which means they
could change it without warning. A new format called
`OpenType' is designed to overcome
this, and some versions of \TeX{} are
already able to use OpenType fonts.
\begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Latin-alphabet fonts (PostScript Type 1) from the X
Consortium}\label{fontable-x}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Latin-alphabet fonts (PostScript Type 1) from the X
Consortium}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Charter\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{charter})}\hfill\texttt{bch}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Nimbus Roman\hfill\texttt{unm}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{unm}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Nimbus Sans\hfill\texttt{unms}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{unms}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut URW Antiqua\hfill\texttt{uaq}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{uaq}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut URW Grotesk\hfill\texttt{ugq}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{ugq}\selectfont\bfseries
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Utopia\footnote{Removed from recent distributions as it is not
free.}\quad{\fontseries{m}\selectfont(\package{utopia})}\hfill\texttt{put}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{put}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\par\medskip \begingroup\small \subsubsection*{Non-Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\label{fontable-nonlat}\addcontentsline{lot}{subsubsection}{Non-Latin-alphabet typefaces (\mf{})}\par\smallskip\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut BB Dingbats\hfill\texttt{U\enspace ding}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{ding}\selectfont
\fontsize{9}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Cypriot\hfill\texttt{cypr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cypr}\selectfont
\fontsize{8}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Etruscan\hfill\texttt{etr}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{etr}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Linear `B'\hfill\texttt{linb}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{linb}\selectfont
\fontsize{9}{0}\selectfont The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Phoenician\hfill\texttt{phnc}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{phnc}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Runic\hfill\texttt{fut}}\\{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{fut}\selectfont
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG}\strut
\hrule height.2pt\par\noindent{\sffamily\scriptsize\lite\emstrut Bard\hfill\texttt{U\enspace zba}}\\{\fontencoding{U}\fontfamily{zba}\selectfont
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog}\strut
\hrule height.2pt \endgroup\begin{warning}

Just to make it clear: standard \LaTeX{} uses only
\mf{} and PostScript\index{PostScript} Type�1
fonts. \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} can use TrueType
fonts as well.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Changing the default font family}
\index{fonts!changing the default}
\LaTeX{} expects to work with three font families as
defaults:
\index{fonts!families}\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\ttfamily}l}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Font family}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Code}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Roman (serif, with tails on the uprights), the
default&rm\\
\sffamily{}Sans-serif, with no tails on
the uprights&sf\\
\ttfamily{}Monospace (fixed-width or
typewriter)&tt\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
The start-up default for \LaTeX{} equates the
\verb+rm+ default with the
{\slshape\verb`cmr`} font-family (Computer Modern Roman),
\verb+sf+ with {\slshape\verb`cmss`}, and
\verb+tt+ with {\slshape\verb`cmtt`}. If you
use one of the packages listed in the tables on pp.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}--\pageref{fontable-nonlat}, it will
replace the defaults of the same type: for example,
\verb+\usepackage{bookman}+ makes the default
\verb+rm+ font-family Bookman
({\slshape\verb`pbk`}), but leaves the sans-serif
(\verb+sf+) and monospace
(\verb+tt+) families untouched. Equally,
\verb+\usepackage{helvet}+ changes the default
sans-serif family to Helvetica but leaves the serif (Roman)
and monospace families untouched. Using both commands will
change both defaults because they operate
independently.

\emph{However}\dots as it is common to
want to change all three defaults at the same time, some of
the most common `suites' of typefaces
are provided as packages:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \package{times}]
changes to Times/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{pslatex}]
same as \package{times} but uses a
specially narrowed Courier to save space (normal
Courier is rather inelegantly wide). This is the
preferred setting if you want Times.\footnote{The \package{pslatex} package
is also said to be outdated by some experts
because it implements rather long-windedly what
can now be done in three commands. However, until
these replace the current version, I recommend
continuing to use \package{pslatex}
when you want Times with Helvetica and narrow
Courier.}
\item[\sffamily \package{newcent}]
changes to New Century
Schoolbook/Helvetica/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatino}]
changes to Palatino/Avant Garde/Courier.
\item[\sffamily \package{palatcm}]
changes the roman to Palatino only, but with
CM\index{CM@CM} mathematics
\end{description}

Where no package name is given in the tables on pp.\thinspace\pageref{fontable-mf}--\pageref{fontable-nonlat}, it means the
font is rarely used as a default by itself except in special
cases like users' own homebrew packages. To use such a
font you have to specify it manually, or make a little macro
for yourself if you use it more than once.
\subsection{Changing the font-family temporarily}
\label{fontfam}
\index{fonts!changing temporarily}
To shift to another font family on a temporary basis,
use the commands \command{fontencoding} (if
needed), \command{fontfamily}, and
\command{selectfont}, and \emph{enclose the
commands \textbf{and} the text in curly
braces}. Note that this is a
\emph{different} way of using curly braces to
how we have used them before: it limits the effect of a
change to the material inside the braces.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont
Helvetica looks like this}:
{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont
Charter looks like this}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent

{\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{}Helvetica
looks like this}: {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{bch}\selectfont{}Charter looks like
this}.
\end{quote}\end{example}

In this example, the \command{fontencoding}
command has been used to ensure that the typeface will work
even if the sentence is used in the middle of something
typeset in a different encoding (like this
document).\footnote{Test for the observant reader: in what typeface will
the colon (:) in the example be set?}
\begin{sidebar}\label{grouping}
\subsection*{Grouping}\index{grouping}
Note carefully this use of curly braces to restrict
the scope of a change rather than delimit the argument to
a command. This is called
`grouping' and it makes the effect
any changes made \emph{inside} the braces
local, so that they do not interfere with the text
following. Any changes to fonts or other values made
within the curly braces cease when the closing curly brace
is processed.
\end{sidebar}
In a normal document, of course, random typeface changes
like this are rather rare. You select your typeface[s] once
at the start of the document, and stick with them.

Most cases where people want to do unusual typeface
changes involve things like special symbols on a repetitive
basis, and \LaTeX{} provides much easier programmable ways
to make these changes into shorthand commands (called
macros: see \chaptername~\ref{macros}). You could, for
example, make a macro called \command{product}
which would let you typeset product names in a distinct
typeface:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Andlinger, Inc., has replaced \product{Splosh} with
\product{SuperSplosh}.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This is one of \LaTeX{}'s most powerful features.
It means that if you needed to change your
\command{product} command at some later stage to
use a different font, you only have to change three
characters in the macro (the font-family name), and
you don't need to edit your document text at all!
What's more, a macro could do other things at the same time,
like add an entry to an index of products.

However, vastly more common are changes to type
\emph{style}, while staying with the same
font-family.
\subsection{Changing font style}
\index{fonts!styles}
Within each typeface or font family there are usually
several different `looks' to the type
design. \LaTeX{} distinguishes between font \textbf{\textit{family}}\label{family}\index{family@\textbf{\textit{family}}}, font \textbf{\textit{shape}}\label{shape}\index{shape@\textbf{\textit{shape}}}, and font \textbf{\textit{series}}\label{series}\index{series@\textbf{\textit{series}}}:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example (using Computer Modern)}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Upright&\command{upshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
lazy d}\\
Italic&\command{itshape}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}\font\foo=cmti10
\foo The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy
dog}\\
Slanted&\command{slshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy d}\\
Small Capitals&\command{scshape}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sc}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps over the}\\
Bold&\command{bfseries}*&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy d}\\
Bold Extended&\command{bfseries}\dag &{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontseries{bx}\selectfont{}\font\foo=cmbx10
\foo The quick brown fox jumps over the
lazy}\\
Sans-serif&\command{sffamily}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmss}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
lazy dog}\\
Monospace&\command{ttfamily}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmtt}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox jumps over the
laz}\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] Not all typefaces have all
variants! Some only have bold and italics.
\item [\sffamily \dag ] Some typefaces do not have
both bold and bold extended: by default \LaTeX{} uses
\command{bfseries} for bold
extended.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
\endgroup
These `shape',
`series', and
`family' commands are \textbf{\textit{commutative}}\label{commutative}\index{commutative@\textbf{\textit{commutative}}}, so you can
combine a shape with a series and/or a family, without the
need to use \command{selectfont}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This gives you {\bfseries\itshape\sffamily bold
italic sans-serif type}, but beware
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This gives you {\sffamily{}\fontseries{b}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}bold italic sans-serif type}, but
beware of pushing your fonts beyond their limits unless you
are a typographer. It is not normally meaningful to combine
one shape or series class with another of the same class,
such as trying to get slanted-italics. It's an
impossibility to combine one family with another (such as a
seriffed sans-serif typeface!). Slanted plus italics, for
example, doesn't make sense, as italics are already
slanted (although it is technically possible); and while
some typefaces may well possess italic small caps, they are
not in common use. Sans-serif and monospace (typewriter) are
different fonts, and often different typeface families
entirely.\footnote{Although if you're a typographer wanting to
experiment with typewriter typefaces with and without
serifs, you can use \mf{} to do exactly this kind
of thing. But that's way outside the scope of this
document.}

There is an alternative syntax for the most common type
shape and series commands which uses curly braces in the
normal `argument' manner:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\label{fontcmds}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l>{\ttfamily}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Type style}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Italic&\verb+\textit{text}+&puts {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}text}
into italics\\
Slanted&\verb+\textsl{text}+&puts {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontshape{sl}\selectfont{}text} into
slanted type*\\
Small Capitals&\verb+\textsc{text}+&puts {\fontshape{sc}\selectfont{}text} into
small caps\\
Bold&\verb+\textbf{text}+&puts {\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}text} into
bold type\\
Sans-serif&\verb+\textsf{text}+&puts {\sffamily{}\selectfont{}text}
into sans-serif type\\
Monospace&\verb+\texttt{text}+&puts {\ttfamily{}\selectfont{}text} into
typewriter type\\
\end{tabular}
\par\smallskip\footnotesize
\begin{itemize*}
\item [\sffamily *] If slanted is available separately
from italics.
\end{itemize*}
\end{center}
\endgroup
You can nest these inside one another too:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..\textbf{\itshape\textsf{bold italic
sans-serif type}}...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{uline}%
Underlining isn't a font, and it is extremely
rare in typography except for special purposes. If you think
you need it, use the \package{ulem} package
with the \verb+normalem+ option, and the
\command{uline} command.
\subsection{Font sizes}
\label{fontsize}
\index{fonts!sizes}
\LaTeX{} has built into its defaults a set of predefined
font size steps corresponding more or less to the
traditional sizes available to metal typesetters. This is
deliberate, as these sizes have grown up over 500 years of
printing as those which go best together for book-work,
which is where \TeX{} originated.

These sizes are also reflected in the size steps at
which Computer Modern was designed. It often comes as a
surprise to new users that many typefaces are not designed
as a single font and just scaled up or down, but specially
drawn at different sizes to make them more legible.

As an example, {\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12}{12}\selectfont{}here's 12pt Computer
Modern}, and {\font\cmbig=cmr5 at12pt\cmbig here's
5pt Computer Modern scaled up to 12pt}, and
{\font\cmsmall=cmr17
at12pt\cmsmall here's 17pt Computer Modern scaled down
to 12pt} so you can see there really is a
significant difference. In general, you probably don't
want to go scaling fonts too much beyond their design size
because they will start to look very odd.

The default sizes (and the commands that operate them)
are based on the use of a 10pt font, which is the normal
size for most texts. Using the larger defaults (11pt and
12pt) for the body font will use 11pt and 12pt designs, with
other sizes (eg headings) resized to match. The exact sizes
used are listed in the macros in the Class Option files
\url+size10.clo+,
\url+size11.clo+ and
\url+size12.clo+. \TeX{}'s default fonts
above 10pt are in fact scaled by a factor of 1.2, as shown
in the fourth column of the table below.
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}llrr@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Command}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Example}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedleft}}b{.6in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Nominal point
size}&\multicolumn{1}{>{\bfseries\pbs{\raggedleft}}b{.5in}}{\normalfont\bfseries\upshape Exact point
size}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\command{tiny}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{5}{5}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog}&5&5\\
\command{scriptsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{7}{7}\selectfont{}The quick brown
fox jumps over the laz}&7&7\\
\command{footnotesize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{8}{8}\selectfont{}The quick
brown fox jumps over the l}&8&8\\
\command{small}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{9}{9}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps over th}&9&9\\
\command{normalsize}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{10}{10}\selectfont{}The quick
brown fox jumps over}&10&10\\
\command{large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{12}{12}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
jumps}&12&12\\
\command{Large}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{14}{14}\selectfont{}The quick brown fox
ju}&14&14.40\\
\command{LARGE}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{18}{18}\selectfont{}The quick brown
fo}&18&17.28\\
\command{huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{20}{20}\selectfont{}The quick
brown}&20&20.74\\
\command{Huge}&{\fontencoding{OT1}\fontfamily{cmr}\fontsize{24}{24}\selectfont{}The quick
bro}&24&24.88\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
While these `shorthand' commands
relieve the beginner of having to worry about the
`right' size for a given task, when
you need a specific size there is the
\command{fontsize} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\fontsize{22}{28}\selectfont This is 22pt
type 6pt leaded
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

`Leading' comes from the old metal-type
practice of adding a lead strip between lines to increase the
spacing.

