This document is not subject to copyright. See section 9 below.

This document is not subject to copyright. See section 9 below.
Version 1.0: 13 November 1997

THE GIS-GRASS MINI-HOWTO

by David A. Hastings
U. S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Geophysical Data Center
Boulder CO 80303
[email protected]

_Summary:_ This document describes how to acquire, install and
configure a powerful scientific public-domain Geographic Information
System (GIS): the Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
(GRASS). It provides information on other resources for learning more
about GRASS, GIS in general, for acquiring data, etc.

This document also encourages the Linux community to consider
enhancing this software as a major application of UNIX/Linux. ("When
will Linux become bundled with public domain or Linux Public License
'killer aps'"?) For more on this topic, see Section 8 below.

Contents

1. _What is a GIS?
What is GRASS?
A Brief History of GRASS
1. A Re-Invogorated GRASS Management Model
2. Continued Assessment of Future GRASS Management
System Requirements for GRASS
How to Acquire GRASS
How to Get GRASS Running on Your Linux-based Computer.
Web-based Support for GRASS (and for GIS Matters in General)
The Future of GRASS?
Copyright Notice, and Notice on Support of this Document
References_

_Appendix A: Acquisition/Installation of GRASS4.1.3 Binaries
Appendix B: Acquisition/Installation of GRASS4.1.5 Binaries
Appendix C: Acquisition/Compilation of GRASS 4.1.x and 4.2 Source Code

Appendix D: If you plan to enhance any part of GRASS, read this first!

Appendix E: Example Linux versions of some critical GRASS files. _
_________________________________________________________________

1. What is a GIS?

There are many ways to describe a Geographic Information System. Here
are three working definitions (from David A. Hastings, 1992,
Geographic Information Systems: A Tool for Geoscience Analysis and
Interpretation):
1. (The minimal definition): A GIS is a hardware/software system for
the storage, management, and (with hardcopy or screen graphic)
selective retrieval capabilities of georeferenced data.
Definitions like this one are often used by vendors and users of
vector-only GIS, whose objective is sophisticated management and
output of cartographic data.
2. (A parallel definition): A GIS is a hardware/software system for
managing and displaying spatial data. It is similar to a
traditional Data Base Management System, where we now think in
_spatial_ rather than in tabular terms, and where the "report
writer" now allows output of maps as well as of tables and
numbers. Thus we can consider a GIS a "spatial DBMS" as opposed to
traditional "tabular DBMSs." Few people use this definition, but
it might help to explain GIS to a DBMS user.
3. (A more aggressive definition): A GIS is a system of hardware,
software, and data that facilitates the development, enhancement,
modeling, and display of multivariate (e.g. multilayered)
spatially referenced data. It performs some analytical functions
itself, and by its analysis, selective retrieval and display
capabilities, helps the user to further analyze and interpret the
data. Properly configured, the GIS can model (e.g. synthetically
recreate) a feature or phenomenon as a function of other features
or phenomena which may be related - where all features or
phenomena are represented (characterized) by spatial and related
tabular data. The analytical objectives described here are
sometimes controversial - and often given lip service by
cartographic GIS specialists who have not yet seen what can be
accomplished scientifically by a select few GISs that go beyond
cartographic approaches.
4. Another definition can be found at
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/research/whatisgis.html at the
University of Edinburgh

2. What is GRASS?

GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is a public
domain raster based GIS, vector GIS, image processing system, and
graphics production system. Created by the US Army Corps of Engineers,
Constriction Engineering Research Laboratory (USA/CERL) and enhanced
by many others, it is used extensively at government offices,
universities and commercial organizations throughout the world. It is
written mostly in C for various UNIX based machines. Linux is one of
its more robust implementations.

GRASS contains over 40 programs to render images on monitor and paper;
over 60 raster manipulation programs; over 30 vector manipulation
programs; nearly 30 multi-spectral image processing manipulation
programs; 16 data management programs; and 6 point file management
programs.

GRASS' strengths lie in several fields. The simple user interface
makes it an ideal platform for those learning about GIS for the first
time. Users wishing to write their own code can do so by examining
existing source code, interfacing with the documented GIS libraries,
and by using the GRASS Programmers' Manual. This allows more
sophisticated functionality to be fully integrated within GRASS.

Other strengths include GRASS' pioneering of mixed resolutions in a
data base, mixed geographic coverage areas in a data base, raster
image compression techniques via run-length encoding and
reclassification lookup tables, GRASS' rescaling of display images on
the fly to fill the display screen, plus its fundamental design
criterion of powerful computer-assisted scientific analysis of
environmental issues (as opposed to merely going for intricate
cartographic output of relatively simple processes).

GRASS is usually supplied as free, non-copyright source code to be
compiled on host machines. Some compiled binaries are also easily
obtainable at no cost via the Internet. It runs on a variety of UNIX
platforms.

(Copied from Project Assist Intro to
GRASS:http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/assist/grass)

3. A Brief History of GRASS

In the early 1980s the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers' Construction
Engineering Research Laboratory (USA/CERL) in Champaign, Illinois,
began to explore the possibilities of using Geographic Information
Systems to conduct environmental research, assessments, monitoring and
management of lands under the stewardship of the U. S. Department of
Defense. Part of the motivation for this action was new responsibility
for the environment encoded into the National Environmental Policy Act
of the late 1970s.

Bill Goran of USA/CERL conducted a survey of available GISs, assuming
that he could find several systems capable of environmental analysis,
from which he could select one or more to recommend for use by CERL
and perhaps others in the Department of Defense. However, he was
surprised to find no GIS that satisfied his needs. What started as a
selection process turned into a design exercise for his own GIS
development program.

USA/CERL hired several programmers, and began by writing a hybrid
raster-vector GIS for the VAX UNIX environment. This made the team one
of the first to seriously develop GIS for UNIX. Though they still
faced challenges with different versions of UNIX, they developed
procedures of coding in ANSI standard UNIX, avoiding "tweaking" the
code toward any particular vendor-specific flavor of UNIX.

