Co-Designers: Cultures of Computer Simulation in Architecture -- Yanni
Loukissas

Full Citation and Summary Loukissas, Yanni A. Co-Designers: Cultures of
Computer Simulation in Architecture. Abingdon, Oxon; Routledge, 2012. Web.

This book is an ethnographic study of architectural and engineering
professional identity through its relation to computer simulations. Loukissas
focuses on practices in the US and UK, specifically Ove Arup, with a program of
extensive interviews. His background in in architecture, design computation,
and social science research with a PhD from MIT Architecture (Sherry Turkle was
on his board). He currently teaches at Georgia Tech. in their Digital Media
program.

Chapter Notes

Preface
- Introduces the thrust of the book: exploration of the shift from manual to
 digital tools in architecture with a focus on changes in control and
 responsibility (pp. xi)
- Framed through professional identity, claims to expertise in relation to
 tech; personal from technological (pp. xi-xii)
- Approach influenced by Shelly Turkle (her focus on personal identity and
 tech.) (pp. xiii)
- Focus on US and UK (pp. xi), stresses his embedding at Ove Arup in England
 (pp. xiii)
- Ethnographic method: interviews + observation; interviews are more stressed
 here (pp. xii)
- Key scenes or excerpts as the argumentation (pp. xii)
- Info on his program since this was a dissertation proj. (pp. xiii-xiv)

1 -- Introducing the Electronic Brain (pp. 1-13)
Intro section (pp. 1-4)
- Outline of Arup symposium on use of computers 1963 as a means of introducing
 his focus on computer simulation (pp. 1-4)
- Simulations as visualizations of a building before its built; simple,
 individual simulations; complex computer simulations requiring complex
 networks (pp.2)
- Transformation of quality into quantity, "convincing" (pp. 2)
- Ambivalence towards computing (pp. 4)
- Architecture as good site to examine how simulation changes the workplace
 (pp. 3)
- Boundaries of Architecture (pp. 4-7) Changes in technology drawing the
 meaning of architecture as a discipline into question on the territories of
 professional identity, knowledge systems, and formal approach (pp. 4)
- Change in locus of decision making at nexus of human-machine-environment
 relation
- Focus on professional boundary between architects and engineers who both use
 simulations to project power (pp. 4-5)
- Proposes a more inclusive category of "co-designers" who take part in the
 process of designing buildings in partial ways through the system of
 processual relationships (pp. 5)
- Includes those on the fringe of design; though he focuses specifically on
 those who use simulations (arch. and eng.)
- Defines design as the manipulation of representations of environments (pp. 5)
- Also the negotiation of conception of architecture through rep. (pp. 6)
- Computer simulations as one of those representations; its meaning is a
 "language game" that is defined pragmatically to enable exchange; focus on
 simulations for consensus building through reality-making (pp. 6)
- Simulations as a strategic tool for professional positioning (pp. 6)
- Revelation of concurrent changes between tech. and professional culture (pp.
 7)
The Engineer, the Architect, and the Computer (pp. 7-8)
- Ove Arup's office as exemplary of collaborative-competitive professional
 dynamic in arch. practice especially around the use of computers in the
 office and in the relationship between arch. and eng. (pp. 7-8)
Social Lives of Simulations (pp. 8-9)
- Computers in general as simulation devices rather than calculating tools (pp.
 8)
- The "virtual worlds" (representations of reality rather than the real)
 affecting how people think of ourselves and meaning of being human [Turkle]
 (pp. 9)
- Use of simulations in architectural context to reconfig professional
 boundaries (pp. 9)
- Connection to audiences, illusion of specialization & generality,
 connectivity & isolation, human & non-human involvement (pp. 9)
An Ethnographic Account (pp. 9-10)
- YL as trained observer, an insider since he was trained as an architect (pp.
 9)
- Storytelling mode primarily, stories of individuals (pp. 9-10)
- Along social science axis of examining institutions of power and control (pp.
 10) Navigating this Book (pp. 11-13)
- General game plan of chapters