The \command{fontsize} command takes two
arguments: the point size and the baseline distance. The
above example gives you 22pt type on a 28pt baseline
(i.e.�with 6pt extra space or
`leading' between the lines).
\begin{warning}

Computer Modern fonts (the default) come fixed at the
named size steps shown in the table, and if you try to use
an odd size in between, \LaTeX{} will pick the closest
step instead. If you really need to use CM\index{CM@CM} at arbitrary sizes there is a
package \package{type1cm} which lets you
override the default steps. If you use
PostScript\index{PostScript} (Type�1) fonts, the
step sizes do not apply and the font scaling is infinitely
variable.
\end{warning}
\subsection{Logical markup}

All this playing around with fonts is very pretty but
you normally only do it for a reason, even if that reason is
just to be decorative. Italics, for example, are used for
many things:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l>{\itshape}l}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Cause}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Effect}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
Foreign words&ex officio\\
Scientific names&Ranunculus ficaria\\
Emphasis&must not\\
Titles of documents&The \LaTeX{} Companion\\
Product names&{\upshape
Corel's} WordPerfect\\
Variables in maths&$E=mc^{2}$\\
Subtitles or headings&How to get started\\
Decoration&FREE UPGRADE!!!\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Humans usually have no problem telling the difference
between these reasons, because they can read and understand
the meaning and context. Computers cannot (yet), so it has
become conventional to use descriptive names which make the
distinction explicit, even though the appearance may be the
same.

\LaTeX{} has some of these built in, like
\command{emph}, which provides
\emph{emphasis}. This has a special feature
because {\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}when the surrounding text is
already italic, \emph{emphasis}
automatically reverts to \emph{upright
type}}, which is the normal practice
for typesetting.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This has a special feature because {\itshape when the
surrounding text is already italic, \emph{emphasis}
automatically reverts to upright type, which is the
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\label{emph}%
This sensitivity to logic is programmed into
the definition of \command{emph} and it's not
hard to make up other commands of your own which could do
the same, such as \command{foreign} or
\command{product}.

But why would you bother? In a short document it's
probably not important, but if you're writing a long
report, or a formal document like an article, a book, or a
thesis, it makes writing and editing hugely easier if you
can control whole groups of special effects with a single
command, such as italicising, indexing, or cross-referencing
to a glossary. If a format needs changing, you only have to
change the definition, and every occurrence automatically
follows suit.
\begin{warning}

Beware of this `vaine conceipt of simple men,
which judge things by ther effects, and not by ther
causes'. (Edmund Spenser, 1633) �It's hugely
more efficient to have control of the cause than the
effect.
\end{warning}

It also makes it possible to find and act on groups of
meanings\mdash{}such as making an index of scientific names
or product names (as in this document)\mdash{}if they are
identified with a special command. Otherwise you'd
spend weeks hunting manually through every
\command{textit} command to find the ones you
wanted. This is the importance of automation: it can save
you time and money.

In \chaptername~\ref{macros} we will see how to make your
own simple commands like this.
\subsection{Colour}
\index{colour}\index{fonts!colour}
You can typeset anything in \LaTeX{} in any colour you
want using the \package{color} package.
First, you need to add the command
\verb+\usepackage{color}+ to your preamble (note
the US spelling of color!). This makes available a default
palette of primary colours: {\color{red}red}, {\color{green}green}, and {\color{blue}blue} for the RGB\index{RGB@RGB} colour model used for emitted light
(television screens), and {\color{cyan}cyan}, {\color{magenta}magenta}, {\color{yellow}yellow}, and black for the
CMYK\index{CMYK@CMYK} colour model used for
reflected light (printing).

For the occasional word or phrase in colour, use the
command \command{textcolor} with two arguments, the
colour name and the text: \verb+\textcolor{red}{like this}+. There is a \command{color}
command as well, for use within groups:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
..{\color{blue}some text in blue}...
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you have the PostScript\index{PostScript}
printer driver \product{dvips} installed,
you also get a separate 64-colour palette of predefined
\textbf{\textit{color names}}\label{colornames}\index{color names@\textbf{\textit{color names}}}. These
represent approximately the colours in the big box of
\product{Crayola} colouring pencils much
favoured by artists and designers. This adds a new colour
model called `\verb+named+', so if
you want the \product{Crayola} colour
{\color[named]{RubineRed}RubineRed}, you can use the
\command{color} or \command{textcolor}
commands with a preceding optional argument
`\opt{named}':
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\color[named]{RubineRed}
\textcolor[named]{RubineRed}{some red text}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As some of the `\verb+named+'
colour names are quite long, you can create a short name of
your own for colours you use frequently, using the
\command{definecolor} command:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{mb}{named}{MidnightBlue}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The \command{definecolor} command needs three
arguments: your shorthand name, the name of the colour model,
and the colour specification. In the case of the
`\verb+named+' model, the last
argument is one of the 64 colour names. To
use these names with \product{pdf\LaTeX{}},
you need to use the \opt{pdftex} option to the
\package{color} package.

Using the \command{definecolor} command, you
can define any colour you want by giving it a name,
specifying which colour model, and providing the Red-Green-Blue (RGB)\index{RGB@RGB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RGB@RGB|textbf} or Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black (CMYK)\index{CMYK@CMYK|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!CMYK@CMYK|textbf} colour
values expressed as decimals, separated by commas. For
example, an RGB\index{RGB@RGB} shade given as
(37,125,224) in decimal (\#250FE0 in hexadecimal as used
on the Web) can be given as\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\definecolor{midblue}{rgb}{0.145,0.490,0.882}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
(divide each value by 255, the maximum for
each of the hues in the Red-Green-Blue colour model). You
can then use \command{textcolor} with your new
colour name: {\color{midblue}the midblue looks like
this if you're reading in colour.}

The \package{color} package also provides
a colour version of \command{fbox} (see \S\thinspace\ref{fbox}) called
\command{colorbox}:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta on midblue}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

\colorbox{midblue}{\color{magenta}Magenta
on midblue}: you can
see how careful you need to be with colours!
\section{Installing new fonts}
\label{instfonts}
\index{fonts!installing}
Different fonts come in a variety of packagings: the three
most common used with \TeX{} systems are
PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts, TrueType fonts, and
\mf{} fonts. How you install them and where they go
depends on how you installed \LaTeX{}: all I can deal with here
are the standard locations within the TDS\index{TDS@TDS}.

Typefaces come supplied as one or more font
`outline' files and a number of
ancillary files:
\begin{description}
\item[\sffamily \mf{} typefaces]
have a number of \url+.mf+ source
(outline) files, possibly also some
\url+.fd+ (font definition) files and a
\url+.sty+ (style) file. The
\url+.tfm+ (\TeX{} font metric) files are
not needed, as they can be generated from the
outlines.
\item[\sffamily PostScript typefaces]
come as a pair of files: a \url+.pfb+
(PostScript font binary) or \url+.pfa+
(PostScript font ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII})
outline, and an \url+.afm+ (Adobe font
metric) file. There may also be
\url+.inf+ and other files but these are
not needed for use with \TeX{} systems.
\item[\sffamily TrueType typefaces]
are a single \url+.ttf+ file, which
combines outline and metrics in one.
\end{description}

The instructions here assume the use of the New Font Selection Scheme (NFSS)\index{NFSS@NFSS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!NFSS@NFSS|textbf} used in
\LaTeXe{}. If you are running the obsolete \LaTeX{} 2.09,
upgrade it now.
\subsection{Installing \mf{} fonts}
\label{mffonts}

This is the simplest installation. When you download
\mf{} fonts from CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN},
you'll usually find a large number of outline files
(\url+.mf+ files) and maybe some other types
as well (see below).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Creating a new subdirectory for a font}
\label{mkfontdir}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{public}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \label{newsub}%
Create a new subdirectory named after the typeface
you're installing in
\url+texmf-local/fonts/source/public/+:
\item
Copy all the \url+.mf+
files to this directory.
\item
Copy the \url+.fd+ (Font Definition)
file[s] and the \url+.sty+ (style) file
to your \url+texmf/tex/latex/mfnfss+
directory.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}

That's it. Unlike PostScript\index{PostScript}
fonts, \mf{} fonts can be used to generate the font
metric file (\url+.tfm+ files) automatically
on-the-fly the first time the typeface is used, so there
should be nothing else to install.

Now you can put a \command{usepackage} command
in your preamble with whatever name the
\verb+.sty+ file was called, and read the
documentation to see what commands it gives to use the font
(refer to the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{packinst} and step~\ref{dtxdoc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{dtxdoc}).

If the font came \emph{without}\url+.fd+ or \url+.sty+ files,
you'll need to find someone who can make them for you
(or follow the outline in \S\thinspace\ref{psfonts}, step~\ref{fdfiles} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{fdfiles}).
\subsubsection{Pre-generated metrics (optional)}

Some \mf{} fonts come with pre-generated
\url+.tfm+ files which you can install if
your system is slow at generating them itself:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item
Create a new subdirectory within
\url+texmf-local/fonts/tfm/public/+
named the same as the one you created for the
\url+.mf+ files above.
\item
Copy all the \url+.tfm+ files into
this subdirectory.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}\subsubsection{Pre-generated bitmaps (optional)}

In some rare cases, pre-generated packed bitmap fonts
(\url+.pk+ files) are also available from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} (normally your previewer
and print driver creates these automatically, but you can
use the pre-generated ones if you have a very slow
system). If you really want to install these, it's a
similar procedure to the \url+.tfm+
files:
\begin{enumerate}
\addtocounter{enumi}{\thehold}\item
Create a new subdirectory within
\url+texmf-local/fonts/pk/modeless/+
named the same as the one you created for the
\url+.mf+ and \url+.tfm+
files above.
\item
Copy all the \url+.nnnpk+ files
into this subdirectory ($nnn$ is
a number reflecting the dot-density of the bitmap). On
Microsoft systems the files may just end in
\url+.pk+ and be kept in subdirectories
named after the dot-density, e.g.
\url+dpi360+.
\item
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}).
\end{enumerate}
\setcounter{hold}{\theenumi}\subsection{Installing PostScript fonts}
\label{psfonts}
\index{fonts!PostScript}
Lots of people will tell you that
PostScript\index{PostScript} fonts and PostScript
output are dead and that TrueType or OpenType fonts and PDF
output are the way to go. While this is true for many cases,
standard \LaTeX{} does not work with TrueType fonts and does
not produce PDF\index{PDF@PDF} directly. Only
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} does that, and there are
still many printers whose typesetters and platemakers use
PostScript\index{PostScript} rather than PDF\index{PDF@PDF}. In addition, operating system
support for scalable fonts is still very poor on Unix
systems (including Linux), despite the advances in recent
years, so in many cases it still makes sense to use
\TeX{}'s built-in support for PostScript.

Two files are needed for each font: the
\url+.afm+Adobe Font
Metric (AFM)\index{AFM@AFM|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!AFM@AFM|textbf} and the \url+.pfb+PostScript Font Binary (PFB)\index{PFB@PFB|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PFB@PFB|textbf} files.
\emph{You must have both for each font before you
start.} If you only have the near-obsolete
\url+.pfa+PostScript Font
ASCII (PFA)\index{PFA@PFA|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PFA@PFA|textbf} files, it may be possible to generate the
\url+.pfb+ files using the
\product{t1binary} program from the
\product{t1utils} suite (see \url+http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/packages/t1utils.htm+)
or the excellent \product{PFAedit} font
editor (from \url+http://pfaedit.sourceforge.net+). There are
unfortunately still some companies distributing Type�1
fonts in \url+.pfa+ format (Mathematica is
one reported recently).
\begin{warning}

The installation method I described in earlier
editions has worked perfectly for me for years, but I have
updated it here to use the facilities of the
\product{updmap} program (which comes
with your \TeX{} installation). This removes the need for
one of the steps I gave before, which required editing the
\url+psfonts.map+ file, as this is now
recreated by \product{updmap}. The
procedure below is \emph{not} the official
way (that's \product{fontinst}), but
it is the basis for a script I am working on called
\product{Gutta-Percha}\footnote{Yes, as in rubber.}, which automates the whole process.
\end{warning}

I'll repeat this: before you start, make sure you
have all the \url+.afm+ and
\url+.pfb+ files for the typeface you want.
In the example below, I'm going to use a single font
from an imaginary typeface called Foo, so I have
\verb+foo.afm+ and
\verb+foo.pfb+ files.
\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Put the files in your temporary directory}\\
This is \url+/tmp+ on Linux, and
should be \url+C:\tmp+ or
\url+C:\temp+ or even
\url+C:\Windows\temp+ on Microsoft
Windows.
\item \textbf{Decide on the short font name to use
inside \LaTeX{}.}\\
This is \emph{not} the full
descriptive name (e.g.�Baskerville Italic Bold
Extended) but an encoded font name in the format
\verb+fnnsseec+, devised by \person{Karl Berry}, which stores the same information in no
more than eight characters for compatibility with
systems which cannot handle long filenames. The letters
in the format above have the following meanings (see the
\product{fontname} documentation on
your computer for more details):
\begingroup\small \par\medskip\moveleft\itemindent\vbox{\begin{tabular}{@{}lll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Letter}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Examples}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\verb+f+&foundry&\verb+b+=Bitstream,
\verb+m+=Monotype,
\verb+p+=Adobe\\
\verb+nn+&typeface&\verb+ba+=Baskerville,
\verb+tm+=Times,
\verb+pl+=Palatino\\
\verb+ss+&series/shape&\verb+r+=roman,
\verb+bi+=bold italic, etc.\\
\verb+ee+&encoding&\verb+8a+=default 8-bit ANSI,
\verb+ly+=Y\amp Y's
\TeX{}'n'ANSI\\
{\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}\verb+c+}&[small]caps&(this is a literal
`c' character, used only
if needed)\\
\end{tabular}
}\endgroup
The \url+texmf/fontname+ directory in
your installation of \LaTeX{} has files for several
foundries giving fully-formed names like these for
common fonts (e.g. \verb+ptmr8a+ is [Adobe]
\uline{\textbf{P}}ost\-Script
\uline{\textbf{T}}i\uline{\textbf{m}}es
\uline{\textbf{R}}oman in an
\uline{\textbf{8}}\ndash{}bit \uline{\textbf{A}}NSI
encoding;
\verb+bgslly+ is \uline{\textbf{B}}itstream
\uline{\textbf{G}}ill \uline{\textbf{S}}ans
\uline{\textbf{L}}ight in Y\amp Y's
\TeX{}'n'ANSI encoding
[\uline{\textbf{LY}}1]).\footnote{Confusingly, Bitstream fonts (and others from
similar sources) mostly have different names from
the original fonts, so what they call Humanist 521
is actually Gill Sans. Until recently, US law only
allowed the \emph{names} of typefaces
to be copyrighted, not the font designs themselves,
leading to widespread piracy.} Read the documentation in \titlecite{fontname} to find out how to make up
your own short names if the foundry and font you want is
not shown in the \url+fontname+
directory.

