Linux Information Sheet
 Michael K. Johnson <[email protected]>
 v4.14, 1 September 1998

 This document provides basic information about the Linux operating
 system, including an explanation of Linux, a list of features, some
 requirements, and some resources.
 ______________________________________________________________________

 Table of Contents


 1. Introduction to Linux

 2. Linux Features

 3. Hardware Issues

    3.1 Minimal configuration
    3.2 Usable configuration
    3.3 Supported hardware

 4. An Incomplete List of Ported Programs and Other Software

 5. Who uses Linux?

 6. Getting Linux

    6.1 Anonymous FTP
    6.2 CDROM
    6.3 Other methods of obtaining Linux

 7. Legal Status of Linux

 8. News About Linux

 9. The Future

 10. This document

 11. Legalese



 ______________________________________________________________________

 11..  IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn ttoo LLiinnuuxx

 Linux is a completely free reimplementation of the POSIX
 specification, with SYSV and BSD extensions (which means it looks like
 Unix, but does not come from the same source code base), which is
 available in both source code and binary form.  Its copyright is owned
 by Linus Torvalds <[email protected]> and other contributors, and
 is freely redistributable under the terms of the GNU General Public
 License (GPL).  A copy of the GPL is included with the Linux source;
 you can also get a copy from  <ftp://prep.ai.mit.edu/pub/gnu/COPYING>

 LLiinnuuxx, per se, is only the kernel of the operating system, the part
 that controls hardware, manages files, separates processes, and so
 forth.  There are several combinations of Linux with sets of utilities
 and applications to form a complete operating system.  Each of these
 combinations is called a ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn of Linux.  The word LLiinnuuxx,
 though it in its strictest form refers specifically to the kernel, is
 also widely and correctly to refer to an entire operating system built
 around the Linux kernel.  For a list and brief discription of various
 distributions, see <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/HOWTO/Distribution-
 HOWTO.html> NNoonnee of these distributions is ``the official Linux''.

 Linux is nnoott public domain, nor is it `shareware'.  It is `free'
 software, commonly called ffrreeeewwaarree or OOppeenn SSoouurrccee SSooffttwwaarree[[ttmm]] (see
 <http://www.opensource.org>), and you may give away or sell copies,
 but you must include the source code or make it available in the same
 way as any binaries you give or sell.  If you distribute any
 modifications, you are legally bound to distribute the source for
 those modifications.  See the GNU General Public License for details.

 Linux is still free as of version 2.0, and will continue to be free.
 Because of the nature of the GPL to which Linux is subject, it would
 be illegal for it to be made not free.  Note carefully: the `free'
 part involves access to the source code rather than money; it is
 perfectly legal to charge money for distributing Linux, so long as you
 also distribute the source code.  This is a generalization; if you
 want the fine points, read the GPL.

 Linux runs on 386/486/Pentium machines with ISA, EISA, PCI and VLB
 busses.  MCA (IBM's proprietary bus) is not well-supported in 2.0.x
 and earlier versions, but support has been added to the current
 development tree, 2.1.x.  If you are interested, see
 <http://glycerine.itsmm.uni.edu/mca>

 There is a port to multiple Motorola 680x0 platforms (currently
 running on some Amigas, Ataris, and VME machines), which now works
 quite well.  It requires a 68020 with an MMU, a 68030, 68040, or a
 68060, and also requires an FPU. Networking and X now work.  See
 <news:comp.os.linux.m68k>

 Linux runs well on DEC's Alpha CPU, currently supporting the "Jensen",
 "NoName", "Cabriolet", "Universal Desktop Box" (better known as the
 Multia), and many other platforms.  For more information, see
 <http://www.azstarnet.com/~axplinux/FAQ.html>

 Linux runs well on Sun SPARCs; most sun4c, sun4m, and sun4u machines
 now run Linux, with support for sun4 in development.  Red Hat Linux is
 (as of this writing) the only Linux distribution available for SPARCs;
 see <http://www.redhat.com/support/docs/rhl-sparc/>

 Linux is being actively ported to the PowerPC architecture, including
 PowerMac (Nubus and PCI), Motorola, IBM, and Be machines.  See
 <http://www.cs.nmt.edu/~linuxppc/> and <http://www.linuxppc.org/>

 Ports to other machines, including MIPS (see
 <http://linus.linux.sgi.com> and  <http://lena.fnet.fr/>) and ARM, are
 under way and showing various amounts of progress.  Don't hold your
 breath, but if you are interested and able to contribute, you may well
 find other developers who wish to work with you.