2 -- Cultures of Simulation (pp. 15-36)
Intro section (pp. 15-16)
- Simulations pervasive ion architecture since the renaissance, the need to
 visualize before building achieved through drawing and geometry (pp. 15)
- Invisibility of simulation use to outsiders, invisibility of labour process
 to users of buildings, so we can make these visible to get at changing
 conceptions of architecture (pp. 15)
- Selection of representations has implications for who is in control; see
 digital vs. traditional reps. (pp. 15) Architecture in Flux (pp. 16-18)
- Architectural and engineering conceptions of what computer simulations mean
 for their respective professions (pp. 16)
- In architecture, movement from modernist privileging of aesthetic role to new
 focus on technical expertise as aesthetic; arch. professional identity means
 positioning in relation to use of simulations (pp. 17)
- In engineering, focus on technical aspects of software and collaborative work
 with clients (pp. 17)
- In both, expectation that simulation will expand their professional roles
 (pp. 17) The Difficulty of Defining Simulation (pp. 18-19)
- Etymological exploration of "simulation" from medieval Latin connotations of
 deception and illusion to scientific meaning of imitation and extrapolation
 (pp. 18)
- For YL simulation = replications of reality constructed on computers with
 various kinds of, not always visual, outputs; both the process of simulating
 (the software/hardware) and its outputs (pp. 18)
- For YL, simulations produce a virtual reality which demonstrates outcomes for
 humans
- Shared "digital platform" but variation in computational methods and
 interfacings (pp. 18)
- Simulations are hybrids of various ways of knowing, only producing knowledge
 through expert users (pp. 19)
- No fixed definition of "simulation" but socially constructed definitions,
 pragmatically produced in practice (Sismondo & Winsberg also Simon) (pp. 19)
The Shared Space of Alternatives (pp. 19-21)
- View via Andrew Abbot that relation between professions is one of permanent
 dispute through collab. and competition (pp. 20)
- Tracking changes in professional discourse gets you to material co-evolution
 of tech. and professional org (pp. 20)
- Simulations as close to relationships: they must be "technically defensible
 [and] culturally palatable..." (pp. 20)
- Simulations as making trading zones (Galison) and shared "space of
 alternatives" (Herbert Simon) (pp. 20)
- The former comes from history of science (see the CCA book 2017) and the
 latter is akin to the "search space" or "solution space" (pp. 21)
Beyond Instrumentality (pp. 21-23)
- Takes issue with instrumental view of tech. but calls for tempering of
 tech.-as-worldmaking thing in Heidegger; in favour of Turkle/Papert view that
 tech frames our world, but we appropriate them as individuals (pp. 21-22)
- Simulation as necessary to understanding contemp. design practice since it's
 a means of "conversing with the materials of the situation" (Schoen) (pp. 22)
- Simulation in practice moves both ways: define and are defined (pp. 23)
Biography of a Simulation (pp. 23-28)
- Uses Arup's Fablon simulation software as a quick case study in how
 simulations change the organization of work in the office (pp. 23)
- Presents quick overview the epistemic change associated with computation:
 discretization of continuous phenomena (pp. 24-25)
- Discretization can't always be conformed to theory and must make intentional
 deviations to remain computationally "cheap" enough while still looking right
 and produce expected results (pp. 26)
- Fablon bringing new people into the design process through its implementation
 in specific projects: programmers whose actions pre-temper what can and
 cannot be done w/ their software, researchers (pp. 26)
- Expressive roles vs. supportive roles (pp. 27)
- Internalization of externally developed software; porting of old software and
 the transformations of its operations (pp. 28) Designers as Toolmakers (pp.
 28-33)
- Engineers and architects participating in design primarily as programmers;
 designers as toolmakers (pp. 28)
- Expansion of architectural discourse into computational discourse
- Programming -- producing software vs. scripting -- simplified for users to
 engage w/ software (pp. 29)
- Programming as historical intervention, building upon the past and
 "influencing" the future; problem-solving as an ethical stance (pp. 30)
- Software development to gain a sense of strategic responsibility/control,
 also building and maintaining social relationships (pp. 31)
- Coding as assimilated to the "epistemological culture" of design (Fox Keller)
 alongside publishing and projects (pp. 32)
- Coding is representational (like DCL 2015)
- Pitfalls of reliance on software, not knowing the math behind it (pp. 32)
- Turkle's distinction: Modernist Transparency = visibility of mechanisms;
 Postmodern Transparency = user friendliness w/ no need for anything beyond
 surface Designers as Operators (33-36)
- Story about implementing CATIA at Paul Morris Associates to show differing
 approaches to being an operator of technology in design (pp. 33)
- Resistance against CATIA: modelling = control, modelled designs as frozen
 (pp. 33)
- Architects defining themselves in relation to technology and each other (pp.
 34)
- Pro-CATIA: feeling of control over software, thinking through CATIA, medium
 (art) rather than tool (pp. 34-35)
- Making "non-technical identity" in the office or a "technical identity"; both
 in relation to the technology (pp. 36-37)
- Finding a space for themselves within the office, making themselves a niche
 in competition with others; professional activity as this competition for
 control through social positioning (pp. 36)