In this example we'll call our mythical example
typeface `zork' (standing for
\uline{\textbf{Z}}fonts \uline{\textbf{Or}}dinary
Boo\uline{\textbf{k}}face, because
\verb+k+ is the letter used for Book
fonts, \verb+b+ being already the code
for bold) and we'll assume the font comes in the two
files \url+foo.afm+ and
\url+foo.pfb+ that I mentioned
above.

While the \product{fontname}
directories have ready-made lists of these names for
popular collections of typefaces, making them up
requires some knowledge of typographic terms and a
careful reading of the
\product{fontname}
documentation.
\item \textbf{Decide on your encoding}\\
This is what tripped me up the first few times until
someone pointed me at Y\amp Y's\footnote{Sadly, Y\amp Y, Inc has ceased trading and
their \TeX{} distribution is not longer available,
although there is email support at \url+http://lists.ucc.ie/lists/archives/yandytex.html+,
and their encoding files continue to be used.}\TeX{}'n'ANSI encoding which (to me) seems to
be the only one that includes the glyphs I want where I
want them.\footnote{The only one I still have problems with is
`�', which for some weird
reason isn't catered for in this encoding.}\index{fonts!encoding} Your mileage may vary. This encoding is
referred to as \verb+LY1+ within \LaTeX{} and
the encoding file is in
\url+texmf/dvips/base/texnansi.enc+.
Encoding is needed because Adobe fonts store their
characters in different places to the \TeX{}
standard.

Copy this encoding file to the temporary directory
where you're doing all this stuff. If you're
using the 8a or 8r encoding (or some other encoding),
then copy that file instead
(\url+8a.enc+,
\url+8r.enc+).
\item \textbf{Convert \url+.afm+ files to
\url+.tfm+}\\\label{idfile}%
The \product{afm2tfm} program is a
standard utility in the \url+bin+
directory of your \TeX{} installation. If it's not,
update your installation.

In a command window, type:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -v zorkly.vpl -p texnansi.enc \
rzorkly.tfm >zork.id
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

(Here and elsewhere I have sometimes had to break
the line to fit it on the printed page. It's actually
all typed as one long line if you omit the
backslash.)

This creates a special `raw'\TeX{} Font Metric file (hence the special
\verb+r+ prefix) that \LaTeX{} can use, with
a list of all its properties encoded with LY1 (the
\url+.vpl+ or Virtual Property List
file). Many people will tell you that virtual fonts are
dead and that this is the wrong way to do it, but no-one
has ever shown me an alternative that works, so I stick
with it.
\item \textbf{Small caps (optional)}\\\label{sc}%
If you want a small caps variant faked up (perhaps
because the typeface family doesn't have a special
small-caps font), repeat the medicine like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
afm2tfm foo.afm -V zorklyc.vpl -p texnansi.enc \
rzorkly.tfm >>zork.id
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Note the capital \verb+V+ option here.
Yes, it \emph{does} overwrite the
\url+rzorkly.tfm+ created in the first
command. Let it. And those are \emph{two}
of the `greater-than' signs
before the \url+zork.id+ filename because
we want to append to it, not overwrite it.
\item \textbf{Create the virtual font}\\
Turn the \url+.vpl+ files into
\url+.vf+ and \url+.tfm+
pairs. \LaTeX{} uses these to convert from Adobe's
encoding to its own.
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
vptovf zorkly.vpl zorkly.vf zorkly.tfm
vptovf zorklyc.vpl zorklyc.vf zorklyc.tfm
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Again, the \url+vptovf+ program is a
standard part of your \TeX{} distribution.
\item \textbf{Make directories to hold the files}\\\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Making subdirectories to hold the files}
\label{mksubdir}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{fonts}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Under your \url+texmf-local+
directory there should be a \url+fonts+
directory, and in there there should be
\url+afm+, \url+tfm+,
\url+type1+, and \url+vf+
directories. Create them if they do not already
exist.

In each of these four, create a directory for the
foundry, and within them create a directory for the
typeface (using a human-readable typeface name, not the
short \person{Karl Berry} fontname). In our example, this
means:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cd /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts
mkdir -p afm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p tfm/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p type1/zfonts/ordinary
mkdir -p vf/zfonts/ordinary
cd /tmp
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Or if you're lazy like me:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
(cd /usr/TeX/texmf-local/fonts;\
for d in afm tfm type1 vf;\
do mkdir -p $d/zfonts/ordinary;done)
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

For Microsoft Windows users, the path before
\url+texmf-local+ may look something like
\verb+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\+, depending
on how and where you have installed your \TeX{}
system.

The \verb+-p+ is a Unix feature: it
automatically creates any missing intervening
subdirectories. If your directory-making command
doesn't do this, you'll have to make the
intervening directories by hand first.
\item \textbf{Copy the files to their rightful places}\\
Copy the four groups of files to the four new
directories:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
cp *.afm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/afm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.tfm /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/tfm/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.pfb /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/type1/zfonts/ordinary/
cp *.vf /usr/TeX/texmf/fonts/vf/zfonts/ordinary/
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can of course do all this with a directory
window and mouse if you find it easier.
\item \textbf{Create a font map}\\
The font map is what tells
\product{dvips} which PFB\index{PFB@PFB} file to use for which font. The
configuration file for \product{dvips}
is \url+texmf/dvips/config/config.ps+ and
it gets its entries from the program
\product{updmap} which reads map files
for each typeface. The configuration file for
\product{updmap} is
\url+texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+\footnote{There is another one of these at
\url+texmf/web2c/updmap.cfg+, but
that contains the map references for the fonts which
came with your distribution of \TeX{}, so you should
not interfere with it.}, so it needs an entry for our new font,
using the three-letter font family abbreviation (the
first three letters of the Berry fontname (here
`\verb+zor+'):
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
Map zor.map
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

We also have to create this map file
(\url+zor.map+) in a subdirectory of
\url+texmf-local/dvips/config/+ named
after the foundry, so we need to create
\url+texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts+ as
well.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Open
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-var/web2c/updmap.cfg+
in your editor.
\item
At the bottom, add the line:
\verb`Map zor.map`
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

The font entries in our
\verb+zor.map+ will be on a
\emph{single} line each, with no
line-wrapping. Each entry gives the short name of the
font, the long (Adobe) name, the
PostScript\index{PostScript} encoding parameters
(in quotes), and then two filenames prefixed by input
redirects (less-than signs): the encoding file and the
PostScript\index{PostScript} outline file.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
First create the directory if it doesn't already
exist:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
mkdir -p /usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Use your editor to open (create) the file
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local/dvips/config/zfonts/zor.map+.
\item \label{fullname}%
Insert the line:
\begin{shiftedsourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
rzorkly Ordinary-Blackface "TeXnANSIEncoding ReEncodeFont" <texnansi.enc <foo.pfb
\end{Verbatim}
\end{shiftedsourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

You get the full font name (here,
`Ordinary-Blackface') from the
\verb+zork.id+ which was created back in
step~\ref{idfile} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{idfile} when we ran
\product{afm2tfm}. You must get this
exactly right, because it's the
`official' full name of the font,
and PostScript\index{PostScript} files using this
font need to match it.
\item \textbf{Create a style file}\\
\LaTeX{} needs a style file to implement the
interface to the font. Call it after the typeface or
something related; in this example we'll call it
\url+foozork.sty+. In it go some details
of the name and date we did this, what version of
\LaTeX{} it needs, and any other command necessary to
operate the font, like the font encoding and whether it
is to supersede the current default Roman font.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Use your editor to open (create)
\url+foozork.sty+ in your
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss+
directory.
\item
Insert the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
% foozork - created from foo for Zork
\def\fileversion{1.0}
\def\filedate{2002/12/03}
\def\docdate{2002/12/03}
\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesPackage{foozork}
[\filedate\space\fileversion\space
Zfonts Ordinary PSNFSS2e package]
\RequirePackage[LY1]{fontenc}
\renewcommand{\rmdefault}{zor}
\endinput
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Note the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The first argument to
\command{ProvidesPackage}�
\emph{must} be the same as this
style file name; and that the font family is
referred to as \verb+zor+, being the
foundry letter plus the fontname abbreviation.
This acts as a prefix for any/all font variants
(bold, italic, etc.).

\item
If you are not using Y\amp Y encoding,
omit the line referring to LY1 font
encoding.

\item
If this is a typewriter font, make the
renewed command \command{rmdefault}
into \command{ttdefault}.

\item
If it's a sans-serif font, make it
\command{sfdefault} instead.

\item
Omit the command completely if you
don't want the style file to supersede the
current defaults but simply to make the font
available. If you do this, you probably want to
write a new command or two to use it, typically
one for grouped use and one for argument
use:

\end{itemize}
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\newcommand{\zorkfamily}{\fontencoding{LY1}%
\fontfamily{zor}\selectfont}
\newcommand{\textzork}[1]{{\zorkfamily#1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Create the Font Definition file}\\\label{fdfiles}%
The last file to create is the \textbf{\textit{font definition}}\label{fontdef}\index{font definition@\textbf{\textit{font definition}}}
(\url+.fd+) file. This is named
following the pattern \verb+eeefnn.fd+,
using the same conventions as before, by prepending the
(lowercase) encoding abbreviation to the foundry letter
and fontname abbreviation, so our example would be
\verb+ly1zor.fd+ for the LY1 encoding and
the \verb+zor+ short font name.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Use your editor to open (create)
\url+texmf-local/tex/latex/psnfss/ly1zor.fd+
\item
Enter the following lines:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\ProvidesFile{ly1zor.fd}[2002/03/03 v0.1 manual
font definitions for LY1/zor.]

\DeclareFontFamily{LY1}{zor}{}

\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{n}{<-> zorkly}{}
\DeclareFontShape{LY1}{zor}{k}{sc}{<-> zorklyc}{}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item
Save and close the file.
\end{enumerate}

FD files typically use one
\command{DeclareFontFamily} command which
specifies the encoding and the short font name. Then as
many pairs of \command{DeclareFontShape}
commands as you converted fonts (assuming you did both
normal and small caps for each font: see
step~\ref{sc} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{sc}; if you didn't, then only one
such command per font is needed here). The arguments to
the \command{DeclareFontShape} command to watch
are the 3rd (weight/width), 4th (shape), and 5th (font
outline name): the rest are static for each
\url+.fd+ file and simply identify the
encoding and the font family.

The codes to use are given on
pages�414\ndash{}15 of the \titlecite{companion} and should also be in
your copies of
\url+texmf/fontnames/weight.map+ and
\url+texmf/fontnames/width.map+. The
rules for combining weight and width need care: RTFM\index{RTFM@RTFM} for
\package{fontname}. There is no
\url+shape.map+ in
\package{fontname} because it's not
part of font file names, it's purely a \LaTeX{}
creation, so here's what the same book says:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Character}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
\verb+n+&normal (upright)\\
\verb+it+&italic\\
\verb+sl+&slanted\\
\verb+sc+&small caps\\
\verb+ui+&upright italic\\
\verb+ol+&outline\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
Add your own for other oddities, but be consistent:
I use \verb+cu+ for cursive (scripts), for
example, and \verb+k+ for blackletter faces
(not to be confused with \verb+k+ as a
\emph{width} for
`book').

The default fontspec
\verb+<->+ in the 5th argument
in the \command{DeclareFontShape} command means
that all sizes are to come from the same font outline
(remember if this was a \mf{} font with different
design sizes like CM\index{CM@CM} it would
be much more complex).

If the face has only a few variants, you can create
any other entries for bold, italic, slanted, etc. with
the relevant weight and width and shape values pointing
at the relevant outline file.