 Linux is no longer considered to be in beta testing, as version 1.0
 was released on March 14, 1994.  There are still bugs in the system,
 and new bugs will creep up and be fixed as time goes on.  Because
 Linux follows the ``open development model'', all new versions will be
 released to the public, whether or not they are considered
 ``production quality''.  However, in order to help people tell whether
 they are getting a stable version or not, the following scheme has
 been implemented:  Versions n.x.y, where x is an even number, are
 stable versions, and only bug fixes will be applied as y is
 incremented.  So from version 1.2.2 to 1.2.3, there were only bug
 fixes, and no new features.  Versions n.x.y, where x is an odd number,
 are beta-quality releases for developers only, and may be unstable and
 may crash, and are having new features added to them all the time.
 >From time to time, as the currect development kernel stabilizes, it
 will be frozen as the new ``stable'' kernel, and development will
 continue on a new development version of the kernel.  Note that most
 releases of the Linux kernel, beta or not, are relatively robust;
 ``stable'' in this context means ``slow to change'' in addition to
 ``robust''.

 The current stable version is 2.0.35 (this will continue to change as
 new device drivers get added and bugs fixed), and development has also
 started on the experimental 2.1.x kernels.  The Linux kernel source
 code contains a file, Documentation/Changes, which explains changes
 that you should be aware of when upgrading from one kernel version to
 another.  However, the great majority of Linux users simply update
 their Linux distribution occasionally to get a new kernel version.

 Most versions of Linux, beta or not, are quite robust, and you can
 keep using those if they do what you need and you don't want to be on
 the bleeding edge.  One site had a computer running version 0.97p1
 (dating from the summer of 1992) for over 136 days without an error or
 crash.  (It would have been longer if the backhoe operator hadn't
 mistaken a main power transformer for a dumpster...) Others have
 posted uptimes in excess of a year. One site still had a computer
 running Linux 0.99p15s over 600 days at last report.

 One thing to be aware of is that Linux is developed using an open and
 distributed model, instead of a closed and centralized model like much
 other software.  This means that the current development version is
 always public (with up to a week or two of delay) so that anybody can
 use it.  The result is that whenever a version with new functionality
 is released, it almost always contains bugs, but it also results in a
 very rapid development so that the bugs are found and corrected
 quickly, often in hours, as many people work to fix them.

 In contrast, the closed and centralized model means that there is only
 one person or team working on the project, and they only release
 software that they think is working well.  Often this leads to long
 intervals between releases, long waiting for bug fixes, and slower
 development.  The latest release of such software to the public is
 sometimes of higher quality, but the development speed is generally
 much slower.

 For a discussion of these two models, read ``The Cathedral and the
 Bazaar'' at  <http://sagan.earthspace.net/~esr/writings/cathedral-
 bazaar/> by Eric Raymond.

 As of September 1, 1998, the current stable version of Linux is
 2.0.35, and the latest development version is 2.1.119.


 22..  LLiinnuuxx FFeeaattuurreess


 +o  multitasking: several programs running at the same time.

 +o  multiuser: several users on the same machine at the same time (and
    nnoo two-user licenses!).

 +o  multiplatform: runs on many different CPUs, not just Intel.

 +o  multiprocessor: SMP support is available on the Intel and SPARC
    platforms (with work currently in progress on other platforms), and
    Linux is used in several loosely-coupled MP applications, including
    Beowulf systems (see <http://cesdis.gsfc.nasa.gov/linux-
    web/beowulf/beowulf.html>) and the Fujitsu AP1000+ SPARC-based
    supercomputer.

 +o  multithreading: has native kernel support for multiple independent
    threads of control within a single process memory space.

 +o  runs in protected mode on the 386.

 +o  has memory protection between processes, so that one program can't
    bring the whole system down.