GRASS developed a programming style characterized by:
* Use of UNIX libraries where possible, plus the creation of GRASS
libraries for repeated GIS-specific acts such as opening raster
files that might be compressed (by run-length encoding) or not.
* The ability to handle both major GIS data types: raster and
vector.
* The favoring of raster data processing, as scientific analysis was
easier to encode with raster (than for vector) data models.
* The ability to handle raster grids of mixed grid sizes in the same
data base. This was a departure from raster's image processing
tradition of requiring identical (and perfectly registered) grid
cell arrays in each and every data layer.
* The ability to handle raster grids with different areas of
coverage. Again, this was a departure from raster tradition of
having all grids be identical in geographic coverage.
* The ability to run-length encode raster data files, in order to
greatly reduce file sizes of most files.
* The separate structure of reclassification files. Such files
merely contained a look-up table noting the previous and new
classes. This is MUCH more compact than replicating the original
grid with different numerical values. A reclassified file of a
100x100 km square area of 10 metre grid cells would be a few
hundred bytes, rather than 100 megabytes of uncompressed 8-bit
raster data.
* The acceptance of de-facto standard data models. While competitors
created cumbersome (and in many cases secretive) data formats,
GRASS accepted the de-facto standard Digital Line Graph vector
format and unheaded binary raster grid format. GRASS later
abandoned DLG as its internal vector file format, and let its
raster format evolve. However, DLG and the unheaded binary raster
grid are still routinely handled formats for GRASS, and its new
formats are as open as its previous ones.
* GRASS code was managed in several directories. Initial
contributions were placed in the src.contrib directory. More solid
code was moved to the src.alpha directory. After remaining in the
src.alpha for one full release cycle, the code, with resultant bug
fixes, moved to the most honorable level, the src directory.

GRASS was overseen by three levels of oversight committees. USA/CERL
kept the ultimate responsibility for GRASS. It implemented most GRASS
development, and carried out the day-to-day management of GRASS
testing and release. The GRASS Interagency Steering Committee (GIASC),
comprised of other Federal agencies, met semi-annually to review
development progress, and evaluate future directions for GRASS.
(Academic and commercial participants in GRASS also attended GIASC
meetings; only part of each meeting was "Federal-Agencies-only." GRASS
eventually became nominally and officially a "product" of the GIASC,
though everyone recognized USA/CERL's leadership role. The GRASS
Military Steering Committee met periodically to review the progress of
GRASS in serving its original intent: meeting the Department of
Defense's needs to evaluate and manage the environment of military
lands.

The public interacted with CERL and GIASC through USA/CERL's GRASS
Information Center. GRASS Beta testing was very widespread, and quite
intensive for the leading users of GRASS. Several leading users, such
as the National Park Service and the Soil Conservation Service,
selected GRASS as its prime or only GIS. They made significant
commitments to enhance and test GRASS, yet considered this investment
well worth their while. They said that they had more influence over
the direction of GRASS than they would over any known alternative
system. They also felt that, despite their major efforts and expenses
in supporting GRASS, they had a bargain in relevant power for the
dollar.

Several universities adopted GRASS as an important training and
research environment. Many conducted short-courses for the public, in
addition to using GRASS in their own curricula. Examples of such
leading academic users of GRASS are Central Washington University, The
University of Arkansas, Texas A & M University, The University of
California at Berkeley, and Rutgers University.

Though GRASS received some criticism (some say) for being so good and
so public, it was also reputedly borrowed from liberally by some
developers of other systems. Though the first group might have viewed
it as unfair competition, the second group may have noted that it was
not copyright, and was a valuable testbed for GIS concepts. GRASS
received an award from the Urban and Regional Information Systems
Association (URISA) for quality software in 1988.

As CERL and GRASS evolved through the late 1980s and early 1990s, CERL
attempted to cut overhead costs associated with supporting the public
domain version. It created and initially funded the Open GRASS
Foundation, in cooperation with several of the leading users of GRASS.
The Open GRASS Foundation has since evolved into the Open GIS
Consortium, which is aiming for more thorough interoperability at the
data and user interface level, but appears not to be taking advantage
of the major open GIS testbed (GRASS).

In 1996 USA/CERL, just before beginning the beta testing for GRASS
version 5.0, announced that it was formally withdrawing support to the
public. USA/CERL announced agreements with several commercial GISs,
and agreed to provide encouragement to commercialization of GRASS. One
result of this is GRASSLANDS:http://www.las.com/grassland/, a
commercial adaptation of much of GRASS. Another result is a migration
of several former GRASS users to COTS (Commercial Off-The-Shelf) GISs.
However, GRASS' anonymous ftp site contains many enhancements to the
last full version 4.1 release of GRASS. Many organizations still use
GRASS feeling that, despite the lack of a major release in five years,
GRASS still leads the pack in many areas.

3.1 A Re-Invogorated GRASS Management Model

In late 1997, a group at Baylor University took the lead in developing
a new Website for GRASS. This quickly developing Website contains
GRASS 4.1 source code and Sun Solaris binaries, GRASS 4.1
documentation, and an on- line manual. By November 1997 this site
posted the first version of GRASS 4.2 source code and binaries
currently for Sun Solaris) with Linux and Windows NT under
consideration). GRASS 4.2 incorporates several enhancements from the
CERL website, plus some of Baylor's own enhancements. Documentation
for GRASS 4.2 is appearing; the group encourages cooperation in
further development of GRASS, and is looking for partners. It hopes to
use increased use of the World Wide Web in developing and managing
GRASS. GRASS 5 development and compilation is underway. The site also
links to the Blackland GRASS site at Texas A&M University, for those
desiring very inexpensive access to GRASS for Windows 95.

3.2 Continued Assessment of Future GRASS Management

Note: An ad-hoc group (which includes myself) is exploring the basic
issue of continued, reconfigured, yea perhaps increased, value of
GRASS as a public test-bed for GIS technology. It is exploring
shepherding the testing and release of GRASS5.0, and exploring
possibilities for a more distributed management model for GRASS design
and development. It is exploring the universe of public domain spatial
data processing software (including geographic information and image
processing systems), and perhaps tabular data base management systems.
How can such knowledge be (1) optimized as an open, public test bed
for such technology and (2) better used by the public? Might this
involve a Linux management model, perhaps? See Section 8 for more
discussion on this topic.

4. System Requirements for GRASS

Minimum requirements include:
* 8 Mbytes of memory (of course, more is better..)
* 100 Mbytes of free disk space
+ ~40 mb for executables,
+ ~40 mb for source code (which you can ignore if you merely
install the Linux binaries)
+ ~? for data (the veritable bottomless pit can be filled with
data, if you so choose)

GRASS runs on Linux kernel versions as old as 1.2.13 (see more
information in the appendices for various specific binaries).
GRASS will run in text mode. However, for displays of data, you will
need X. If you are still running a version of X, it will probably work
with GRASS.

If you find any other hardware/OS requirements that should be
mentioned, please let me know!