If you want one font to substitute for a missing one
(for example italics to substitute for slanted in a
typeface which has no slanted variant of its own) give
the
\verb+ssub+ (`silent
substitution') command in the fontspec:
for example to make all references to
\verb+sl+ (slanted) type use an existing
italic font, make the 5th argument like this:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> ssub * zor/m/it}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If you find the x-height of a font too big or too
small to sort well with another font you are using, you
can specify an \verb+s+
(`scale') factor in this argument
instead: this example will shrink the result to
80\% of normal:
\begin{sourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
{<-> s * [0.8] zorkly}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\item \textbf{Update the index and the map files}\\
Run your \TeX{} indexer program (see step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}) so that
\product{updmap} can find the files it
needs.

Then run \product{updmap} (just
type \verb+updmap+). This updates the
maps and runs the \TeX{} indexer program again
automatically.
\end{enumerate}

Now you can \verb+\usepackage{foozork}+ in
your \LaTeX{} file to make it the default font. To use the
font incidentally instead of as the default, you can
say:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
This is {\zorkfamily ZORK} or \textzork{ZORK}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\subsection{Installing the Type�1 Computer Modern
fonts}
\label{type1cm}

Most new distributions of \LaTeX{} use the
PostScript\index{PostScript} Type�1 versions of
the Computer Modern fonts. If your \LaTeX{} installation
uses the \mf{} (bitmap) versions of CM\index{CM@CM}, you may want to switch to the
Type�1 version, especially if you are going to be using
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}} instead of standard
\LaTeX{}, because Acrobat Reader makes such a hames of
displaying Type3 fonts. \product{GSview}
and \product{pdfview} handle them
correctly.

To do this, install one of the sets of CM\index{CM@CM} PostScript fonts. There are several
available:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The fonts from BlueSky Research at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bluesky/+

\item
\person{Basil�K. Malyshev}'s `BaKoMa'
fonts at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/cm/ps-type1/bakoma/+

\item
\person{Vladimir Volovich}'s CM-Super at \url+http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/cm-super/+

\item
\person{Bogus\l{}aw Jackowski}'s Latin Modern at \url+ftp://cam.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/ps-type1/lm.tar.gz+

\end{itemize}

The BaKoMa fonts include the American
Mathematical Society (AMS)\index{AMS@AMS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!AMS@AMS|textbf} fonts for extended
mathematics, but are more complex to install because they
come with a special set of TFM files.

The BlueSky fonts are just PFB\index{PFB@PFB}
and AFM files, and are a drop-in replacement requiring no
further changes, as they use the same TFM files as the
\mf{} version. Follow the \url+README+
file in the downloadable archive for installation
instructions.

The Latin Modern and CM-Super fonts are new and I
haven't tested them but they are well spoken of.
Feedback on this is very welcome.

The \TeX{} Live and \TeX{} Collection distributions use
Type�1 versions of Computer Modern by default. There
are more details in the FAQ at \url+http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=uselmfonts+\thinspace{}.
\chapter{Programmability (macros)}
\label{macros}
\index{macros}
We've touched several times on the ability of \LaTeX{}
to be reprogrammed. This is one of its central features, and one
that still, after nearly a quarter of a century, puts it well
above many other typesetting systems, even those with macro
systems of their own. It's also the one that needs most
foreknowledge, which is why this chapter is in this
position.

\LaTeX{} is in fact itself just a collection of
macros\mdash{}rather a big collection\mdash{}written in
\TeX{}'s internal typesetting language. These \textbf{\textit{macros}}\label{macs}\index{macros@\textbf{\textit{macros}}} are little program-like sets of
instructions with a name which can be used as shorthand for an
operation you wish to perform more than once.

Macros can be arbitrarily complex. Many of the ones used in
the standard \LaTeX{} packages are several pages long, but as we
will see, even short ones can very simply automate otherwise
tedious chores and allow the author to concentrate on
\emph{writing}.
\section{Simple replacement macros}
\label{replacement}

In its simplest form, a \LaTeX{} macro can just be a
straightforward text replacement of a phrase to avoid
misspelling something each time you need it, e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\ef}{European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working Conditions}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Put this in your preamble, and you can then use
\command{ef} in your document and it will typeset it
as the full text. Remember that after a command ending in a
letter you need to leave a space to avoid the next word
getting gobbled up as part of the command (see
the first paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{swallow}). And when you want to force a space
to be printed, use a backslash followed by a space,
e.g.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
The \ef\ is an institution of the Commission of the
European Union.
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As you can see from this example, the
\command{newcommand} command takes two arguments:
\begin{inparaenum}[\itshape a\upshape)] \item the name you want to give the new command; and \item the expansion to be performed when you use it\end{inparaenum}, so there are always two sets of curly braces
after \command{newcommand}.
\section{Macros using information gathered previously}
\label{macinf}

A more complex example is the macro
\command{maketitle} which is used in almost every
formal document to format the title block. In the basic
document classes (book, report, and article) it performs small
variations on the layout of a centred block with the title
followed by the author followed by the date, as we saw in
\S\thinspace\ref{titling}.

If you inspect one of these document class files, such as
\url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+ you will
see \command{maketitle} defined (and several variants
called \command{@maketitle} for use in different
circumstances). It uses the values for the title, author, and
date which are assumed already to have been stored in the
internal macros \command{@title},
\command{@author}, and \command{@date} by
the author using the matching \command{title},
\command{author}, and \command{date}
commands in the document.

This use of one command to store the information in
another is a common way of gathering the information from the
user. The use of macros containing the
\verb+@+ character prevents their accidental
misuse by the user: in fact to use them in your preamble we
have to allow the \verb+@+ sign to become a
`letter' so it can be recognised in a
command name, and remember to turn it off again afterwards
(see item~\ref{makeat} below).
\begin{sourcecode}\label{newtitle}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\maketitle}{%
\begin{flushleft}%
\sffamily
{\Large\bfseries\color{red}\@title\par}%
\medskip
{\large\color{blue}\@author\par}%
\medskip
{\itshape\color{green}\@date\par}%
\bigskip\hrule\vspace*{2pc}%
\end{flushleft}%
}
\makeatother
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Insert this in the sample file on p.\thinspace\pageref{oldtitle} immediately before the
\verb+\begin{document}+ and remove the
\verb+\color{...}+ commands from the title,
author, and date. Re-run the file through \LaTeX{}, and you
should get something like this:
\begin{center}
\setlength{\fboxsep}{1cm}\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{newtitle}
\end{center}

In this redefinition of \command{maketitle},
we've done the following:
\begin{enumerate}\item\label{makeat}
Enclosed the changes in
\command{makeatletter} and
\command{makeatother} to allow us to use the
\verb+@+ sign in command names;\footnote{If you move all this preamble into a style file of
your own, you don't need these commands: the use
of \url+@+ signs in command names is
allowed in style and class files.}

\item
Used \command{renewcommand} and put
\command{maketitle} in curly braces after
it;

\item
Opened a pair of curly braces to hold the new
definition. The closing curly brace is immediately before
the \command{makeatother};

\item
Inserted a \env{flushleft} environment
so the whole title block is left-aligned;

\item
Used \command{sffamily} so the whole title
block is in the defined sans-serif typeface;

\item
For each of \command{@title},
\command{@author}, and \command{@date},
we have used some font variation and colour, and enclosed
each one in curly braces to restrict the changes just to
each command. The closing \command{par} makes
sure that multiline title and authors and dates get
typeset with the relevant line-spacing;

\item
Added some flexible space between the lines, and
around the \command{hrule} (horizontal rule) at
the end;

\end{enumerate}

Note the \verb+%+ signs after any line ending
in a curly brace, to make sure no intrusive white-space find
its way into the output. These aren't needed after simple
commands where there is no curly brace because excess
white-space gets gobbled up there anyway.
\section{Macros with arguments}
\label{macargs}

But macros are not limited to text expansion. They can
take arguments of their own, so you can define a command to do
something with specific text you give it. This makes them much
more powerful and generic, as you can write a macro to do
something a certain way, and then use it hundreds of times
with a different value each time.

We looked earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{emph}) at making new
commands to put specific classes of words into certain fonts,
such as product names into italics, keywords into bold, and so
on. Here's an example for a command
\command{product}, which also indexes the product
name and adds a trademark sign:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{%
\textit{#1}\texttrademark%
\index{#1@\textit{#1}}%
}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

If I now type \verb+\tmproduct{Velcro}+ then I
get \product{Velcro}\texttrademark{} typeset, and if
you look in the index, you'll find this page referenced
under `{\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}Velcro}'. Let's
examine what this does:
\begin{enumerate}\item
The macro is specified as having one argument
(that's the \verb+[1]+ in the
definition). This will
be the product name you type in curly braces when you use
\command{product}. Macros can have up to nine
arguments.

\item
The expansion of the macro is contained in the second
set of curly braces, spread over several lines (see item~\ref{macrolines} for why).

\item
It prints the value of the first argument (that's
the \verb+#1+) in italics, which is
conventional for product names, and adds the
\command{texttrademark} command.

\item
Finally, it creates an index entry using the same
value (\verb+#1+), making sure that it's
italicised in the index (see the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{indextypo} in \S\thinspace\ref{indextypo} to remind yourself of how indexing
something in a different font works).

\item\label{macrolines}
Typing this macro over several lines makes it easier
for humans to read. I could just as easily have
typed
\begin{shiftedsourcecode}[-\leftmargin]\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
\newcommand{\product}[1]{\textit{#1}\index{#1@\textit{#1}}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{shiftedsourcecode}

but it wouldn't have been as clear what I was
doing.

One thing to notice is that to prevent unwanted spaces
creeping into the output when \LaTeX{} reads the macro, I
ended each line with a comment character
(\verb+%+). \LaTeX{} normally treats
newlines as spaces when formatting (remember item~\ref{comment}), so this stops the end of line
being turned into an unwanted space when the macro is
used. \LaTeX{} always ignores spaces at the
\emph{start} of macro lines anyway, so
indenting lines for readability is fine.

\end{enumerate}

In (\S\thinspace\ref{hyph}) we mentioned the problem
of frequent use of unbreakable text leading to poor
justification or to hyphenation problems. A solution is to
make a macro which puts the argument into an
\command{mbox} with the appropriate font change, but
precedes it all with a conditional
\command{linebreak} which will make it more
attractive to \TeX{} to start a new line.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\var}[1]{\linebreak[3]\mbox{\ttfamily#1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

This only works effectively if you have a reasonably wide
setting and paragraphs long enough for the differences in
spacing elsewhere to get hidden. If you have to do this in
narrow journal columns, you may have to adjust wording and
spacing by hand occasionally.
\section{Nested macros}
\label{macnest}

Here's a slightly more complex example, where one
macro calls another. It's common in normal text to refer
to people by their forename and surname (in that order), for
example \person{Don Knuth}, but to have them indexed as \emph{surname,
forename}. This pair of macros,
\command{person} and \command{reindex},
automates that process to minimize typing and indexing.
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\newcommand{\person}[1]{#1\reindex #1\sentinel}
\def\reindex #1 #2\sentinel{\index{#2, #1}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{enumerate}\item
The digit 1 in square brackets means that
\command{person} has one argument, so you put the
whole name in a single set of curly braces, e.g.
\verb+\person{Don Knuth}+.

\item
The first thing the macro does is output
\verb+#1+, which is the value of what you typed,
just as it stands, so the whole name gets typeset exactly
as you typed it.

\item
But then it uses a special feature of Plain \TeX{}
macros (which use \command{def} instead of
\LaTeX{}'s \command{newcommand}\footnote{Don't try this at home alone, children! This
one is safe enough, but you should strictly avoid
\command{def} for a couple of years. Stick to
\command{newcommand} for now.}): they too can have multiple arguments but you
can separate them with other characters (here a space) to
form a pattern which \TeX{} will recognise when reading the
arguments.

In this example (\command{reindex}) it's
expecting to see a string of characters
(\verb+#1+) followed by a space, followed by
another string of characters (\verb+#2+)
followed by a dummy command (\command{sentinel}).
In effect this makes it a device for splitting a name into
two halves on the space between them, so the two halves
can be handled separately. The \command{reindex}
command can now read the two halves of the name
separately.

\item
The \command{person} command invokes
\command{reindex} and follows it with the name
you typed plus the dummy command
\command{sentinel} (which is just there to signal
the end of the name). Because \command{reindex}
is expecting two arguments separated by a space and
terminated by a \command{sentinel}, it sees
`\verb+Don+ and
\verb+Knuth+' as two separate
arguments.

It can therefore output them using
\command{index} in reverse order, which is
exactly what we want.

\end{enumerate}

A book or report with a large number of personal names to
print and index could make significant use of this to allow
them to be typed as
\verb+\person{Leslie Lamport}+ and printed as
\person{Leslie Lamport}, but have them indexed as
`Lamport,�Leslie' with virtually no effort
on the author's part at all.
\begin{exercise}
\addcontentsline{loe}{section}{\numberline{20}Other names}
\subsubsection*{Other names}
Try to work out how to make this
\command{person} feature work with names
like:
\begin{itemize*}
\item Blanca Maria Bartosova de Paul
\item Patricia Maria Soria de Miguel
\item Arnaud de la Vill�sbrunne
\item Prince
\item Pope John Paul II
\end{itemize*}

Hints: the command \command{space} produces a
normal space, and one way around \LaTeX{}'s requirements
on spaces after command names ending with a letter is to
follow such commands with an empty set of curly braces
\verb+{}+.
\end{exercise}
\section{Macros and environments}
\label{macenv}

As mentioned in \S\thinspace\ref{fancybox}, it is possible
to define macros to capture text in an environment and reuse
it afterwards. This avoids any features of the subsequent use
affecting the formatting of the text.