 +o  demand loads executables: Linux only reads from disk those parts of
    a program that are actually used.

 +o  shared copy-on-write pages among executables.  This means that
    multiple process can use the same memory to run in.  When one tries
    to write to that memory, that page (4KB piece of memory) is copied
    somewhere else.  Copy-on-write has two benefits: increasing speed
    and decreasing memory use.

 +o  virtual memory using paging (not swapping whole processes) to disk:
    to a separate partition or a file in the filesystem, or both, with
    the possibility of adding more swapping areas during runtime (yes,
    they're still called swapping areas).  A total of 16 of these 128
    MB (2GB in recent kernels) swapping areas can be used at the same
    time, for a theoretical total of 2 GB of useable swap space.  It is
    simple to increase this if necessary, by changing a few lines of
    source code.

 +o  a unified memory pool for user programs and disk cache, so that all
    free memory can be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced
    when running large programs.

 +o  dynamically linked shared libraries (DLL's), and static libraries
    too, of course.

 +o  does core dumps for post-mortem analysis, allowing the use of a
    debugger on a program not only while it is running but also after
    it has crashed.

 +o  mostly compatible with POSIX, System V, and BSD at the source
    level.

 +o  through an iBCS2-compliant emulation module, mostly compatible with
    SCO, SVR3, and SVR4 at the binary level.

 +o  all source code is available, including the whole kernel and all
    drivers, the development tools and all user programs; also, all of
    it is freely distributable.  Plenty of commercial programs are
    being provided for Linux without source, but everything that has
    been free, including the entire base operating system, is still
    free.

 +o  POSIX job control.

 +o  pseudoterminals (pty's).

 +o  387-emulation in the kernel so that programs don't need to do their
    own math emulation.  Every computer running Linux appears to have a
    math coprocessor.  Of course, if your computer already contains an
    FPU, it will be used instead of the emulation, and you can even
    compile your own kernel with math emulation removed, for a small
    memory gain.

 +o  support for many national or customized keyboards, and it is fairly
    easy to add new ones dynamically.

 +o  multiple virtual consoles: several independent login sessions
    through the console, you switch by pressing a hot-key combination
    (not dependent on video hardware).  These are dynamically
    allocated; you can use up to 64.

 +o  Supports several common filesystems, including minix, Xenix, and
    all the common system V filesystems, and has an advanced filesystem
    of its own, which offers filesystems of up to 4 TB, and names up to
    255 characters long.

 +o  transparent access to MS-DOS partitions (or OS/2 FAT partitions)
    via a special filesystem: you don't need any special commands to
    use the MS-DOS partition, it looks just like a normal Unix
    filesystem (except for funny restrictions on filenames,
    permissions, and so on).  MS-DOS 6 compressed partitions do not
    work at this time without a patch (dmsdosfs).  VFAT (WNT, Windows
    95) support and FAT-32 is available in Linux 2.0

 +o  special filesystem called UMSDOS which allows Linux to be installed
    on a DOS filesystem.

 +o  read-only HPFS-2 support for OS/2 2.1

 +o  HFS (Macintosh) file system support is available separately as a
    module.

 +o  CD-ROM filesystem which reads all standard formats of CD-ROMs.

 +o  TCP/IP networking, including ftp, telnet, NFS, etc.

 +o  Appletalk server

 +o  Netware client and server

 +o  Lan Manager/Windows Native (SMB) client and server

 +o  Many networking protocols: the base protocols available in the
    latest development kernels include TCP, IPv4, IPv6, AX.25, X.25,
    IPX, DDP (Appletalk), Netrom, and others.  Stable network protocols
    included in the stable kernels currently include TCP, IPv4, IPX,
    DDP, and AX.25.