5. How to Acquire GRASS

GRASS used to be available on tape from various companies that signed
distribution agreements with USA/CERL. These companies usually
supported specific platform environments, such as Masscomp, Sun, DEC,
Hewlett Packard, IBM (risc), PC (running some flavor of UNIX), and
Macintosh (running AUX). Until recently, the flavors of UNIX working
on PCs generally were too low-end, or required too much added
programming support (e.g. programming drivers for high-end graphics
boards like the Number Nine boards of several years back) to be stable
or complete. However, with robust systems like Linux, this problem is
history. Similarly, few people acquire GRASS on tape, though a few do
on CD-ROM.

The main way to acquire GRASS is to get it via anonymous ftp from:

_1. The new site at Baylor University:http://www.baylor.edu/~grass_

As of the date of this version of the mini-HOWTO, Baylor has source
code for GRASS 4.1 and 4.2, as well as Sun Solaris compiled binaries.
Blackland GRASS for Windows 95/NT is linked to from this site. Baylor
is considering its own Linux and Windows NT binaries, as well. You
should be able to compile the Baylor source code under Linux yourself,
using information in this mini-HOWTO.

_2. The traditional site at USA/CERL:http://www.cecer.army.mil/grass_,
or from mirrors cited at USA/CERL's website:

The ftp location is:

_moon.cecer.army.mil_

Appendix A describes how to acquire and install GRASS4.13 compiled
binaries from USA/CERL. (See section 6 before installing GRASS!)

Appendix B describes how to acquire and install GRASS4.15 compiled
binaries from USA/CERL. (See section 6 before installing GRASS!)

Appendix C describes how to acquire and compile GRASS4.14 and
GRASS4.15 source code from USA/CERL, as well as GRASS4.2 source code
from Baylor University. (See section 6 before installing GRASS!)

Linux distribution developers! Might you be interested in including
GRASS with your distribution? Remember, GRASS source code is in the
completely unrestricted, copyright-free, public domain. Your
distribution might be more valuable if it contained source code and/or
compiled binaries for GRASS.

6. How to Get GRASS Running on Your Linux-based Computer.

Appendices A, B, and C describe how to acquire and install GRASS.
Before actually installing GRASS, you will have to decide where to put
three parts of the system:
1. The GRASS binaries, source code (if you install this), man pages,
documentation, and the like. Many folks put this stuff off
/usr/local (e.g. /usr/local/grass/bin, /usr/local/grass/src).
2. The GRASS executable and gmake utilities. Some folks put this
stuff off /usr/local (e.g. /usr/local/grass/grass4.1 and gmake4.1
or /usr/local/bin/grass4.1 and gmake4.1).
3. The GRASS data directories. These can go anywhere, as they are
specified in configuration files.

I have used a different scheme for a decade. As GRASS code,
binaries, and the like (except data owned by users) are all owned
by the special user "grass" I don't want this stuff to get spread
around my system. I create a new directory (usually on a separate
file system) called /user, and put all my GRASS stuff below this.
For example:

/user/grass4.1/bin (I usually put grass4.1 and gmake4.1 here...)
/data
/dev
/etc
/man
/src
/src.alpha
/src.contrib

I'm currently building a GRASS5.0 site, which then goes under:

/user/grass5/bin
/data (some GRASS5 data formats have changed...)
/dev
/etc

The GRASS Installation Guide (described in Section 10 and in
Appendix C) is useful for getting GRASS running, even if you
merely install the binaries as described in Appendices A and B.
Please don't overlook one important detail: Most GRASS
installations separate user from software manager accounts and
UNIX permissions. You should create a "grass" (the quotes here are
for emphasis, and should not be part of the actual user userid)
user account on your workstation. All installation and
configuration of grass should be done by user "grass". Untar (or
un"cpio" files, run setup configuration utilities, run Gmakefiles
(GRASS versions of makefiles), and edit configuration files as
user "grass." Then only RARELY run GRASS as user "grass." (I only
run GRASS as user "grass" when I am making archival data files in
the PERMANENT mapset.) This is done for much the same reason as
not running user software as user "root". YOU CAN DO TOO MUCH
DAMAGE AS USER "grass"!

Beyond the instructions in these appendices, and information in
the GRASS Installation Guide, you have some additional
housekeeping to do, such as developing a data base. You can
acquire sample data bases from USA/CERL (directory
pub/grass/grass4.1/data at anonymous "ftp moon.cecer.army.mil"),
start from scratch following instructions in the GRASS
Programmer's Manual (and, to a lesser degree, buried in the
functional descriptions of the GRASS User's Reference Manual).

I personally recommend that you start with the Spearfish and
Global databases available from USA/CERL:
1. The Spearfish data base covers two 7.5 minute topographic
sheets in the northern Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. It
is in the Universal Transverse Mercator Projection. It was
originally created by Larry Batten (now of the Environmental
Systems Research Institute's office in Boulder, Colorado)
while he was with the U. S. Geological Survey's EROS Data
Center in South Dakota. The data base was enhanced by
USA/CERL and cooperators. It is an excellent, and well-used
(there are many training materials available for GRASS with
this data base) example of a county-scale GIS project in the
UTM projection.
2. The Global data base was developed by Bob Lozar of USA/CERL
to prototype a latitude-longitude "projection" data base in
GRASS for global environmental study and decision support.

Starting with these two examples, you can build your own data
bases in UTM and latitude-longitude projections. (Note, many
people don't call latitude-longitude a projection. Others
disagree, saying that anything that transfers the Earth's surface
to two dimensions is a projection.. We'll stay away from that
debate here. Needless to say, lat-lon is treated as other
projections are by the computer program.)

7. Web-based Support for GRASS (and for GIS Matters in General)

Support for a public domain program? No way, they say! Actually,
as a user of Linux, you probably know better.

GRASS started by having a GRASS Information Office at USA/CERL.
There were also very active users outside USA/CERL, who provided
valuable user support. GRASS had annual users' meetings,
listservers for users and developers, etc. Companies provided
value added support services on a contractual or fee basis.

Various people have developed valuable books and training
materials on GRASS. Several universities used to conduct training
courses in GRASS. I don't know how many of these are continuing.
If training courses interest you, try asking on the usenet
newsgroup comp.infosystems.gis (see below for more on this
newsgroup).

Valuable "books" available on the Internet are noted in the
References (Section 10).

World Wide Web-based training materials, including training in
GRASS, are highlighted in the CyberInstute Short Course in
GIS:http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/tools/gis/referenc.html (then
scan down for the link(s) to Web-based tutorials in GIS).