One example of this uses the facilities of the
\package{fancybox} package, which defines a
variety of framed boxes to highlight your text, and a special
environment \env{Sbox} which
`captures' your text for use in these
boxes.
\begin{example}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\begin{Sbox}
\begin{minipage}{3in}
This text is formatted to the specifications
of the minipage environment in which it
occurs.

Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox
until it is needed, which is after the end
of the minipage, where you can (for example)
align it and put it in a special framed box.
\end{minipage}
\end{Sbox}
\begin{flushright}
\shadowbox{\theSbox}
\end{flushright}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}\vspace*{-\baselineskip}\begin{quote}\fontencoding{T1}\fontfamily{cmr}\selectfont\def\sfdefault{cmss}\def\bfdefault{bf}\noindent
\begin{sidebar}
This text is formatted to the specifications of the
minipage environment in which it occurs.

Having been typeset, it is held in the Sbox until it
is needed, which is after the end of the minipage, where
you can (for example) centre it and put it in a special
framed box.
\end{sidebar}\end{quote}\end{example}

By putting the text (here in a
\env{minipage} environment because we want to
change the width) inside the \env{Sbox}
environment, it is typeset into memory and stored in the macro
\command{theSbox}. It can then be used afterwards as
the argument of the \command{shadowbox} command (and
in this example it has also been centred).
\section{Reprogramming \LaTeX{}'s internals}
\label{reprog}

\LaTeX{}'s internal macros can also be reprogrammed or
even rewritten entirely, although doing this can require a
considerable degree of expertise. Simple changes, however, are
easily done.

Recall that \LaTeX{}'s default document structure for
the Report document class uses Chapters as the main unit of
text, whereas in reality most reports are divided into
Sections, not Chapters (\S\thinspace\ref{repchap}). The result
of this is that if you start off your report with
\verb+\section{Introduction}+, it will print
as

{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}0.1\quad Introduction\emstrut}

\noindent which is not at all what you want. The zero is
caused by it not being part of any chapter. But this numbering
is controlled by macros, and you can redefine them. In this
case it's a macro called \verb+\thesection+
which reproduces the current section number counter (see the last paragraph of \S\thinspace\ref{thecounter}). It's redefined afresh in each
document class file, using the command
\command{renewcommand} (in this case in
\url+texmf/tex/latex/base/report.cls+):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand \thesection
{\thechapter.\@arabic\c@section}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

You can see it invokes \command{thechapter}
(which is defined elsewhere to reproduce the value of the
\counter{chapter} counter), and it
then prints a dot, followed by the Arabic value of the counter
called \counter{section} (that
\verb+\c@+ notation is \LaTeX{}'s internal way
of referring to counters). You can redefine this in your
preamble to simply leave out the reference to chapters:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\renewcommand{\thesection}{\arabic{section}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

I've used the more formal method of enclosing the
command being redefined in curly braces. For largely
irrelevant historical reasons these braces are often omitted
in \LaTeX{}'s internal code (as you may have noticed in
the example earlier). And I've also used the
`public' macro
\command{arabic} to output the value of \counter{section} (\LaTeX{}'s internals
use a `private' set of control
sequences containing \verb+@+-signs, designed to
protect
them against being changed accidentally).

Now the introduction to your report will start
with:

{\Large{}\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}1\quad Introduction\emstrut}

What's important is that you \emph{don't
ever} need to alter the original document class
file \url+report.cls+: you just copy the
command you need to change into your own document preamble,
and modify that instead. It will then override the
default.
\subsection{Changing list item bullets}
\label{bullets}

As mentioned earlier (\S\thinspace\ref{labelitem}),
here's how to redefine a bullet for an itemized list,
with a slight tweak:
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
\usepackage{bbding}
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{%
\raisebox{-.25ex}{\PencilRight}}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

Here we use the \package{bbding} package
which has a large selection of
`dingbats' or little icons, and we
make the label for top-level itemized lists print a
right-pointing pencil (the names for the icons are in the
package documentation: see \S\thinspace\ref{packagedoc} for
how to get it).

In this case, we are using the
\command{raisebox} command within the redefinition
because it turns out that the symbols in this font are
positioned slightly too high for the typeface we're
using. The \command{raisebox} command takes two
arguments: the first is a dimension, how much to raise the
object by (and a negative value means
`lower': there is no need for a
\verb+\lowerbox+ command); and the second is
the text you want to affect. Here, we are shifting the
symbol down by �ex (see \S\thinspace\ref{dimensions}
for a
list of dimensions \LaTeX{} can use).

There is a vast number of symbols available: see
\titlecite{symbol-list} for a
comprehensive list.
\chapter{Compatibility with other systems}
\label{compat}

As we saw in \chaptername~\ref{plaintext}, \LaTeX{} uses
plain-text files, so they can be read and written by any
standard application that can open text files. This helps
preserve your information over time, as the plain-text format
cannot be obsoleted or hijacked by any manufacturer or sectoral
interest, and it will always be readable on any computer, from
your handheld (yes, \LaTeX{} is available for some PDA\index{PDA@PDA}s, see Figure~\ref{zaurus}) to the
biggest supercomputer.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small \LaTeX{} editing and processing on the Sharp Zaurus 5500
PDA}
\label{zaurus}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{zedit}\quad\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{zlatex}\quad\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{qpdf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

However, \LaTeX{} is intended as the last stage of the
editorial process: formatting for print or display. If you have
a requirement to re-use the text in some other
environment\mdash{}a database perhaps, or on the Web or a
CD-ROM\index{CD-ROM@CD-ROM} or DVD\index{DVD@DVD}, or in Braille or voice output\mdash{}then
it should probably be edited, stored, and maintained in
something neutral like the Extensible Markup
Language (XML)\index{XML@XML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XML@XML|textbf}, and only converted to \LaTeX{} when a
typeset copy is needed.

Although \LaTeX{} has many structured-document features in
common with SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and XML\index{XML@XML}, it can still only be processed by the
\LaTeX{} and \product{pdf\LaTeX{}} programs.
Because its macro features make it almost infinitely
redefinable, processing it requires a program which can unravel
arbitrarily complex macros, and \LaTeX{} and its siblings are
the only programs which can do that effectively. Like other
typesetters and formatters (Quark
\product{XPress},
\product{PageMaker},
\product{FrameMaker}, Microsoft
\product{Publisher}, \product[3]{3B2} etc.), \LaTeX{} is largely a
one-way street leading to typeset printing or display
formatting.

Converting \LaTeX{} to some other format therefore means you
will unavoidably lose some formatting, as \LaTeX{} has features
that others systems simply don't possess, so they cannot be
translated\mdash{}although there are several ways to minimise
this loss. Similarly, converting other formats into \LaTeX{}
often means editing back the stuff the other formats omit
because they only store appearances, not structure.

However, there are at least two excellent systems for
converting \LaTeX{} directly to HyperText
Markup Language (HTML)\index{HTML@HTML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!HTML@HTML|textbf} so you can publish it on the web, as
we shall see in \S\thinspace\ref{latexto}.
\section{Converting into \LaTeX{}}
\label{tolatex}

There are several systems which will save their text in
\LaTeX{} format. The best known is probably the \LyX{} editor
(see Figure~\ref{lyxwin}), which is a wordprocessor-like
interface to \LaTeX{} for Windows and Unix. Both the
\product{AbiWord} and
\product{Kword} wordprocessors on Linux
systems have a very good \textbf{Save
As}\dots \LaTeX{} output, so they can be used to
open Microsoft \product{Word} documents and
convert to
\LaTeX{}. Several maths packages like the
\product{EuroMath} editor, and the
\product{Mathematica} and
\product{Maple} analysis packages, can also
save material in \LaTeX{} format.

In general, most other wordprocessors and DTP systems
either don't have the level of internal markup
sophistication needed to create a \LaTeX{} file, or they lack
a suitable filter to enable them to output what they do have.
Often they are incapable of outputting any kind of structured
document, because they only store what the text looks like,
not why it's there or what role it fulfills. There are
two ways out of this:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Use the \menuitem{File}{Save
As\dots } menu item to save the
wordprocessor file as HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
rationalise the HTML\index{HTML@HTML} using
\person{Dave Raggett}'s \product{HTML
Tidy}\footnote{\url+http://tidy.sourceforge.net/+}, and convert the resulting
Extensible HyperText Markup
Language (XHTML)\index{XHTML@XHTML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XHTML@XHTML|textbf} to \LaTeX{} with any of the standard
XML\index{XML@XML} tools (see below).

\item
Use a specialist conversion tool like EBT's
\product{DynaTag} (supposedly available
from Enigma, if you can persuade them they have a copy to
sell you; or you may still be able to get it from Red Bridge
Interactive\footnote{\url+http://www.rbii.com/+} in Providence, RI). It's
expensive and they don't advertise it, but for bulk
conversion of consistently-marked
\product{Word} files into XML it beats
everything else hands down. The
\product{Word} files
\emph{must} be consistent, though, and must
use named styles from a stylesheet, otherwise no system on
earth is going to be able to guess what it means.

\end{itemize}

There is of course a third way, suitable for large volumes
only: send it off to the Pacific Rim to be retyped into XML or
\LaTeX{}. There are hundreds of companies from India to
Polynesia who do this at high speed and low cost with very
high accuracy. It sounds crazy when the document is already in
electronic form, but it's a good example of the problem
of low quality of wordprocessor markup that this solution
exists at all.

You will have noticed that most of the solutions lead to
one place: SGML\index{SGML@SGML}\footnote{The Standard Generalized Markup
Language (SGML)\index{SGML@SGML|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\string\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!SGML@SGML|textbf} itself is little used now for new
projects, as the software support for its daughter
XML\index{XML@XML} is far greater, but there
are still hundreds of large document repositories in
SGML\index{SGML@SGML} still growing their
collection by adding documents.} or XML\index{XML@XML}. As explained
above and elsewhere, these formats are the only ones devised
so far capable of storing sufficient information in
machine-processable, publicly-accessible form to enable your
document to be recreated in multiple output formats. Once
your document is in XML\index{XML@XML}, there is a
large range of software available to turn it into other
formats, including \LaTeX{}. Processors in any of the common
SGML\index{SGML@SGML}/XML\index{XML@XML}
processing languages like the Document
Style Semantics and Specification Language (DSSSL)\index{DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DSSSL@DSSSL|textbf}, the
Extensible Stylesheet Language
[Transformations] (XSLT)\index{XSLT@XSLT|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!XSLT@XSLT|textbf},
\product{Omnimark},
\product{Metamorphosis},
\product{Balise}, etc. can easily be written
to output \LaTeX{}, and this approach is extremely
common.

Much of this will be simplified when wordprocessors
support native, arbitrary XML\index{XML@XML}/XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} as a
standard feature, because \LaTeX{} output will become much
simpler to produce.
\begin{itemize}
\item
Sun's \product{Star Office} and
its Open Source sister,
\product{OpenOffice}, have used XML as
their native file format for several years, and there is a
project at the Organisation for the
Advancement of Structured Information Systems (OASIS)\index{OASIS@OASIS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!OASIS@OASIS|textbf}
for developing a common XML\index{XML@XML}
office file format based on those used by these two
packages, which has been proposed to the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)\index{ISO@ISO|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ISO@ISO|textbf} in Geneva as a candidate for
an International Standard.

\item
\product{WordPerfect} has also had a
native SGML\index{SGML@SGML} (and now XML\index{XML@XML}) editor for many years, which will
work with any Document Type
Definition (DTD)\index{DTD@DTD|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!DTD@DTD|textbf} (but not a Schema; and at the time
of writing (2005) it still used a proprietary stylesheet
format).

\item
Microsoft has had a half-hearted `Save
As\dots XML' for a while, using an
internal and formerly largely undocumented Schema
(recently published at last). The
`Professional' versions of
\product{Word} and
\product{Excel} in
\product{Office�11} (Office 2003 for
XP) now have full support for arbitrary Schemas and a real
XML\index{XML@XML} editor, albeit with a rather
primitive interface, but there is no conversion to or from
\product{Word}'s
\url+.doc+ format.\footnote{Which is silly, given that Microsoft used to make
one of the best
\product{Word}-to-SGML\index{SGML@SGML} converters ever, which was
bi-directional (yes, it could round-trip
\product{Word} to SGML\index{SGML@SGML} and back to
\product{Word} and back into SGML\index{SGML@SGML}). But they dropped it on the
floor when XML\index{XML@XML}
arrived.}

However, help comes in the shape of \person{Ruggero Dambra}'s
\product{WordML2\LaTeX{}}, which is an
XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} stylesheet to transform an
XML\index{XML@XML} document in this internal
Schema (WordML) into \LaTeXe{} format.
Download it from any CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} server
in \url+/support/WordML2LaTeX+.

\item\label{rtf2latex2e}
Among the conversion programs on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} is \person{Ujwal Sath\-yam}'s
\product{rtf2latex2e}, which converts
Rich Text Format (RTF)\index{RTF@RTF|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!RTF@RTF|textbf} files (output
by many wordprocessors) to \LaTeXe{}. The package
description says it has support
for figures and tables, equations are read as figures, and
it can the handle the latest RTF\index{RTF@RTF}
versions from Microsoft Word 97/98/2000, StarOffice, and
other wordprocessors. It runs on Macs, Linux, other Unix
systems, and Windows.