3 -- "Special Men" and Universal Machines (pp. 37-62)
Intro section (pp. 37-38)
- Distribution of authority from "master architect" to a network of specialists
 in sometimes opaque ways with computerization (pp. 37)
- Augmentation of master architect's reach, but also reconfig. of identity in
 all associated professions
- Computer simulations are instantiations of Universal Turing Machines = linear
 memory, read/write device, instruction set, and register (pp. 37)
- From computer as conceptual thought experiment to computer as pervasive
 device (pp. 37-38)
- Presents stories of various individuals to reveal complex negotiated
 relationships around simulations; each one as a hybrid between old and new
 conceptions of arch. practice (pp. 38) The Architect (pp. 38-43)
- Reveals changes in the "master-apprentice" relationship previously identified
 by Dana Cuff (pp. 38)
- Relation between principle and inter architect at Paul Morris Associates, the
 principle works in 3D through the intern; the intern has the computer skills
 and mediates the design process (pp. 39)
- Tech skills as "asset" in competition with peers for jobs (pp. 39)
- Central question of prof. identity is "who am I in relation to the software?"
 (pp. 41)
- Tech. as trading zone, software communicates culture/ideology (pp. 41);
 Turkle's assertion that people adopt tech for their feelings, tech acts on
 sense of self (pp. 42)
- Architects define their professional positions through differentiation and
 connectivity [the definition of assimilation] (pp. 43) The Acoustician (pp.
 43-48)
- Introduces architectural acoustics and provides an overview, stressing the
 scientization of acoustics into its own discipline based on calculation (pp.
 43-46)
- Arup Soundlab is the example, where room sound profiles are simulated; a
 literal and conceptual "shared space of alternatives" where architects and
 acousticians can relate (pp. 44)
- Shared vocabulary (pp. 47)
- Different views of working in design: scientific/engineer at the fringes of
 expressive form-making, ethic of ends (pp. 46) vs. expressive sound designer;
 co-designer, ethic of responsibility (pp. 47)
The Structural Engineer (pp. 49-54)
- Different use of simulations in structural engineering: simulations as proof
 of concepts that speak the language of architects (pp. 49-52) vs. simulations
 to make calculations w/ drawing to communicate with architects (pp. 52-54)
- Approach to tech. as an ethical/political choice (pp. 52)
- Standard architect-engineer relation retained, simulations enhance service:
 engineers demonstrate issues with architects' designs and architects respond
 (pp. 53-54)
The Fire Safety Engineer (pp. 54-61)
- Presentation of the emergence of fire safety as an engineering discipline
 through Amelia Pearce (pp. 54-61)
- The tension between prescriptive, centralized, institutional knowledge
 (legislative) and performative, local, distributed knowledge (simulation)
 (pp. 55-56)
- Legislative prescription "overcome" by simulated evidence in service of
 design freedom (pp. 57)
- Illustration of the emergence of a new identity around a simulation (pp. 61)
 A System of Identities (pp. 61-62)
- Definition of roles in a system of relationships framed by computer
 simulations which themselves become connectors (pp. 61)
- Concept of the hybrid professional who gains position through assimilation to
 a shared space of alternatives (pp. 62)