 33..  HHaarrddwwaarree IIssssuueess

 33..11..  MMiinniimmaall ccoonnffiigguurraattiioonn

 The following is probably the smallest possible configuration that
 Linux will work on: 386SX/16, 1 MB RAM, 1.44 MB or 1.2 MB floppy, any
 supported video card (+ keyboards, monitors, and so on of course).
 This should allow you to boot and test whether it works at all on the
 machine, but you won't be able to do anything useful.  See
 <http://rsphy1.anu.edu.au/~gpg109/mem.html> for minimal Linux
 configurations

 In order to do something, you will want some hard disk space as well,
 5 to 10 MB should suffice for a very minimal setup (with only the most
 important commands and perhaps one or two small applications
 installed, like, say, a terminal program).  This is still very, very
 limited, and very uncomfortable, as it doesn't leave enough room to do
 just about anything, unless your applications are quite limited.  It's
 generally not recommended for anything but testing if things work, and
 of course to be able to brag about small resource requirements.


 33..22..  UUssaabbllee ccoonnffiigguurraattiioonn

 If you are going to run computationally intensive programs, such as
 gcc, X, and TeX, you will probably want a faster processor than a
 386SX/16, but even that should suffice if you are patient.
 In practice, you will want at least 4 MB of RAM if you don't use X,
 and 8 MB if you do.  Also, if you want to have several users at a
 time, or run several large programs (compilations for example) at a
 time, you may want more than 4 MB of memory.  It may still work with a
 smaller amount of memory, but it will use virtual memory (using the
 hard drive as ssllooww memory) and that will be so slow as to be unusable.
 If you use many programs at the same time, 16 MB will reduce swapping
 considerably.  If you don't want to swap appreciably under normal
 load, 32 MB will probably suffice for a single user.  If you run lots
 of memory-intensive applications at once, 64 MB may be necessary to
 avoid lots of swapping.  Of course, if you run memory-hungry
 applications, you may want more.

 The amount of hard disk you need depends on what software you want to
 install.  The normal basic set of Unix utilities, shells, and
 administrative programs should be comfortable in less than 10 MB, with
 a bit of room to spare for user files.  For a more complete system,
 get Red Hat, Debian, or another distribution, and assume that you will
 need 60 to 600 MB, depending on what you choose to install and what
 distribution you get.  Add whatever space you want to reserve for user
 files to these totals.  With today's prices on hard drives, if you are
 buying a new system, it makes no sense to buy a drive that is too
 small.  Get at least 2 GB, preferably 4 GB or more, and you will not
 regret it.  Linux will happily handle very large hard drive such as
 the recently popular 11 GB IDE hard drives or 18 GB SCSI hard drives.

 Add more memory, more hard disk, a faster processor and other stuff
 depending on your needs, wishes and budget to go beyond the merely
 usable.  In general, one big difference from DOS is that with Linux,
 adding memory makes a large difference, whereas with DOS, extra memory
 doesn't make that much difference.  This of course has something to do
 with DOS's 640KB limit, which is completely nonexistent under Linux.


 33..33..  SSuuppppoorrtteedd hhaarrddwwaarree


    CCPPUU::
       Anything that runs 386 protected mode programs.  All models of
       386s 486s, Pentiums, Pentium Pros, Pentium IIs, and clones of
       these chips should work.  (286s and below may someday be
       supported on a smaller kernel called ELKS (Embeddable Linux
       Kernel Subset), but don't expect the same capabilities).  A
       version for the 680x0 CPU (for _x = 2 with external MMU, 3, 4,
       and 6) which runs on Amigas and Ataris can be found at
       tsx-11.mit.edu in the 680x0 directory.  Many DEC Alphas, SPARCs,
       and PowerPC machines are supported.  Ports are also being done
       to the ARM, StrongARM, and MIPS architectures.  More details are
       available elsewhere.


    AArrcchhiitteeccttuurree::
       PCI, ISA, EISA, and VLB busses.  MCA (mostly true blue PS/2s)
       support is incomplete but improving (see above).  Linux puts
       higher demands on hardware than DOS, Windows, and in fact most
       operating systems.  This means that some marginal hardware that
       doesn't fail when running less demanding operating system may
       fail when running Linux.  Linux is an excellent memory tester...


    RRAAMM::
       Up to 1 GB on Intel; more on 64-bit platforms.  Some people
       (including Linus) have noted that adding ram without adding more
       cache at the same time has slowed down their machine extremely,
       so if you add memory and find your machine slower, try adding
       more cache.  Some machines can only cache certain amounts of
       memory regardless of how much RAM is installed (64 MB is the
       most one popular chipset can cache).  Over 64 MB of memory will
       require a boot-time parameter with kernels 2.0.35 and earlier,
       as the BIOS was originally designed to be unable to report more
       than 64MB.  Recent 2.1.x kernels and later are able to detect
       more memory in a system.