\end{itemize}

When these efforts coalesce into generalised support for
arbitrary DTD\index{DTD@DTD}s and Schemas, it will
mean a wider choice of editing interfaces, and when they
achieve the ability to run XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT}
conversion into
\LaTeX{} from within these editors, such as is done at the
moment with \product{Emacs} or
\product{XML Spy}, we will have full
convertability.
\subsection{Getting \LaTeX{} out of XML}

Assuming you can get your document out of its
wordprocessor format into XML\index{XML@XML} by
some method, here is a very brief example of how to turn it
into \LaTeX{}.

You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged
commercial XML\index{XML@XML} editor with
XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} support, and run this
application within it. However, this is beyond the reach of
many users, so to do this unaided you just need to install
three pieces of software: \product{Java}\footnote{\url+http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html+},
\product{Saxon}\footnote{\url+http://saxon.sourceforge.net/+}
and the DocBook
4.2 DTD\footnote{\url+http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html+} (URI\index{URI@URI}s are
correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual
interface: they are run from the command-line in the same
way as is possible with \LaTeX{}.

As an example, let's take the above paragraph, as
typed or imported into \product{AbiWord}
(see
Figure~\ref{abidoc}). This is stored as a single
paragraph with highlighting on the product names (italics),
and the names are also links to their Internet sources, just
as they are in this document. This is a convenient way to
store two pieces of information in the same place.
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Sample paragraph in
\emph{AbiWord} converted to XML\index{XML@XML}}
\label{abidoc}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=1\textwidth]{abiword}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\product{AbiWord} can export in DocBook
format, which is an XML\index{XML@XML} vocabulary
for describing technical (computer)
documents\ndash{}it's what I use for this book.
\product{AbiWord} can also export \LaTeX{},
but we're going make our own
version, working from the XML\index{XML@XML}
(Brownie points for the reader who can guess why I'm
not just accepting the \LaTeX{} conversion output).

Although \product{AbiWord}'s
default is to output an XML\index{XML@XML}�\texttt{book} document
type, we'll convert it to a \LaTeX{} article document
class. Notice that \product{AbiWord} has
correctly output the expected section and title markup
empty, even though it's not used. Here's the
XML\index{XML@XML} output (I've changed the
linebreaks to keep it within the bounds of this page
size):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\tiny]
<!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.2//EN"
"http://www.oasis-open.org/docbook/xml/4.2/docbookx.dtd">
<book>





<chapter>
<title></title>
<section role="unnumbered">
<title></title>
<para>You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged commercial XML
editor with XSLT support, and run this application within it. However, this
is beyond the reach of many users, so to do this unaided you just need to
install three pieces of software: <ulink
url="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html"><emphasis>Java</emphasis></ulink>,
<ulink
url="http://saxon.sourceforge.net"><emphasis>Saxon</emphasis></ulink>, and
the <ulink url="http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html">DocBook 4.2 DTD</ulink>
(URIs are correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual
interface: they are run from the command-line in the same way as is possible
with L<superscript>A</superscript>T<subscript>E</subscript>X.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
</book>
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

The XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} language lets us
create templates for each type of element in an XML\index{XML@XML} document. In our example, there are
only three which need handling, as we did not create chapter
or section titles (DocBook requires them to be present, but
they don't have to be used).
\begin{itemize}
\item
\texttt{para}, for the
paragraph[s];

\item
\texttt{ulink}, for the URIs;

\item
\texttt{emphasis}, for the
italicisation.

\end{itemize}

I'm going to cheat over the superscripting and
subscripting of the letters in the \LaTeX{} logo, and use my
editor to replace the whole thing with the
\command{LaTeX} command. In the other three cases,
we already know how \LaTeX{} deals with these, so we can
write our templates (see Figure~\ref{xslcode}).
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} script to convert the
paragraph}
\label{xslcode}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\footnotesize]
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<xsl:stylesheet
xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"
version="1.0">
<xsl:output method="text"/>

<xsl:template match="/">
<xsl:text>\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{url}</xsl:text>
<xsl:apply-templates/>
</xsl:template>

<xsl:template match="book">
<xsl:text>\begin{document}</xsl:text>
<xsl:apply-templates/>
<xsl:text>\end{document}</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>

<xsl:template match="para">
<xsl:apply-templates/>
<xsl:text>
</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>

<xsl:template match="ulink">
<xsl:apply-templates/>
<xsl:text>\footnote{\url{</xsl:text>
<xsl:value-of select="@url"/>
<xsl:text>}}</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>

<xsl:template match="emphasis">
<xsl:text>\emph{</xsl:text>
<xsl:apply-templates/>
<xsl:text>}</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>

</xsl:stylesheet>
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

If you run this through
\product{Saxon}, which is an XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} processor, you can output a \LaTeX{}
file which you can process and view (see Figure~\ref{paraview}).
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
$ java -jar /usr/local/saxonb8-0/saxon8.jar -o para.ltx \
para.dbk para.xsl
$ latex para.ltx
This is TeX, Version 3.14159 (Web2C 7.3.7x)
(./para.ltx
LaTeX2e <2001/06/01>
Loading CZ hyphenation patterns: Pavel Sevecek, v3, 1995
Loading SK hyphenation patterns: Jana Chlebikova, 1992
Babel <v3.7h> and hyphenation patterns for english,
dumylang, nohyphenation, czech, slovak, german, ngerman,
danish, spanish, catalan, finnish, french, ukenglish, greek,
croatian, hungarian, italian, latin, mongolian, dutch,
norwegian, polish, portuguese, russian, ukrainian,
serbocroat, swedish, loaded.
(/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/base/article.cls
Document Class: article 2001/04/21 v1.4e Standard LaTeX
document class (/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/base/size10.clo))
(/usr/TeX/texmf/tex/latex/ltxmisc/url.sty) (./para.aux)
[1] (./para.aux) )
Output written on para.dvi (1 page, 1252 bytes).
Transcript written on para.log.
$ xdvi para &
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\begin{figure}\small
\caption{\small Displaying the typeset paragraph}
\label{paraview}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{para}
\end{center}
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\scriptsize]
\documentclass{article}\usepackage{url}\begin{document}

You can of course buy and install a fully-fledged commercial
XML editor with XSLT support, and run this application within it.
However, this is beyond the reach of many users, so to do this
unaided you just need to install three pieces of software:
\emph{Java}\footnote{\url{http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html}},
\emph{Saxon}\footnote{\url{http://saxon.sourceforge.net}}, and the
DocBook 4.2 DTD\footnote{\url{http://www.docbook.org/xml/4.2/index.html}}
(URIs are correct at the time of writing). None of these has a visual
interface: they are run from the command-line in the same way as is
possible with \LaTeX.

\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}
\end{figure}

Writing XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} is not hard, but
requires a little learning. The output method here is
\verb+text+, which is \LaTeX{}'s file
format (XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT} can also output
HTML\index{HTML@HTML} and other formats of
XML).
\begin{enumerate}\item
The first template matches
`\verb+/+', which is
the document root (before the \texttt{book}
start-tag). At this stage we output the text
\verb+\documentclass{article}+ and
\verb+\usepackage{url}+. The
`\verb+apply-templates+'
instructions tells the processor to carry on processing,
looking for more matches. XML\index{XML@XML}
comments get ignored, and any elements which don't
match a template simply have their contents passed
through until the next match occurs.

\item
The \texttt{book} template outputs the
\verb+\begin{document}+ and the
\verb+\end{document}+ commands, and between
them to carry on processing.

\item
The \texttt{para} template just outputs
its content, but follows it with a linebreak (using the
hexadecimal character code \verb+x000A+ (see
the ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} chart in Table~\ref{asciicodes}).

\item
The \texttt{ulink} template outputs its
content but follows it with a footnote using the
\command{url} command to output the value of
the \texttt{url} attribute.

\item
The \texttt{emphasis} template surrounds
its content with \verb+\emph{+ and
\verb+}+.

\end{enumerate}

This is a relatively trivial example, but it serves to
show that it's not hard to output \LaTeX{} from
XML\index{XML@XML}. In fact there is a set of
templates already written to produce \LaTeX{} from a DocBook
file at
\url+http://www.dpawson.co.uk/docbook/tools.html#d4e2905+
\section{Converting out of \LaTeX{}}
\label{latexto}

This is much harder to do comprehensively. As noted
earlier, the \LaTeX{} file format really requires the \LaTeX{}
program itself in order to process all the packages and
macros, because there is no telling what complexities authors
have added themselves (what a lot of this book is
about!).

Many authors and editors rely on custom-designed or
homebrew converters, often written in the standard shell
scripting languages (Unix shells, Perl, Python, Tcl, etc).
Although some of the packages presented here are also written
in the same languages, they have some advantages and
restrictions compared with private conversions:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Conversion done with the standard utilities (eg awk,
tr, sed, grep, detex, etc) can be faster for
\emph{ad hoc} translations, but it
is easier to obtain consistency and a more sophisticated
final product using
\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} or
\TeX{}4ht\mdash{}or one of the other systems
available.

\item
Embedding additional non-standard control sequences in
\LaTeX{} source code may make it harder to edit and
maintain, and will definitely make it harder to port to
another system.

\item
Both the above methods (and others) provide a fast and
reasonable reliable way to get documents authored in
\LaTeX{} onto the Web in an acceptable\mdash{}if not
optimal\mdash{}format.

\item
\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} was written to
solve the problem of getting \LaTeX{}-with-mathematics
onto the Web, in the days before MathML and math-capable
browsers.
\TeX{}4ht was written to turn \LaTeX{} documents into Web
hypertext\mdash{}mathematics or not.

\end{itemize}
\subsection{Conversion to \emph{Word}}

There are several programs on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} to do
\LaTeX{}-to-\product{Word} and similar
conversions, but they do not all handles everything \LaTeX{}
can throw at them, and some only handle a subset of the
built-in commands of default
\LaTeX{}. Two in particular, however, have a good
reputation, although I haven't used either of them (I
stay as far away from \product{Word} as
possible):
\begin{itemize}
\item
\product{latex2rtf} by \person{Wilfried Hennings}, \person{Fernando Dorner}, and \person{Andreas Granzer} translates
\LaTeX{} into RTF\index{RTF@RTF}\mdash{}the
opposite of the \product{rtf2latex2e}
mentioned in item~\ref{rtf2latex2e}the list on p.\thinspace\pageref{rtf2latex2e}. RTF\index{RTF@RTF} can be read by most
wordprocessors, and this program preserves layout and
formatting for most \LaTeX{} documents using standard
built-in commands.

\item
\person{Kirill Chikrii}'s \product[tex2word]{\TeX{}2Word} for
Microsoft Windows is a converter plug-in for
\product{Word} to let it open \TeX{}
and \LaTeX{} documents. The author's company claims
that `virtually any existing \TeX{}/\LaTeX{}
package can be supported by \product[tex2word]{\TeX{}2Word}'
because it is customisable.

\end{itemize}

One easy route into wordprocessing, however, is the
reverse of the procedures suggested in the preceding
section: convert \LaTeX{} to HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
which many wordprocessors read easily. The following
sections cover two packages for this.
\subsection{\emph{\LaTeX{}2HTML}}

As its name suggests, \LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} is a system to convert \LaTeX{}
structured documents to HTML\index{HTML@HTML}. Its
main task is to reproduce the document structure as a set of
interconnected HTML\index{HTML@HTML} files. Despite
using Perl,
\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} relies very heavily
on standard Unix facilities like the
\product{NetPBM} graphics package and the
pipe syntax. Microsoft Windows is not well suited to this
kind of composite processing, although all the required
facilities are available for download in various forms and
should in theory allow the package to run\mdash{}but reports
of problems are common.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The sectional structure is preserved, and
navigational links are generated for the standard Next,
Previous, and Up directions.

\item
Links are also used for the cross-references,
citations, footnotes, ToC, and lists of figures and
tables.

\item
Conversion is direct for common elements like lists,
quotes, paragraph-breaks, type-styles, etc, where there
is an obvious HTML\index{HTML@HTML}
equivalent.

\item
Heavily formatted objects such as math and diagrams
are converted to images.

\item
There is no support for homebrew macros.

\end{itemize}

There is, however, support for arbitrary hypertext
links, symbolic cross-references between `evolving
remote documents', conditional text, and the
inclusion of raw HTML\index{HTML@HTML}. These are
extensions to
\LaTeX{}, implemented as new commands and
environments.

\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML} outputs a
directory named after the input filename, and all the output
files are put in that directory, so the output is
self-contained and can be uploaded to a server as it
stands.
\subsection{\emph{\TeX{}4ht}}

\TeX{}4ht operates differently from
\LaTeX{}2HTML\index{HTML@HTML}: it uses the \TeX{}
program to process the file, and handles conversion in a set
of postprocessors for the common \LaTeX{} packages. It can
also output to XML\index{XML@XML}, including
Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)\index{TEI@TEI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TEI@TEI|textbf} and
DocBook, and the OpenOffice and WordXML formats, and it can
create \TeX{}info format
manuals.