One of the better GRASS tutorials is Project Assist's - Intro to
GRASS:http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/assist/grass

Other good sites:

Central Washington University was an early GRASS user and training
facility:http://www.csu.edu/~gishome/grass.htm

"Starting the hunt for mostly free spatial data" by Stephan
Pollard:http://cast.uark.edu/local/hunt This is based at the
Center for Advanced Spatial Technology of the University of
Arkansas, another early educator with GRASS.

Purdue University has several GRASS
features:http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~aggrass

USA/CERL's online GRASS
manual:http://www.cecer.army.mil/grass/userman/main-alpha.html

Rutgers University's GRASS Information
Center:http://deathstar.rutgers.edu/grassinfo.html

The REGIS project:http://www.regis/berkeley.edu at the University
of California at Berkeley as a Linux version of GRASS available
via ftp, and also has a Web-based version of GRASS called
GRASSLINKS.

After getting trained by the books and Web-based tutorials noted
just above, where do you turn to for specific advice???

Probably the best source of support these days is usenet newsgroup
comp.infosystems.gis If you're not familiar with newsgroups, ask
your network administrator or Internet service provider.
comp.infosystems.gis contains modestly heavy traffic on such
topics as
+ "how do I find data on this topic for this area?"
+ "how do I convert these data for use in my Aardvark GIS?"
+ "how do I get this function to work in my Aardvark GIS?"
+ "which GIS can I use to solve my particular problem?"

GRASS used to be one of the top GISs discussed on this group.
Traffic in GRASS is dropping slightly, as its user community
matures. However, there are usually answers to your questions, if
you post them. You might also do a "power search" on subject:GRASS
[& your own subject of interest here?] and
newsgroup:comp.infosystems.gis in DejaNews:http://www.dejanews.com
to see what might appear from the usenet archives.

8. The Future of GRASS?

Excellent question! Several possible answers have been thrown out:
1. USA/CERL's announced intention is to use GRASS and COTS
(commercial off-the-shelf software) for internal uses, to
leave the GRASS public web- and ftp-site on its system
indefinitely, and to sign cooperative research and
development agreements with three companies: (1) the
Environmental Sciences Research Institute (ESRI), (2)
Intergraph, and (3) Logiciels et Applications Scientifiques
(L.A.S.) Inc. The first two agreements encouraged the
incorporation of GRASS concepts into ESRI's and Intergraph's
commercial GISs. The third encouraged the adaptation of
GRASS' concepts and code into a new commercial GIS by L.A.S.
L.A.S. also offered to encourage the continuation of a public
domain GRASS, as a viable stand-alone system and as a
potential source of new ideas and code for L.A.S.'s
GRASSLAND. One observer noted that the first two agreements
might be akin to someone signing Linux over to Microsoft. The
same observer considers the experiment by/with L.A.S. to be
an interesting possibility - an attempt to keep viable public
domain and commercial versions of GRASS.
2. Some people believe that GRASS will wither without USA/CERL's
central management. Some believe that the Open GIS Consortium
will successfully guide industry into an open architecture
that will benefit all developers and users. Others believe
that OGIS' effort will lead to a cacophony of almost similar
(but not quite interoperable) vendor-specific "standards," so
the loss of GRASS as an open development platform will be
felt sorely.
3. Some people believe that developments on some campuses and
other sites may result in those institutes keeping GRASS for
awhile, but in non-standard forms. In short, GRASS will
undergo "cell division" and lead to a cacophony of internally
valuable, but externally unused, GISs.
4. Others hope that GRASS' previous management model under
USA/CERL has left it ready for a new model. Perhaps:
1. Under a new mentor, such as NASA (which needs an open,
powerful and scientific, GIS integrated with image
processing system for its Earth Observing System).
2. Under a distributed management model... perhaps somewhat
like Linux?
3. Perhaps a bit of a hybrid? Perhaps a Web-based effort
could spawn a series of usenet discussion groups
beginning with
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass, and evolving to:
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.academics
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.publicservice
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.commercialvalueadded
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.commercialdistributors
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.programming
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.users
# comp.infosystems.gis.grass.centralcommittee
Clearly the topics are a bit tongue-in-cheek. However, under
this model, a Central Committee (including
representation of academic, public service [government
and nongovernmental organizations], commercial
distributors and value added firms, programmers, and
users) would guide overall grass development and
testing. The other special interest groups would serve
their user communities. Academics, for example, would
involve GIS and GRASS education, but would also try to
pull GRASS development in its direction. Value added
commercial developers would serve their own interests,
including trying to pull GRASS development in a
direction that would help their businesses. Users would
help each other learn GRASS, develop workarounds to
bugs, etc.

GRASS offers considerable potential for:
+ Use as a scientific, as well as a traditional graphically
oriented GIS. Many GISs can make pretty maps. Many of those
GISs cannot easily perform certain scientific analytical
functions as easily or powerfully as GRASS. GRASS was
designed and developed in response to a perceived need for
scientific GIS, specifically for environmental analysis, and
the environmental management/protection of public lands.
Incidentally, there is at least one Web-based GRASS version.
GRASSLINKS:http://www.regis/berkeley.edu/grasslinks,
developed at the University of California at Berkeley, uses
Web forms to submit commands to the server, which creates
.gif-based display output, places the images into pages, and
serves them up to the requester. More on that later.
+ Education. GRASS is easier to teach and learn than some other
GISs. It is easier to modify (for those that want to learn
GIS as computer science, rather than as "geography") than
most other GISs that come without source code and treat the
program as a magical black box. And, of course, it is more
affordable for the student of GIS than many other GISs.
+ Applications research and development. Many universities have
used GRASS. Its available source code, easy modification,
easy scriptability, etc., give it distinct advantages over
some more closed systems.
+ Public Service. GRASS has been used as a scientific GIS for
many public service applications. There is considerable value
in continuing a robust GIS that can ba packaged with any UNIX
workstation. There is considerably more value if that UNIX
workstation universe can include Linux (but is not
constrained only to Linux).
+ GIS research and development. For example - do you want to
experiment with a different data model? Add it to GRASS!
+ Commercialization. This document gives contact information
for a commercial version of GRASS. That company (and perhaps
others?) may welcome your help in enhancing/supporting their
product.

Who would be the Linus Torvelds equivalent in this management
model? Perhaps no single person. I have been involved in GRASS for
about a decade, when GRASS was the only GIS that satisfied my
needs in scientific data management and GIS application. Indeed, I
had been a dedicated avoider of the user-unfriendly UNIX
environment until GRASS forced me to learn it. Several senior
GRASS developers are active in GRASS-related activities and would
like to see the continued vitality of an open GRASS. It's likely
that a reborn GRASS would attract a new crop of friends. Thus the
concept of a "Central Committee" to collectively lead GRASS'
transition to a more open management and development style.