    DDaattaa ssttoorraaggee::
       Generic AT drives (EIDE, IDE, 16 bit HD controllers with MFM or
       RLL, or ESDI) are supported, as are SCSI hard disks and CD-ROMs,
       with a supported SCSI adaptor.  Generic XT controllers (8 bit
       controllers with MFM or RLL) are also supported.  Supported SCSI
       adaptors: Advansys, Adaptec 1542, 1522, 1740, 27xx, and 29xx
       (with some exceptions) series, Buslogic MultiMaster and
       Flashpoint, NCR53c8xx-based controllers, DPT controllers, Qlogic
       ISP and FAS controllers, Seagate ST-01 and ST-02, Future Domain
       TMC-88x series (or any board based on the TMC950 chip) and
       TMC1660/1680, Ultrastor 14F, 24F and 34F, Western Digital
       wd7000, and others.  SCSI, QIC-02, and some QIC-80 tapes are
       also supported.  Besides IDE and SCSU cdroms, several
       proprietary CD-ROM devices are also supported, including
       Matsushita/Panasonic, Mitsumi, Sony, Soundblaster, Toshiba,
       ATAPI (EIDE), SCSI, and others.  For exact models, check the
       hardware compatibility HOWTO.  NN..BB.. These lists are incomplete,
       and always will be.  Distribution vendors maintain more up-to-
       date lists.


    VViiddeeoo::
       VGA, EGA, CGA, or Hercules (and compatibles) work in text mode.
       For graphics and X, there is support for (at least) normal VGA,
       some super-VGA cards (most of the cards based on Tseng,
       Paradise, and some Trident chipsets), S3, 8514/A, ATI, Matrox,
       and Hercules.  (Linux uses the XFree86 X server, so that
       determines what cards are supported.  A full list of supported
       chipsets alone takes over a page.  See
       <http://www.XFree86.org/>)


    NNeettwwoorrkkiinngg::
       Ethernet support includes 3COM 503/509/579/589/595/905
       (501/505/507 are supported but not recomended), AT&T GIS (nee
       NCR) WaveLAN, most WD8390-based cards, most WD80x3-based cards,
       NE1000/2000 and most clones, AC3200, Apricot 82596, AT1700, ATP,
       DE425/434/435/500, D-Link DE-600/620, DEPCA, DE100/101,
       DE200/201/202 Turbo, DE210, DE422, Cabletron E2100 (not
       recommended), Intel EtherExpress (not recommended), EtherExpress
       Pro, EtherExpress 100, DEC EtherWORKS 3, HP LAN, HP PCLAN/plus,
       most AMD LANCE-based cards, NI5210, ni6510, SMC Ultra, DEC 21040
       (tulip), Zenith Z-Note ethernet, All Zircom cards and all
       Cabletron cards other than the E2100 are unsupported, due to the
       manufacturers unwillingness to release programming information
       freely.

       FDDI support currently includes the DEF_x_x cards from DEC.

       Point-to-Point networking support include PPP, SLIP, CSLIP, and
       PLIP.  PPP support is available for both standard asyncronous
       devices like modems, and syncronous connections like ISDN.

       Limited Token Ring support is available.


    SSeerriiaall::
       Most 16450 and 16550 UART-based boards, including AST Fourport,
       the Usenet Serial Card II, and others.  Intelligent boards
       supported include Cyclades Cyclom series (supported by the
       manufacturer), Comtrol Rocketport series (supported by the
       manufacturer), Stallion (most boards; supported by the
       manufacturer), and Digi (some boards; supported by the
       manufacturer).  Some ISDN, frame relay, and leased line hardware
       is supported.


    OOtthheerr hhaarrddwwaarree::
       SoundBlaster, ProAudio Spectrum 16, Gravis Ultrasound, most
       other sound cards, most (all?)  flavours of bus mice (Microsoft,
       Logitech, PS/2), etc.