By default, documents retain the single-file structure
implied by the original, but there is again a set of
additional configuration directives to make use of the
features of hypertext and navigation, and to split files for
ease of use.
\subsection{Extraction from PS and PDF}

If you have the full version of Adobe
\product{Acrobat}, you can open a PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file created by
\product{pdf\LaTeX{}}, select and copy all
the text, and paste it into \product{Word}
and some other wordprocessors, and retain some common
formatting of headings, paragraphs, and lists. Both
solutions still require the wordprocessor text to be edited
into shape, but they preserve enough of the formatting to
make it worthwhile for short documents. Otherwise, use the
\product{pdftotext} program to extract
everything from the PDF\index{PDF@PDF} file as
plain (paragraph-formatted) text.
\subsection{Last resort: strip the markup}

At worst, the \product{detex} program
on CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} will strip a \LaTeX{} file
of all markup and leave just the raw unformatted text, which
can then be re-edited. There are also programs to extract
the raw text from DVI\index{DVI@DVI} and PostScript (PS)\index{PS@PS|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!PS@PS|textbf} files.
\appendix
\chapter{Configuring \TeX{} search paths}
\label{cnf}

\TeX{} systems run on a huge variety of platforms, and are
typically made up of a large number of rather small files. Some
computer operating systems have problems with packages like
this, as their built-in methods for searching for a file when
needed are poor.

To get around this, \TeX{} uses a technique borrowed from the
Unix world, based on a simple hash index for each directory they
need to look in. This is known as the ls-R database, from the
Unix command (\verb+ls -R+) which creates it. The
program which does this for \TeX{} is actually called after this
command: \product{mktexlsr}, although it may be
renamed \product{texhash} or something else on
your system. This is the program referred to in step~\ref{texindex} in the procedure on p.\thinspace\pageref{texindex}.

However, to know where to make these indexes, and thus where
to search, \TeX{} needs to be told about them. In a standard
\TeX{} installation this information is in
\url+texmf/web2c/texmf.cnf+. The file is similar
to a Unix shell script, but the only lines of significance for
the search paths are the following (this is how they appear in
the default Unix installation, omitting the comments):
\begin{sourcecode}\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\small]
TEXMFMAIN = /usr/TeX/texmf
TEXMFLOCAL = /usr/TeX/texmf-local
HOMETEXMF = $HOME/texmf
TEXMF = {$HOMETEXMF,!!$TEXMFLOCAL,!!$TEXMFMAIN}
SYSTEXMF = $TEXMF
VARTEXFONTS = /var/lib/texmf
TEXMFDBS = $TEXMF;$VARTEXFONTS
\end{Verbatim}
\end{sourcecode}

As you can see, this defines where the main \TeX{}/\mf{}
directory is, where the local one is, and where the user's
personal (home) one is. It then defines the order in which they
are searched, and makes this the system-wide list. A temporary
directory for bitmap fonts is set up, and added to the list,
defining the places in which \product{texhash}
or \product{mktexlsr} creates its
databases.

In some installations, the local directory is set up in
\url+/usr/local/share/texmf+ or
\url+/usr/share/texmf.local+ or similar
variations, so you would substitute this name for
\url+/usr/TeX/texmf-local+. Under Microsoft
Windows, the names will be full paths such as
\url+C:\Program Files\TeXLive\texmf+. On an Apple
Mac, it might be \url+Hard
Disk:TeX:texmf+.

If you edit plain-text configuration files with anything
other than a plain-text editor (e.g.�a wordprocessor), or
if you edit them with a plain-text editor which has been set to
word-wrap long lines, make sure you turn line-wrapping
\emph{off} so that any long lines are preserved in
their correct format.
\chapter{\TeX{} Users Group membership}
\label{tugform}

The \TeX{} Users Group (TUG)\index{TUG@TUG|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!TUG@TUG|textbf} was
founded in 1980 for educational and scientific purposes: to
provide an organization for those who have an interest in
typography and font design, and are users of the \TeX{}
typesetting system invented by Donald Knuth.
TUG is run by and for its members and represents the interests
of \TeX{} users worldwide.
\subsection*{TUG membership benefits}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{TUG membership benefits}

Members of TUG help to support and promote the use of
\TeX{}, \mf{}, and related systems worldwide. All members
receive \titlecite{tugboat},
the journal of the \TeX{} Users Group, the \TeX{} Live software
distribution (a runnable \TeX{} system), and the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} software distribution (containing most
of the CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN} archive).

In addition, TUG members vote in TUG elections, and
receive discounts on annual meeting fees, store purchases, and
TUG-sponsored courses. TUG membership (less benefits) is
tax-deductible, at least in the USA. See the TUG Web site for
details.
\subsection*{Becoming a TUG member}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Becoming a TUG member}

Please see the forms and information at \url+http://www.tug.org/join.html+. You can join
online, or by filling out a paper form. The NTG (Dutch) and
UKTUG (United Kingdom) \TeX{} user groups have joint membership
agreements with TUG whereby you can receive a discount for
joining both user groups. To do this, please join via \url+http://www.ntg.nl/newmember.html+ (the NTG
membership page) or \url+http://uk.tug.org/Membership/+ (the UKTUG
page), respectively, and select the option for joint
membership.

Each year's membership entitles you to the software and
TUGboat produced for that year (even if it is produced in a
subsequent calendar year, as is currently the case with
TUGboat). You can order older issues of TUGboat and \TeX{}
memorabilia through the TUG store (\url+http://www.tug.org/store+).

The current TUG membership fee is \$65 (US) per year
for individuals and \$35 for students and seniors. Add
\$10 to the membership fee after May 31 to cover
additional shipping and processing costs. The current rate for
non-voting subscription memberships (for libraries, for
example) is \$85. The current institutional rate is
\$500, which includes up to seven individual
memberships.
\subsection*{Privacy}\addcontentsline{toc}{subsection}{Privacy}

TUG uses your personal information only to mail you
products, publications, notices, and (for voting members)
official ballots. Also, if you give explicit agreement, we may
incorporate it into a membership directory which will be made
available only to TUG members.

TUG neither sells its membership list nor provides it to
anyone outside of its own membership.
\chapter{The ASCII character set}
\label{asciicharset}

The American Standard Code for Information Interchange was
invented in 1963, and after some redevelopment settled down in
1984 as standard X3.4 of American National
Standards Institute (ANSI)\index{ANSI@ANSI|textbf}\index{Acronyms@\textbf{Acronyms}, defined!ANSI@ANSI|textbf}. It represents the 95 basic
codes for the unaccented printable characters and punctuation of
the Latin alphabet, plus 33 internal `control
characters' originally intended for the control of
computers, programs, and external devices like printers and
screens.

Many other character sets (strictly speaking,
`character repertoires') have been standardised for
accented Latin characters and for all other non-Latin writing
systems, but these are intended for representing the symbols
people use when writing text on computers. Most programs and
computers use ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII} internally for all
their coding, the exceptions being XML\index{XML@XML}-based languages like XSLT\index{XSLT@XSLT}, which are inherently designed to be
usable with any writing system, and a few specialist systems
like APL.

Although the \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} file formats can easily be
used with many other encoding systems (see the discussion of the
\package{inputenc} in \S\thinspace\ref{accents}), they are based on ASCII\index{ASCII@ASCII}. It is therefore important to know
where to find \emph{all} 95 of the printable
characters, as some of them are not often used in other
text-formatting systems. The following table shows all 128
characters, with their decimal, octal (base-8), and hexadecimal
(base-16) code numbers.
\begin{table}\small \caption{\small The ASCII characters}
\label{asciicodes}
\begin{center}
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{1mm}
\begin{tabular}{@{}>{$}r<{$\enspace}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\ttfamily}>{\pbs{\centering}}p{1cm}>{\enspace$}l<{$}@{}}
\mbox{\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Oct}}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 0}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 1}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 2}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 3}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 4}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 5}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 6}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape 7}&\mbox{\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Hex}}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
'00\UParrow&NUL&SOH&STX&ETX&EOT&ENQ&ACK&BEL&''0\UParrow\\[1mm]
'01\UParrow&BS&HT&LF&VT&FF&CR&SO&SI&''0\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'02\UParrow&DLE&DC1&DC2&DC3&DC4&NAK&SYN&ETB&''1\UParrow\\[1mm]
'03\UParrow&CAN&EM&SUB&ESC&FS&GS&RS&US&''1\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'04\UParrow&&!&"&\#&\$&\%&\amp &'&''2\UParrow\\[1mm]
'05\UParrow&(&)&*&+&,&-&.&/&''2\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'06\UParrow&0&1&2&3&4&5&6&7&''3\UParrow\\[1mm]
'07\UParrow&8&9&:&;&$<$&=&$>$&?&''3\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'10\UParrow&@&A&B&C&D&E&F&G&''4\UParrow\\[1mm]
'11\UParrow&H&I&J&K&L&M&N&O&''4\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'12\UParrow&P&Q&R&S&T&U&V&W&''5\UParrow\\[1mm]
'13\UParrow&X&Y&Z&[&$\backslash$&]&{\char'136}&{\ttfamily\char'137}&''5\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'14\UParrow&\`{}&a&b&c&d&e&f&g&''6\UParrow\\[1mm]
'15\UParrow&h&i&j&k&l&m&n&o&''6\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
'16\UParrow&p&q&r&s&t&u&v&w&''7\UParrow\\[1mm]
'17\UParrow&x&y&z&{\ttfamily\char'173}&$|$&{\ttfamily\char'175}&{\char'176}&DEL&''7\DOWNarrow\\[1mm]
\\[-1em]\hline\vrule height1.2em width0pt \textbf{}&\textbf{8}&\textbf{9}&\textbf{A}&\textbf{B}&\textbf{C}&\textbf{D}&\textbf{E}&\textbf{F}&\textbf{}\\[1mm]
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

The index numbers in the first and last columns are for
finding the octal (base-8) and hexadecimal (base-16) values
respectively. Replace the arrow with the number or letter from
the top of the column (if the arrow points up) from the bottom
of the column(if the arrow points down).

Example: The Escape character (ESC) is octal '033 (03 for
the row, 3 for the number at the top of the column because the
arrow points up) or hexadecimal "1B (1 for the row, B for the
letter at the bottom of the column because the arrow points
down).

For the decimal value, multiply the Octal row number by
eight and add the column number from the top line (that makes
ESC 27).
\chapter[GNU Free Documentation License]{GNU Free Documentation License\\\LARGE\itshape Version 1.2, November 2002}
\label{gfdl}
\begin{multicols}{2}\small\gfdl
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation,
Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not
allowed.
\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}
\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{PREAMBLE}
\label{gfdl-0}

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook,
or other functional and useful document `free' in
the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom
to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it,
either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this
License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of `copyleft', which
means that derivative works of the document must themselves be
free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public
License, which is a copyleft license designed for free
software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for
manuals for free software, because free software needs free
documentation: a free program should come with manuals
providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this
License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for
any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it
is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or
reference.
\section{APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS}
\label{gfdl-1}

\label{gfdl-doc}%
This License applies to any manual or other
work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the
copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms
of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide,
royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work
under the conditions stated herein. The
`Document', below, refers to any such manual or
work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
addressed as `you'. You accept the license if
you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring
permission under copyright law.

\label{gfdl-mod-ver}%
A `Modified Version' of the
Document means any work containing the Document or a portion
of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
translated into another language.

\label{gfdl-secnd-sect}%
A `Secondary Section' is
a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers
or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that
could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if
the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary
Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship
could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or
with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical,
ethical or political position regarding them.

\label{gfdl-inv-sect}%
The `Invariant Sections'
are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says
that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it
is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document
may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not
identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.

\label{gfdl-cov-text}%
The `Cover Texts' are
certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the
Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text
may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most
25 words.

\label{gfdl-transparent}%
A `Transparent' copy of
the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a
format whose specification is available to the general public,
that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly
with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels)
generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text
formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in
an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence
of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage
subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An
image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial
amount of text. A copy that is not `Transparent'
is called `Opaque'.

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies
include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format,
LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available
DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML\index{HTML@HTML},
PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF designed for human
modification. Examples of transparent image formats include
PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats
that can be read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing
tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated
HTML\index{HTML@HTML}, PostScript\index{PostScript} or PDF produced by
some word processors for output purposes only.

\label{gfdl-title-page}%
The `Title Page' means,
for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this
License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, `Title
Page' means the text near the most prominent
appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning
of the body of the text.

\label{gfdl-entitled}%
A section `Entitled XYZ'
means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is
precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text
that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for
a specific section name mentioned below, such as
`Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
`Endorsements', or `History'.) To
`Preserve the Title' of such a section when you
modify the Document means that it remains a section
`Entitled XYZ' according to this
definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the
notice which states that this License applies to the Document.
These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by
reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming
warranties: any other implication that these Warranty
Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning
of this License.
\section{VERBATIM COPYING}
\label{gfdl-2}

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium,
either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this
License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all
copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to
those of this License. You may not use technical measures to
obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the
copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a
large enough number of copies you must also follow the
conditions in section 3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated
above, and you may publicly display copies.
\section{COPYING IN QUANTITY}
\label{gfdl-3}

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that
commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more
than 100, and the Document's license notice requires
Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry,
clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts
on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover.
Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the
publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the
full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in
addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long
as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these
conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous
to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many
as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest
onto adjacent pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
numbering more than 100, you must either include a
machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy,
or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network
location from which the general network-using public has
access to download using public-standard network protocols a
complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
material. If you use the latter option, you must take
reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of
Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent
copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until
at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the
authors of the Document well before redistributing any large
number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an
updated version of the Document.
\section{MODIFICATIONS}
\label{gfdl-4}

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the
Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above,
provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of
the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of
the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In
addition, you must do these things in the Modified
Version:
\begin{enumerate}\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}\item Use in the Title Page (and on the covers,
if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and
from those of previous versions (which should, if there
were any, be listed in the History section of the
Document). You may use the same title as a previous
version if the original publisher of that version gives
permission.