In short, the Linux community has an opportunity to take under its
wing a killer ap. GRASS' current public domain status is slightly
different from Linux's. However, that status could be
discussed....

Comments would be appreciated!

9. Copyright Notice, and Notice on Support of this Document

Copyright notice:

This document was prepared by a Federal civil servant in support
of his work (but mostly on his own time). It is NOT SUBJECT TO
COPYRIGHT.

Notice on support of this document:

I believe that the contents of this document are accurate.
However, if you use this document, you accept the risks for any
errors in this document (and in any documents that are cited
here).

I would greatly appreciate help in correcting any errors, or in
enhancing this document. However, "my time is limited" in dealing
with this issue. Any help that you can provide, that also helps me
to more efficiently respond to your interest, is more likely to be
responded to quickly. A complaint might be appreciated, but a
suggested improvement that includes draft wording might be REALLY
appreciated.

10. References

For general reference material on GIS, try a very good technical
bookstore (in many cases these are campus bookstores at schools
with good GIS programs or top-notch technical or general
bookstores - you know that ones are near you..), or the following
URL for the CyberInstitute Short Course on Geographic Information
Systems:hQfttp://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/tools/gis/referenc.html
(convened by myself):

Also check
Baylor University's growing GRASS Home
Page:http://www.baylor.edu/~grass
USA/CERL's GRASS Home Page:http://www.cecer.army.mil/grass

For a good collection of references on GRASS, try this procedure,
to load up on reference goodies from USA/CERL:

ftp moon.cecer.army.mil
login: anonymous
password: your email address
cd pub/grass/grass4.1/outgoing
image
get grassman.ps.Z (or grassman.txt.Z, or grassman.wp.Z)
cd ../documents/programmer/postscript
image
get progman.ps.Z
cd ../../user/postscript
image
get refman.ps.Z
cd ../..
image
get installGuide.ps.Z
bye

uncompress grassman.ps.Z
uncompress progman.ps.Z
uncompress refman.ps.Z
uncompress installGuide.ps.Z

lpr *.ps (or whatever is appropriate for your environment)

installGuide => The GRASS Installation Guide (you need this to
compile GRASS source code)
grassman => The GRASS Beginner's Manual (intro to GRASS)
refman => The GRASS User's Reference Manual (function guide)
progman => The GRASS Programmer's Manual (and administrator's
guide - this is valuable for info about data formats, etc.)

Browse around the ftp site noted just above, and you may find more
stuff of interest. Particularly in the
pub/grass/grass4.1/documents directory, there are tutorials on
advanced GRASS functions such as r.mapcalc (think of this as math
applied to raster arrays), r.combine and r.weight (think of this
as how to combine spatial submodels into one type of model), and
others.

Incidentally, do you prefer German? Try The University of
Hannover's site:http://www.laum.uni-hannover.de/iln/grass/handbuch

_____________________________________________________________

Appendix A: Acquisition/Installation of GRASS4.13 Binaries

This appendix describes how to acquire and install Linux binaries
for GRASS4.13 (the 3rd update to the last full release of GRASS,
version 4.1).

How to get these files:

ftp moon.cecer.army.mil
login: anonymous
password: your email address
cd pub/grass/grass4.1/release/binaries/linux
image
mget grassa*
bye

Installation instructions:
********************************************************************
* GRASS 4.1 Update 3 for Linux
*
* This package contains GRASS programs only, *NO* GIS
* data is included. You can find example GRASS data at
* moon.cecer.army.mil
*
* Compiled by: Andy Burnett - [email protected]
* compiled on: April 7, 1994

********************************************************************
System Requiremnts:

35 MB disk space to hold the binary distribution

System library requirements:

libc4.5.21 or greater

libX.so.3.1.0 or greater

If you are running libraries that are older than these, this binary
distribution will *NOT* run on your linux system.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Files in this release:

README_4.1.3 what you are currently reading
ginstall simple grass installation script
grassaa --------|
grassab |
grassac |
grassad |
grassae |-- the linux GRASS binaries
grassaf |
grassag |
grassah |
grassai |
grassaj |
grassak --------|

INSTALLATION:

To install this binary distribution of grass for linux, you
can simply run the ginstall script or you can unpack the files by
hand. I recommend using the ginstall script ... it's very simple and
should be bullet proof. To run the ginstall script, you will need
gawk (gnu awk) installed on your system and it needs to be in your
PATH.

If, however, you want to do things by hand, here's what you need to
do:

o make the destination directory (/usr/grass, /usr/local/grass,
whatever) This will become your GISBASE for grass.

********************* LOOK HERE **************************************
from here on, replace $GISBASE with the name of the directory you just
created
********************* LOOK HERE **************************************

o cat grassa? | gzip -d | (cd $GISBASE; tar xvf -)
This will unpack all the grass binaries into the $GISBASE directory

o copy $GISBASE/etc/moncap.sample to $GISBASE/etc/monitorcap and edit
it.
o change all occurrences of GBASE in that file to $GISBASE
o copy $GISBASE/etc/grass4.1 into a public directory (I suggest
/usr/bin)
o edit the copy you just made:
change all occurrences of GBASE to $GISBASE

_____________________________________________________________

Appendix B: Acquisition/Installation of GRASS4.1.5 Binaries

This appendix describes how to acquire and install Linux binaries
for GRASS4.15 (the 5th and last update to the last full release of
GRASS, version 4.1).

How to get these files:

ftp moon.cecer.army.mil
login: anonymous
password: your email address
cd pub/grass/grass4.1/release/binaries/linux
image
mget linuxa*
bye

Installation instructions:
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Files in this release:
README_4.1.5 what you are currently reading
install.sh simple grass installation script
linuxaa --------|
linuxab |
linuxac |
linuxad |
linuxae |-- the linux GRASS binaries, version 4.1.5
linuxaf |
linuxag |
linuxah |
linuxai --------|

* * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
*

The GRASS4.15 for Linux was compiled in my Linux box with the
following configuration:
Slackware 3.0
kernel 1.2.13
gcc 2.7.0
libc 5.0.9
flex 3.5.2

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ IMPORTANT: ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
THE LINUX GRASS 4.15 BINARIES ONLY WORK ON ELF-LINUX. THE BINARIES MAY
NOT WORK WITH EARLY VERSION OF KERNEL AND/OR GCC AND FLEX.