 44..  AAnn IInnccoommpplleettee LLiisstt ooff PPoorrtteedd PPrrooggrraammss aanndd OOtthheerr SSooffttwwaarree

 Most of the common Unix tools and programs have been ported to Linux,
 including almost all GNU software and many X clients from various
 sources.  Actually, ported is often too strong a word, since many
 programs compile out of the box without modifications, or only small
 modifications, because Linux tracks POSIX quite closely.  There are
 never enough applications for any operating system, but Linux is
 gaining both end-user applications and server applications.  Contact
 the vendor of your favorite commercial Unix application and ask if
 they have ported it to Linux.

 Here is an incomplete list of software that is known to work under
 Linux:


    BBaassiicc UUnniixx ccoommmmaannddss::
       ls, tr, sed, awk and so on (you name it, Linux probably has it).


    DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ttoooollss::
       gcc, gdb, make, bison, flex, perl, rcs, cvs, prof.


    LLaanngguuaaggeess aanndd EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttss::
       C, C++, Objective C, Java, Modula-3, Modula-2, Oberon, Ada95,
       Pascal, Fortran, ML, scheme, Tcl/tk, Perl, Python, Common Lisp,
       and many others.


    GGrraapphhiiccaall eennvviirroonnmmeennttss::
       GNOME and KDE (desktops), X11R6 (XFree86 3.x), X11R5 (XFree86
       2.x), MGR.


    EEddiittoorrss::
       GNU Emacs, XEmacs, MicroEmacs, jove, ez, epoch, elvis (GNU vi),
       vim, vile, joe, pico, jed, and others.


    SShheellllss::
       bash (POSIX sh-compatible), zsh (includes ksh compatiblity
       mode), pdksh, tcsh, csh, rc, es, ash (mostly sh-compatible shell
       used as /bin/sh by BSD), and many more.


    TTeelleeccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn::
       PPP, UUCP, SLIP, CSLIP, full TCP/IP communication toolset,
       kermit, szrz, minicom, pcomm, xcomm, term (runs multiple shells,
       redirects network activity, and allows remote X, all over one
       modem line), Seyon (popular X-windows communications program),
       and several fax and voice-mail (using ZyXEL and other modems)
       packages are available.  Of course, remote serial and network
       logins are supported.


    NNeewwss aanndd mmaaiill::
       C-news, innd, trn, nn, tin, smail, elm, mh, exmh, pine, mutt,
       etc.


    TTeexxttpprroocceessssiinngg::
       TeX, groff, doc, ez, LyX, Lout, Linuxdoc-SGML, and others.


    GGaammeess::
       Nethack, several Muds and X games, and lots of others.  One of
       those games is looking through all the games available at tsx-11
       and sunsite.

 All of these programs (and this isn't even a hundredth of what is
 available) are freely available.  Commercial software is becoming
 widely available; ask the vendor of your favorite commercial software
 if they support Linux.


 55..  WWhhoo uusseess LLiinnuuxx??

 Linux is freely available, and no one is required to register their
 copies with any central authority, so it is difficult to know how many
 people use Linux.  Several businesses now survive solely on selling
 and supporting Linux, and the Linux newsgroups are some of the most
 heavily read on the internet, so the number is likely in the millions,
 but firm numbers are hard to come by.  The best market research
 currently indicates between 7.5 and 11 million users.


 One brave soul, Harald T. Alvestrand <[email protected]>,
 has decided to try to count Linux users the hard way: one by one.  If
 you are willing to be counted as a Linux user, please use the web
 forms available at  <http://counter.li.org/> Alternatively, you can
 send a message to [email protected] with one of the following
 subjects: `I use Linux at home', `I use Linux at work', or `I use
 Linux at home and at work'.  He will also accept `third-party'
 registrations; ask him for details.


 He posts his counts to  <news:comp.os.linux.misc> each month; they are
 also available from  <http://counter.li.org/>.


 66..  GGeettttiinngg LLiinnuuxx

 66..11..  AAnnoonnyymmoouuss FFTTPP

 For freely-redistributable Linux documentation, see the Linux
 Documentation Project sites at
 <ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/LDP/> and
 <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/>


 Stay tuned to the <news:comp.os.linux.announce> newsgroup for further
 developments.