\item List on the Title Page, as authors, one or
more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the
modifications in the Modified Version, together with at
least five of the principal authors of the Document (all
of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.

\item State on the Title page the name of the
publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
\item Preserve all the copyright notices of the
Document.

\item Add an appropriate copyright notice for
your modifications adjacent to the other copyright
notices.

\item Include, immediately after the copyright
notices, a license notice giving the public permission to
use the Modified Version under the terms of this License,
in the form shown in the Addendum (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-addendum}) below.

\item Preserve in that license notice the full
lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given
in the Document's license
notice.
\item Include an unaltered copy of this License.

\item Preserve the section Entitled
`History', Preserve its Title, and add to it
an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title
Page. If there is no section Entitled
`History' in the Document, create one stating
the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the
Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

\item Preserve the network location, if any,
given in the Document for public access to a Transparent
copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations
given in the Document for previous versions it was based
on. These may be placed in the `History'
section. You may omit a network location for a work that
was published at least four years before the Document
itself, or if the original publisher of the version it
refers to gives permission.

\item For any section Entitled
`Acknowledgements' or
`Dedications', Preserve the Title of the
section, and preserve in the section all the substance and
tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
dedications given therein.

\item Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the
Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles.
Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part
of the section titles.

\item Delete any section Entitled
`Endorsements'. Such a section may not be
included in the Modified Version.

\item Do not retitle any existing section to be
Entitled `Endorsements' or to conflict in
title with any Invariant Section.

\item Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

\end{enumerate}

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections
or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain
no material copied from the Document, you may at your option
designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do
this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in
the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must
be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled
`Endorsements', provided it contains nothing but
endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for
example, statements of peer review or that the text has been
approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of
a standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover
Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to
the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.
Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover
Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one
entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the
same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by
the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add
another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old
one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by
this License give permission to use their names for publicity
for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.
\section{COMBINING DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-5}

You may combine the Document with other documents released
under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 (\S\thinspace\ref{gfdl-4}) above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of
the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all
their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this
License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be
replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the
title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it,
in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher
of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the
same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant
Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled
`History' in the various original documents,
forming one section Entitled `History'; likewise
combine any sections Entitled `Acknowledgements',
and any sections Entitled `Dedications'. You
must delete all sections Entitled
`Endorsements'.
\section{COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS}
\label{gfdl-6}

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and
other documents released under this License, and replace the
individual copies of this License in the various documents
with a single copy that is included in the collection,
provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other
respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection,
and distribute it individually under this License, provided
you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
and follow this License in all other respects regarding
verbatim copying of that document.
\section{AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT
WORKS}
\label{gfdl-7}

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with
other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a
volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
`aggregate' if the copyright resulting from the
compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the
compilation's users beyond what the individual works
permit. When the Document is included an aggregate, this
License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate
which are not themselves derivative works of the
Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable
to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less
than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's
Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document
within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers
if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must
appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.
\section{TRANSLATION}
\label{gfdl-8}

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you
may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of
section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations
requires special permission from their copyright holders, but
you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections
in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and
all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty
Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original
English version of this License and the original versions of
those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement
between the translation and the original version of this
License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled
`Acknowledgements', `Dedications',
or `History', the requirement (section 4) to
Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing
the actual title.
\section{TERMINATION}
\label{gfdl-9}

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the
Document except as expressly provided for under this License.
Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute
the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your
rights under this License. However, parties who have received
copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have
their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in
full compliance.
\section{FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
LICENSE}
\label{gfdl-10}

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised
versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to
time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new
problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing
version number. If the Document specifies that a particular
numbered version of this License `or any later
version' applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified
version or of any later version that has been published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
does not specify a version number of this License, you may
choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
Software Foundation.
\section{ADDENDUM: How to use this License
for your documents}
\label{gfdl-addendum}

To use this License in a document you have written,
include a copy of the License in the document and put the
following copyright and license notices just after the title
page:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup

Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to
copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms
of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
section entitled `GNU Free Documentation
License'.

\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and
Back-Cover Texts, replace the
`with\dots Texts.' line with this:
\begin{quotation}\small\begingroup

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover
Texts being LIST.

\par\endgroup\smallskip\footnotesize\noindent \end{quotation}

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or
some other combination of the three, merge those two
alternatives to suit the situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program
code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under
your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General
Public License, to permit their use in free software.

\end{multicols}
\renewcommand{\bibname}{References}
\bibliography{beginlatex}
\bibliographystyle{jurabib}
\begin{VerbatimOut}{beginlatex.bib}
@book{mathguide,
juraauthor = {AMS},
author = {{}},
title = {{Short Math Guide for \LaTeX{}}},
juratitle = {Short Math Guide},
publisher = {AMS},
address = {Providence, RI},
url = {http://www.ams.org/tex/short-math-guide.html},
year = {2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontname,
author = {Karl Berry},
title = {{Fontname: Filenames for \TeX{} fonts}},
url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/fontname/},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
year = {June 2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bull,
author = {RJ Bull},
title = {{Accounting in Business}},
publisher = {Butterworths},
address = {London},
year = {1972},
isbn = {0-406-70651-4},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{teiguide,
author = {Lou Burnard and Michael Sperberg-McQueen},
title = {{Guidelines for the Text Encoding Initiative}},
juratitle = {TEI Guidelines},
organisation = {OUP},
address = {Oxford},
year = {1995},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{davy,
author = {William Davy},
title = {{A System of Divinity}},
publisher = {Published by the author},
address = {Lustleigh, Devon},
year = {1806},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gentle,
author = {Michael Doob},
title = {{A Gentle Introduction to \TeX{}: A Manual for Self-Study}},
juratitle = {Gentle Intro},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
year = {2002},
url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/gentle/},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{bovary,
author = {Gustave Flaubert},
title = {{Madame Bovary}},
address = {Paris},
year = {1857},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{htmlbook,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{The HTML Handbook}},
juratitle = {The HTML Handbook},
publisher = {International Thompson Computer
Press},
address = {London},
isbn = {1-85032-205-8},
year = {1995},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{sgmltools,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{Understanding SGML and XML Tools}},
juratitle = {SGML \amp XML Tools},
publisher = {Kluwer},
address = {Boston},
isbn = {0-7923-8169-6},
year = {1998},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{fg,
author = {John Fothergill},
title = {{An Innkeeper's Diary}},
publisher = {Penguin},
address = {London},
edition = {3rd},
year = {1929},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{companion,
author = {Frank Mittelbach and Michel Goossens and Johannes Braams and David Carlisle and Chris Rowley},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Companion}},
juratitle = {Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley/Pearson Education},
address = {Boston, MA},
edition = {2},
isbn = {0-201-36299-6},
year = {2004},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{graphicscomp,
author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Frank Mittelbach},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Graphics Companion}},
juratitle = {Graphics Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-85469-4},
year = {1997},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{webcomp,
author = {Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz and Ross Moore and Bob Sutor},
title = {{The \LaTeX{} Web Companion}},
juratitle = {Web Companion},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-43311-7},
year = {1999},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{goreham-ctt,
author = {Anthony Goreham},
title = {{Re: Installing a new font: PFM, PFB}},
juratitle = {Installing a new font},
journal = {\texttt{comp.text.tex}},
number = {[email protected]},
pages = {(all pages)},
year = {28 November 2001},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{heller,
author = {Robert Heller},
title = {{New To \LaTeX{}\dots Unlearning Bad Habits}},
juratitle = {Bad habits},
journal = {\texttt{comp.text.tex}},
number = {[email protected]},
pages = {(all pages)},
year = {11 March 2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{fontinst,
author = {Alan Jeffrey and Rowland McDonnell},
title = {{Font installation software for \TeX{}}},
juratitle = {Fontinst},
url = {http://www.tex.ac.uk/tex-archive/fonts/utilities/fontinst/},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
year = {30 June 1998},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{aocs,
author = {Donald Ervin Knuth},
title = {{The Art of Computer Programming}},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
edition = {2nd},
volume = {1},
isbn = {0-201-89685-0},
year = {1980},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{latexbook,
author = {Leslie Lamport},
title = {{\LaTeX{}: A Document Preparation System}},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
address = {Reading, MA},
isbn = {0-201-52983-1},
edition = {2nd},
year = {1994},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{macnamara,
author = {Matthew {Mac Namara}},
title = {{La Textualisation de \emph{Madame
Bovary}}},
publisher = {Rodopi},
address = {Amsterdam},
year = {2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{lshort,
author = {Tobias Oetiker and Hubert Partl and Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl},
title = {{The (Not So) Short Guide to \LaTeXe{}: \LaTeXe{} in 131 Minutes}},
juratitle = {Short Guide},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/},
year = {2001},
edition = {3.2},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{symbol-list,
author = {Scott Pakin},
title = {{A comprehensive list of symbols in \TeX{}}},
juratitle = {Symbol list},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/symbols/comprehensive/},
year = {2002},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{begin,
juraauthor = {TUG},
author = {{}},
title = {{Getting Started with \TeX{}, \LaTeX{}, and friends}},
juratitle = {Getting Started},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
url = {http://www.tug.org/begin.html},
year = {November 2003},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{imported,
author = {Keith Reckdahl},
title = {{Using imported graphics in \LaTeXe{}}},
juratitle = {Imported graphics},
organisation = {\TeX{} Users Group},
url = {http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/epslatex.pdf/},
year = {1997},
edition = {2.0},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@incollection{tain,
author = {{}},
title = {{T�in b� C�ailnge}},
pages = {55},
booktitle = {Leabhar na h-Uidhri},
publisher = {Royal Irish Academy},
address = {Dublin},
year = {1100},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@article{varmints,
author = {Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings},
title = {{Varmints}},
journal = {Scribner's Magazine},
year = {1936},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{ryder,
author = {John Ryder},
title = {{Printing for Pleasure}},
publisher = {Bodley Head},
address = {London},
isbn = {0-370-10443-9},
year = {1976},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{xmlfaq,
author = {Peter Flynn},
title = {{The XML FAQ}},
organisation = {University College Cork},
address = {Cork, Ireland},
url = {http://www.ucc.ie/xml/},
year = {January 2005},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@techreport{gnufdl,
juraauthor = {FSF},
author = {{}},
title = {{The GNU Free Documentation License}},
juratitle = {GNU FDL},
organisation = {Free Software Foundation},
address = {Boston, MA},
url = {http://www.fsf.org/copyleft/fdl.html},
year = {2003/02/10
23:42:49},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{tugboat,
editor = {Barbara Beeton},
title = {{TUGboat}},
publisher = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
issn = {0896-3207},
year = {Since 1980},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{practex,
editor = {Lance Carnes and Karl Berry},
title = {{The Prac\TeX{} Journal}},
publisher = {\TeX{} Users Group},
address = {Portland, OR},
url = {http://www.tug.org/pracjourn/},
year = {2004},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@proceedings{wired,
editor = {Chris Anderson},
title = {{WIRED}},
publisher = {Cond\'e Nast},
address = {San Francisco, CA},
issn = {1059-1028},
year = {1993--},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
@book{mathwrite,
author = {Donald E Knuth and Tracey Larrabee and Paul M Roberts},
title = {{Mathematical Writing}},
publisher = {Mathematical Association of America},
address = {Washington, DC},
series = {MAA Notes 14},
isbn = {0-88385-063-X},
year = {1989},
comment = {Written by XSLT}
}
\end{VerbatimOut}
\renewcommand{\indexname}{Index}
\clearpage\section*{\indexname}

The same fonts are used here as in the text of the book
(see the Introduction on p.\thinspace\pageref{symbols}) to distinguish between different
meanings:
\begingroup\small \begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{@{}ll@{}}
\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Notation}&\textbf{\sffamily\upshape Meaning}\\[2pt]\hline\\[-1.5\baselineskip]
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN}&Acronyms (small caps in some typefaces)\\
\command{command}&\LaTeX{} control sequences (monospace font)\\
{\fontseries{b}\fontshape{it}\selectfont{}term}&Defining instance of a specialist term (bold
italics)\\
\product{product}&program or product name (italics)\\
\env{environment}&\LaTeX{} environment (sans-serif bold)\\
\package{package}&\LaTeX{} package (sans-serif; all available from
CTAN\index{CTAN@CTAN})\\
\opt{options}&Options to environments (sans-serif oblique)\\
\counter{variables}&Variables (monospace oblique)\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\endgroup
In the online version, the entries below are all hyperlinked
to their source, with subsequent multiple occurrences giving the
section number or name. Page or section numbers in {\fontseries{b}\selectfont{}bold type} indicate a defining
instance.
\par\parfillskip=0pt plus.5fil
\multicolsep=1.5pc\printindex
\end{document}