The binaries was tared and gziped, then split into 9 (close to 1.3 MB
- 1200 x 1K block) files named from linuxg.aa to linuxg.ai.

You should ftp all the linuxg.a* in binary mode and also get this
readme file and an installation script - install.sh. Please put all
of these files in the same directory - source directory.

At the source directory under the UNIX prompt, type
sh ./install.sh full_path_to_the_destination_directory

and it should automatically unzip and untar the linuxg.a* files to the
destination directory and also edit several site-specific files. The
total space your need is about 26 MB.

At the destination directory, your can find the grass4.1 script. It
should have been modified to reflect your installation directory.
Now, either move/copy the grass4.1 file to one of your PATH or use the
link command as below:
cd /usr/local/bin
ln -s destination_directory/etc/grass4.1 grass4.1

Now, your are ready to start GRASS by typing grass4.1 and you should
know how to run GRASS afterward.

There is a readme directory in the destination_directory/etc
directory. This directory has several readme files that come with
some incoming commands. You can find all the compiled commands of
this binaries in the commands.readme file. I can't guarantee that all
of them work but I have tested lots of them. If you find some
commands that don't work, please post a message on the grass user
group and we can solve it all together.

Yung-Tsung Kang,
Michigan State University

_____________________________________________________________

Appendix C: Acquisition/Compilation of GRASS Source Code

The GRASS binaries for Linux tend to work. Why would anyone want
to mess with the source code?

Let's try to answer this with another question: "Why can't I get
the source code to my GIS, so I can see how it works, and maybe
fix some things to work the way I like them?" (You probably know
the answers to this question, at least for many commercial
software packages.)

If you want to
1. Add any of the numerous existing alpha and contributed GRASS
functions,
2. Understand how a function works (did any programming
shortcuts or performance enhancements affect the accuracy of
a function? Can I improve the performance of a function?)
3. Revise or enhance the code (if you do this, please see
Appendix D!),
4. Try compiling several tens of megabytes of source code, this
appendix is for you. Also check Appendix E.

First, you need to acquire the source code, and the GRASS
Installation Guide. You may also want to get the GRASS
Programmer's Manual and User's Reference Manual. To do this:

ftp moon.cecer.army.mil
login: anonymous
password: your email address
cd pub/grass/grass4.1/release/source
get README.4
get README.5
image
mget s4* (or s5*, your choice)
cd ../../documents
get installGuide.ps.Z
cd /manuals/programmer/postscript
get progman.ps.Z
cd ../../user/postscript
get refman.ps.Z
bye

Don't forget this site. There are several tutorials on some of
GRASS' more advanced programs in the pub/grass/grass4.1/document
directory. There are two options for source code (I'm only
discussing GRASS version 4.14 here, though version 4.15 is also
available) The pub/grass/outgoing directory contains many
contributed functions (and many other candidates for enhancing
your system).

Follow the README.4 file for installing GRASS version 4.14 (which
is sometimes called version 4.1.4) source code. Follow the
README.5 file for installing GRASS version 4.15 (which is
sometimes called version 4.1.5) source code.

After installing the source code, uncompress and print
installGuide.ps.Z (or the troff version, if you prefer that and
got it from a neighboring directory). You might also want to
uncompress and print refman.ps.Z and progman.ps.Z at the same
time. Note that progman.ps.Z is called the programmer's manual,
but also contains valuable information about data formats and
directory structures. Advanced users may also want to know the
GRASS system utilities, even if they won't be calling them in
code.

Now, use the GRASS Installation Guide (from installGuide.ps.Z) to
guide yourself through the installation. The thickness of this
document may at first be intimidating. However, if you installed
Linux yourself, you should be ready to tackle a GRASS
installation. Don't be surprised if a function or two does not
compile on your system. I have a couple of uncompiled functions on
my own Linux system. Fortunately, these are functions that I don't
use... Some day I'll get back to them, fix them, and compile
them!?
_____________________________________________________________

Here is a late-breaking addition, on how to install the newly
released GRASS 4.2 from Baylor
University:http://www.baylor.edu/~grass This text is as provided
by Baylor, unedited by myself due to its release only a few days
ago. Please note the similarity with other installations..

GRASS 4.2 Quick Start
Installtion Instuctions
_WARNING:_ These instructions pertain to the 4.2 release of GRASS
Users are urged to consult the complete installation guide for
more detailed instructions.

_$GIS/src_ - This directory contains scripts and files used to
compile GRASS. By running scripts and changing lists of programs
you generate GRASS binaries for your system.

You may mount a disk containing GRASS source on different types of
machines and compile without making source code copies. You follow
the following instructions for each machine.

_WARNING:_ These instructions presume that you have familiarity
with UNIX, C, make, and shell scripting. Murphy's law visits GRASS
regularly and your expertise in these matters will be the best
defense against Mr. Murphy.

_WARNING:_ These instructions and scripts have been used to
compile GRASS on various machines. Please mail results of using
this information for compiling GRASS on your platforms and
operating system to:

[email protected]

_DIRECTORY CONTENTS_

GISGEN script which will compile GRASS

MAKELINKS script used after GISGEN to establish the user executable
commands

VERSION current version number and date of the GRASS release

generic/ system independent files need by gmake
gmake shell script which does compilations
make.def make variables
make.tail some additional make rules

head/ gmake header file(s) for this site. Header files are
created by running the utils/setup command.

lists/ lists of programs to be compiled
GRASS standard GRASS programs
local site specific GRASS programs
... architecture dependent GRASS programs

next_step/ files used by GISGEN to keep track of how far along
it is in the compilation. Used to restart
GISGEN (after a failure) where it left off.

utils/ contains the 'setup' script and all support scripts
and files needed by 'setup'

_COMPILATION STEPS OVERVIEW_

(1) Generate files that contain location and machine specific make
information.

(2) Edit files containing lists of location and machine specific
programs to be compiled (generally printer, digitizer, and graphics
drivers).

(3) Run GRASS compilation script

(4) Run GRASS program linking script

(5) Edit device driver configuratin files

(6) Compile GRASS contributed, alpha programs.

(7) Compile GRASS related and hybrid programs.

_COMPILATION STEPS (DETAILS) _

_(1) Generate make support files_

Each machine and location needs to have GRASS compiled in ways
that specify different:
+ compilation and load flags
+ system libraries
+ installation directories
+ default data bases and locations
The shell script utils/setup assists you in define many of the make
options and definitions that will become part of every
compile-time generated makefile (about 350). It also creates your
shell script for compiling individual GRASS programs - gmake4.2.