 At least the following anonymous ftp sites carry Linux.


      Textual name                   Numeric address  Linux directory
      =============================  ===============  ===============
      tsx-11.mit.edu                 18.172.1.2       /pub/linux
      sunsite.unc.edu                152.2.22.81      /pub/Linux
      ftp.funet.fi                   128.214.248.6    /pub/Linux
      net.tamu.edu                   128.194.177.1    /pub/linux
      ftp.mcc.ac.uk                  130.88.203.12    /pub/linux
      src.doc.ic.ac.uk               146.169.2.1      /packages/linux
      fgb1.fgb.mw.tu-muenchen.de     129.187.200.1    /pub/linux
      ftp.informatik.tu-muenchen.de  131.159.0.110    /pub/comp/os/linux
      ftp.dfv.rwth-aachen.de         137.226.4.111    /pub/linux
      ftp.informatik.rwth-aachen.de  137.226.225.3    /pub/Linux
      ftp.Germany.EU.net             192.76.144.75    /pub/os/Linux
      ftp.lip6.fr                    132.227.77.2     /pub/linux
      ftp.uu.net                     137.39.1.9       /systems/unix/linux
      wuarchive.wustl.edu            128.252.135.4    mirrors/linux
      ftp.win.tue.nl                 131.155.70.100   /pub/linux
      ftp.stack.urc.tue.nl           131.155.2.71     /pub/linux
      srawgw.sra.co.jp               133.137.4.3      /pub/os/linux
      cair.kaist.ac.kr                                /pub/Linux
      ftp.denet.dk                   129.142.6.74     /pub/OS/linux
      NCTUCCCA.edu.tw                140.111.1.10     /Operating-Systems/Linux
      nic.switch.ch                  130.59.1.40      /mirror/linux
      sunsite.cnlab-switch.ch        193.5.24.1       /mirror/linux
      cnuce_arch.cnr.it              131.114.1.10     /pub/Linux
      ftp.monash.edu.au              130.194.11.8     /pub/linux
      ftp.dstc.edu.au                130.102.181.31   /pub/linux
      ftp.sydutech.usyd.edu.au       129.78.192.2     /pub/linux





 tsx-11.mit.edu and fgb1.fgb.mw.tu-muenchen.de are the official sites
 for Linux's GCC.  Some sites mirror other sites.  Please use the site
 closest (network-wise) to you whenever possible.

 At least sunsite.unc.edu and ftp.informatik.tu-muenchen.de offer
 ftpmail services.  Mail [email protected] or [email protected]
 muenchen.de for help.

 If you are lost, try looking at
 <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/HOWTO/Distribution-HOWTO.html>, where
 several distributions are enumerated.  Red Hat Linux and Debian appear
 to be the most popular distributions at the moment, at least in the
 U.S.


 66..22..  CCDDRROOMM

 Most people now install Linux from CDROM's.  The distributions have
 grown to hundreds of MBs of Linux software, and downloading that over
 even a 28.8 modem or an ISDN connection takes a lloonngg time.


 There are essentially two ways to purchase a Linux distribution on
 CDROM: as part of an archive of FTP sites, or directly from the
 manufacturer.  If you purchase an archive, you will often get several
 different distributions to choose from, but support is generally not
 included.  When you purchase a distribution directly from the vendor,
 you usually only get one distribution, but you usually get some form
 of support, usually installation support.




 66..33..  OOtthheerr mmeetthhooddss ooff oobbttaaiinniinngg LLiinnuuxx

 There are many BBSs that have Linux files.  A list of them is
 occasionally posted to comp.os.linux.announce.  Ask friends and user
 groups, or order one of the commmercial distributions.  A list of
 these is contained in the Linux distribution HOWTO, available as
 <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/HOWTO/Distribution-HOWTO.html>, and posted
 regularily to the  <news:comp.os.linux.announce> newsgroup.



 77..  LLeeggaall SSttaattuuss ooff LLiinnuuxx

 Although Linux is supplied with the complete source code, it is
 copyrighted software, not public domain.  However, it is available for
 free under the GNU General Public License, sometimes referred to as
 the ``copyleft''.  See the GPL for more information.  The programs
 that run under Linux each have their own copyright, although many of
 them use the GPL as well.  X uses the MIT X copyright, and some
 utilities are under the BSD copyright.  In any case, all of the
 software on the FTP site is freely distributable (or else it shouldn't
 be there).


 88..  NNeewwss AAbboouutt LLiinnuuxx

 A monthly magazine, called _L_i_n_u_x _J_o_u_r_n_a_l, was launched over four years
 ago.  It includes articles intended for almost all skill levels, and
 is intended to be helpful to all Linux users.  One-year subscriptions
 are $22 in the U.S., $27 in Canada and Mexico, and $32 elsewhere,
 payable in US currency.  Subscription inquiries can be sent via email
 to [email protected], or faxed to +1-206-782-7191, or phoned to
 +1-206-782-7733, or mailed to Linux Journal, PO Box 85867, Seattle, WA
 98145-1867 USA.  SSC has a PGP public key available for encrypting
 your mail to protect your credit card number; finger [email protected] to
 get the key.

 There are several Usenet newsgroups for Linux discussion, and also
 several mailing lists.  See the Linux FAQ for more information about
 the mailing lists (you should be able to find the FAQ either in the
 newsgroup or on the FTP sites).

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.announce> is a moderated newsgroup
 for announcements about Linux (new programs, bug fixes, etc).

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.answers> is a moderated newsgroup
 to which the Linux FAQ, HOWTO documents, and other documentation
 postings are made.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.admin> is an unmoderated newsgroup
 for discussion of administration of Linux systems.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.development.system> is an
 unmoderated newsgroup specifically for discussion of Linux kkeerrnneell
 development.  The only application development questions that should
 be discussed here are those that are intimately associated with the
 kernel.  All other development questions are probably generic Unix
 development questions and should be directed to a comp.unix group
 instead, unless they are very Linux-specific applications questions,
 in which case they should be directed at
 comp.os.linux.development.apps.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.development.apps> is an unmoderated
 newsgroup specifically for discussion of Linux-related applications
 development.  It is not for discussion of where to get applications
 for Linux, nor a discussion forum for those who would like to see
 applications for Linux.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.hardware> is for Linux-specific
 hardware questions.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.networking> is for Linux-specific
 networking development and setup questions.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.x> is for Linux-specific X Windows
 questions.

 The newsgroup  <news:comp.os.linux.misc> is the replacement for
 comp.os.linux, and is meant for any discussion that doesn't belong
 elsewhere.

 In general, ddoo nnoott crosspost between the Linux newsgroups.  The oonnllyy
 crossposting that is appropriate is an occasional posting between one
 unmoderated group and  <news:comp.os.linux.announce>.  The whole point
 of splitting the old comp.os.linux group into many groups is to reduce
 traffic in each group.  Those that do not follow this rule will be
 flamed without mercy...

 Linux is on the web at the URL <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/>


 99..  TThhee FFuuttuurree

 After Linux 1.0 was released, work was done on several enhancements.
 Linux 1.2 included disk access speedups, TTY improvements, virtual
 memory enhancements, multiple platform support, quotas, and more.
 Linux 2.0, the current stable version, has even more enhancements,
 including many performance improvements, several new networking
 protocols, one of the fastest TCP/IP implementations in the world, and
 far, far more.  Even higher performance, more networking protocols,
 and more device drivers will be available in Linux 2.2.

 Even with over 3/4 million lines of code in the kernel, there is
 plenty of code left to write, and even more documentation.  Please
 join the [email protected] mailing list if you would like to
 contribute to the documentation. Send mail to
 [email protected] with a single line containing the word
 ``help'' in the body (NNOOTT the subject) of the message.


 1100..  TThhiiss ddooccuummeenntt

 This document is maintained by Michael K. Johnson
 <[email protected]>. Please mail me with any comments, no matter how
 small.  I can't do a good job of maintaining this document without
 your help.  A more-or-less current copy of this document can always be
 found at <http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/>


 1111..  LLeeggaalleessee

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