Run "utils/setup" and answer the questions.

The makefile portions are placed in the head/ under a name which
you specify/approve in the utils/setup process. The executable
shell script which directs compilation is placed in (by default)
/usr/local/bin.

Examine the just created file in head/ to make sure things are ok.
A brief description for each defined variable follows:

ARCH = Key name identifying the architecture of the machine
on which you are compiling GRASS.
GISBASE = Directory into which compiled GRASS will be contained
UNIX_BIN = Local directory where the GRASS entry program and gmake
will be contained

DEFAULT_DATABASE= Directory where local GRASS data bases are contained
DEFAULT_LOCATION= GRASS data base that users get as the first default

COMPILE_FLAGS = Compilation flags
LDFLAGS = Load flags

TERMLIB = System library containing low-level cursor movement
CURSES = System library that supports screen cursor control
MATHLIB = System math library
LIBRULE = Method for archiving and randomizing libraries

USE_TERMIO = Flag to use the termio library if available
USE_MTIO = Flag to use the mtio library if available
CAN_CLEAR = Flag indicating that the terminal screen can be cleared
DIGITFLAGS = Flags to set owner and priority of the v.digit program

_(2) Edit files containing lists of location and machine specified
programs_

The directory lists/ contains files that list directories that
will be compiled. Directory names are relative to the GRASS src
directory. The file lists/GRASS lists all basic GRASS programs
that get compiled at every site. The file lists/local and
lists/$ARCH.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
$ARCH is the architecture name you approved while running the
utils/setup script. You can determine this by running:
gmake4.2 -sh | grep ARCH
-----------------------------------------------------------------
There man not be a lists/$ARCH file, but you are free to create it to
add names of programs you want compiled specifically for this
architecture. It is an architecture-specific list which allows NFS
linked source code to compile one set of programs for one machine,
and another set for another machine. All machines that share the
same source code via NFS mounts will compile the directories
listed in lists/local.

All lists may contain comment lines - indicated by a # as the
first character in the line. The lists/local file contains lists
of all digitizer, graphics, and paint (hard-copy map) drivers. All
machine specific devices are commented out - you must uncomment
those that are particular to your site or architecture. You are
encouraged to move the graphics driver items to the appropriate
lists/$ARCH file.

_(3) Run GRASS compilation program_

The script GISGEN drives the compilation process. If all goes well
you will be able to simply enter the command GISGEN and wait. The
entire compilation process takes from about 1/2 hour on the faster
workstations to about 8 hours on the slower workstations.

GISGEN collects all of the directory names to be compiled from
lists/GRASS lists/$ARCH and lists/local and begins running
gmake4.2 in each directory. Screen output is a collection of
messages from GISGEN and from the UNIX make program. Failure at
any step will halt compilation. On failure you might do one of the
following things:

1 - Fix a compilation problem by modifying code in the directory that
failed. After modification, return to this directory and rerun
GISGEN. Compilation will pick up at the failed directory and continue
down the list of directories if successful.

2 - Restart GISGEN. If the failure requires modifications to code already
compiled, or the compilation options you set in step 1, you must
remove next_step/$ARCH (or next_step/next_step if ar architecture name
was not specified in step 2. You may then rerun GISGEN.

3 - Skip the failed directory. In this case you must seek through the
files list/GRASS lists/$ARCH and lists/local to determine the directory
name that follows the failed directory name. The failed name is in
next_step/$ARCH and must be replaced in that file with the next name.
After editing, rerun GISGEN

When complete GISGEN will put the word DONE into the next_step
file and will print the phrase "DONE generating GIS binary code"
to the screen.

_(4) Run GRASS program linking script_

The GISGEN directs a compilation process that stashes the GRASS
programs away in directories unavailable to the user community.
Most user commands are actually links to a single program called
"front.end". Links to this program must be made for every actual
GRASS program. This is done AFTER GISGEN is finished. To make (or
re-make) links for all user programs run the script MAKELINKS.

_(5) Edit device driver configuratin files_

Your compiled system may any combination of several graphics,
paint, and digitizer drivers. Refer to the GRASS installation
instructions for details.

NOTE: If you have trouble compiling your graphics driver, go to
the directory $GIS/src/display/devices and compile the proper
drivers manually using gmake4.2.

_(6) Compile GRASS contributed, alpha programs._

GRASS programs come in three flavors:

MAIN - The programs are those compiled in step 3. They have stood
the test of time and are generally reliable programs.

ALPHA - Alpha programs are intended to be included with the MAIN
programs in the next release.

CONTRIB - Sites generate lots of special purpose programs in GRASS
to get some job done, but do not polish the effort sufficiently to
even be considered alpha code can be distributed in this category.

ALPHA programs are found in the directory src.alpha. You, the
installer may visit these programs and compile any that you
desire. In directories that contain Gmakefile files, simply run:
gmake4.2

CONTRIB programs are in the directory src.contrib. The state of
these programs are varied. Some programs may compile with
gmake4.2; others are suitable as a starting point for programmers
who will be writing new software.

_(7) Compile GRASS related and hybrid programs._

The GRASS user community has discovered that there are several
public-domain programs that are very useful in conjunction with
GRASS. These are found in the directory src.related. Compile these
programs based on instructions (or lack of instructions) in the
individual directories.

Hybrid programs are those that mix the capabilities of GRASS with
the capabilities of one or more of the "related" programs. These
are found in the src.garden directory. They require successful
compilation of the "related" programs and generally compile using
the gmake4.2 and the included Gmakefile files.
_____________________________________________________________

The rest of the compilation should just take some time. If you
have already installed GRASS binaries, you should back up your
system (or at least get the working binaries out of the way of
your compilation!).

Good Luck! And be secure in the likelihood that you can use the
compiled binaries if you bail out of a full compilation of the
source code.
_____________________________________________________________

Appendix D: If you plan to enhance any part of GRASS, read this first!

GRASS has been developed for over a decade as completely
unrestricted public domain source code and executables. Though
there was initial resistance to the existence of such robust
software in the public domain, many competitors learned to take
advantage of GRASS. It has reputedly been the intellectual
stimulus for several enhancements to other GISs. Several companies
conducted business by installing and customizing public domain
GRASS for customers, and by providing other value-added services
such as data base development.

As USA/CERL no longer supports the public version of GRASS, users
are free to use what currently exists. They're also currently
completely on their own. At least where the public domain version
is concerned.

There is a commercial version of
GRASS:http://www.las.com/grassland, adapted from the public domain
version by Logiciels et Applications Scientifiques (L.A.S) Inc. of
Montreal . In a recent check, LAS sold its GRASSLAND for Sun,
Linux and Windows NT. LAS is trying to encourage the continuation
of a robust public domain Linux, partly as a source of new ideas
and code for their own developments.

Appendix E: Example Linux versions of some critical GRASS files.

This appendix is the home of Linux-specific examples of selected
GRASS configuration files. Currently, only several examples of a
single file are offered. However, this is the most important file
for configuration! Later, examples of database configuration files
(e.g. DEFAULT_WIND) and other files may appear.

In the Installation Guide (pp. 10-11) you will see mention of the
[header] file in directory $GIS/src/CMD/header (where $GIS is the
directory in which you place GRASS - some folks put this in
/usr/local - I put everything in a GRASS' own filesystem/directory
/user/grass4.1). The installation guide favors Sun systems, as
these were the development environment for GRASS4. (In case you
cared, Masscomp workstations were earlier development
environments.) Below are examples of this file for linux (which
you might want to name linux in your $GIS/src/CMD/header
directory. You may want to refer to this section when running the
setup ($GIS/src/CMD/utils/setup) command.
_____________________________________________________________

One version:

CC = gcc
ARCH =

GISBASE = /user/grass4.1
UNIX_BIN = /user/grass4.1/bin

DEFAULT_DATABASE = /user/grass4.1/data
DEFAULT_LOCATION = china

COMPILE_FLAGS = -O2
LDFLAGS = -s

XCFLAGS = -D_NO_PROTO -DXM_1_1_BC
XLDFLAGS =
XINCPATH =
XMINCPATH =
XLIBPATH =
XTLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XMLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XLIB = -lX11
XTLIB = -lXt
XMLIB = -lXm
XEXTRALIBS =

TERMLIB =
CURSES = -lcurses $(TERMLIB)
MATHLIB = -lm

# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ar ts $@
# LIBRULE = ar rc $@ `lorder $(OBJ) | tsort`
LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?

USE_TERMIO = -DUSE_TERMIO
USE_MTIO = -DUSE_MTIO
USE_FTIME = -DUSE_FTIME
DIGITFLAGS = -DUSE_SETREUID -DUSE_SETPRIORITY
VECTLIBFLAGS =
GETHOSTNAME = -DGETHOSTNAME_OK

_____________________________________________________________

Another version:

#CC = gcc
#CC = gcc -ggdb -traditional
CC = gcc -traditional
#CC = gcc -static

ARCH = linux

GISBASE = /usr2/local/grass/grass4.1
UNIX_BIN = /usr/local/bin

DEFAULT_DATABASE = /usr2/local/grass
DEFAULT_LOCATION = grass4.1

COMPILE_FLAGS =
#COMPILE_FLAGS = -O
LDFLAGS = -s

XCFLAGS = -D_NO_PROTO
XLDFLAGS =
XINCPATH = -I$GISBASE/xgrass
#XINCPATH =
XMINCPATH =
XLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XTLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XMLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XLIB = -lX11
XTLIB = -lXt
XMLIB = -lXm
XEXTRALIBS =

TERMLIB =
CURSES = -lcurses $(TERMLIB)
MATHLIB = -lm

# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@

# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ar ts $@
# LIBRULE = ar rc $@ `lorder $(OBJ) | tsort`
LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@

USE_TERMIO = -DUSE_TERMIO
USE_MTIO = -DUSE_MTIO
USE_FTIME = -DUSE_FTIME
DIGITFLAGS = -DUSE_SETREUID -DUSE_SETPRIORITY
VECTLIBFLAGS =
GETHOSTNAME = -DGETHOSTNAME_OK

_____________________________________________________________

Another version:

#CC = gcc -traditional -ggdb
CC = gcc -traditional -m486
#CC = gcc
ARCH = linux

GISBASE = /usr/local/grass/grass4.1
UNIX_BIN = /usr/local/bin

DEFAULT_DATABASE = /usr/local/grass
DEFAULT_LOCATION = grass4.1

COMPILE_FLAGS = -O2
LDFLAGS = -s

XCFLAGS = -D_NO_PROTO -DXM_1_1_BC
XLDFLAGS =
XINCPATH =
XMINCPATH =
XLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XTLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XMLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XLIB = -lX11
XTLIB = -lXt
XMLIB = -lXm
XEXTRALIBS = -lXmu

TERMLIB =
CURSES = -lcurses $(TERMLIB)
MATHLIB = -lm

# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ar ts $@
# LIBRULE = ar rc $@ `lorder $(OBJ) | tsort`
LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@

#USE_TERMIO = #-DUSE_TERMIO
USE_TERMIO = -DUSE_TERMIO
USE_MTIO = -DUSE_MTIO
USE_FTIME = -DUSE_FTIME
DIGITFLAGS = -DUSE_SETREUID -DUSE_SETPRIORITY
VECTLIBFLAGS =
GETHOSTNAME = -DGETHOSTNAME_OK

_____________________________________________________________

Yet another version:

CC = cc
ARCH = linux

GISBASE = /usr/local/grass4.15/linux
UNIX_BIN = /usr/local/grass4.15/linux

DEFAULT_DATABASE = /data/grassdata
DEFAULT_LOCATION =

# -fwritable-strings - for ps.map only
#COMPILE_FLAGS = -O -m486 -fwritable-strings
COMPILE_FLAGS = -O -m486
LDFLAGS = -s

XCFLAGS = -D_NO_PROTO
XLDFLAGS =
XINCPATH =
XMINCPATH =
XLIBPATH = -L/usr/X11R6/lib
XTLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XMLIBPATH = -L/usr/lib
XLIB = -lX11
XTLIB = -lXt
XMLIB = -lXm
XEXTRALIBS =

TERMLIB =
CURSES = -lcurses $(TERMLIB)
MATHLIB = -lm

# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ranlib $@
# LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?; ar ts $@
# LIBRULE = ar rc $@ `lorder $(OBJ) | tsort`
LIBRULE = ar ruv $@ $?

USE_TERMIO = -DUSE_TERMIO
USE_MTIO = -DUSE_MTIO
USE_FTIME = -DUSE_FTIME
DIGITFLAGS = -DUSE_SETREUID -DUSE_SETPRIORITY
VECTLIBFLAGS = -DPORTABLE_3
GETHOSTNAME = -DGETHOSTNAME_OK

Intimidating? It probably shouldn't be if you've configured X
Windows on your Linux box. These examples should give you patterns
to look for when running the setup utility in GRASS (described in
the Installation Guide).