4 -- How do Simulations Know? (pp. 63-80)
Intro section (pp. 63-65)
- Changes in what constitutes architectural knowledge in light of simulation
 (pp. 63)
- Knowledge becomes accepted when it establishes trustworthy relationships (pp.
 64)
- This chapter covers socio-technical contexts where computer simulations are
 vetted (pp. 64) Whither the Generalist? (pp. 65-67)
- Architects see themselves as "generalists", drawing together various
 specialized knowledge; simulation as a space of integration (pp. 65)
- Presents example of CATIA and the way coordinating digital geometry puts the
 architect at the centre of design, all must pass through the CATIA specialist
 = power (ppl. 65-66)
- Computer simulations compete for acceptance amid various other kinds of
 representation (pp. 66)
Specialized Systems of Knowledge (pp. 67-68)
- Complexity of various kinds of knowledge occupying the same space;
 competition between concerns/constraints (pp. 67)
- Social construction of knowledge; knowledge competing for acceptance in a
 shared space (pp. 67)
- Simulations become valid for specific audiences (pp. 67-68)
- Criteria of acceptance for computer simulation: expected outcome, explicit
 uncertainties, reconciliation with other sims, measurement against
prescriptive/institutional knowledge (pp. 67)
Expectations and Limitations (pp. 68-69)
- Personal knowledge tempers the validity of simulation; tuning of simulations
 to fit intuition and/or expectation; personal identity is ever-present in
 validity/development of tech (pp. 68-69)
One Simulation, Many Possible Realities (pp. 70-72)
- Simulation of various possibilities to meet needs and standards of various
 clients, professionals, etc. (pp. 70)
- Uses the fuzziness of simulating human behaviour as an example where
 assumptions must be made, and various realities presented (pp. 71-72)
Simulations in Competition (pp. 73-75)
- Simulations used to validate other simulations, working from quick and dirty
 sims to more fine-grained sims; intermediary techniques (pp. 73); sims for
 various audiences and kinds of validation (pp. 74) Total Simulation (pp. 76-79)
- Union of multiple simulations to produce an immersive, experiential, sensory
 virtual reality (pp. 76)
- Integrated environment as prescriptive space, space denotes how professions
 should interact and rep knowledge to each other (pp. 76-77)
- The full-service office format (pp. 77) as a competitive business strategy
 (pp. 78-79) Regulating Simulations (pp. 79-80)
- Institutionalized design knowledge/regulation proposed as obstacle to new
 thinking brought about by simulation (pp. 79)
- Use at regulatory level for verification of compliance and experiential
 visualization (pp. 79)
- Sim as rhetorical tool, bringing social relations into tension, revealing
 limits of intuition and ways of knowing in design (pp. 80)

5 -- Towards a Pluralistic Formalism (81-106)
Intro section (pp. 81-82)
- This chapter focuses on how computer simulation defines a shared space of
 alternatives where good form can be found; this space as a social space of
 negotiation (pp. 81)
- Proposing a pluralistic approach to from which challenges the model of the
 lone author, pushing for form-making as interdisciplinary while acknowledging
 its siting within architecture (pp. 81)
- Stresses that this is just about pluralistic formalisms around computer
 simulations and not a general call for pluralism of forms in design (pp. 82)
Personal Form (pp. 82-84)
- Paul Morris and Associates as example to explore personal aspects of
 form-making (pp. 82); choice of software as personal preference,
 tech-approach as identity-making (pp 83)
- Issues of locating within a hybrid personal formation in response to
 individual ambitions (pp. 84) Disciplinary Form (pp. 84-87)
- Uses Arup structural engineers/work on Sydney Opera House as an example of
 negotiating position within a professional field through distinguishing
 architectural and structural form (pp. 85)
- Reconciliation of the two formal interests through translation and compromise
 between professional cultures (pp. 85); geometry as intermediary language
 (pp. 86)
Intent and Performance (pp. 88-89)
- Contested definition of form going back to classical philosophy (pp. 88)
- Engineers using simulations to make claims about performance of form, Sydney
 Opera House again; differentiation making a shared space (pp. 88-89)
Preserving the Intent (pp. 89-93)
- Example of Arup's work on Eisenman's Wexner Center to show how simulations
 can be used by engineers to preserve aesthetic intent; formal intent =/=
 experience in space (pp. 89-93) Repeat Performances (pp. 93-99)
- Example of Arup's work on the Nasher Sculpture Center & Mercedes Building w/
 Renzo Piano to show how simulations are used to demonstrate that a form will
 consistently make an effect; simulation as convincing; space of alternatives is
 social (pp. 93-99)
Performance by Intent (pp. 99-104)
- Simulation to isolate performance of form from intent, social establishment
 of performance through consensus around parameters and goals of form, example
 of the Arup Soundlab and how a shared vocabular is produced (pp. 99); how a
 shared discourse is necessary (pp. 103) Pluralists at Play (pp. 104-106)
- Introduces John Habraken's research on design games as a frame to examine
 simulation (pp. 104-105)
- YL's agreement with the pluralistic perspective of various claims being
 equally valid and a good way to examine the role of simulation

6 -- Designers in Dialog (107-116) Narratives: Past and Present (pp. 107-108)
- Changing professional narratives to understand evolution of cultures in
 architecture; redefinition of professional roles and relationships as a means
 of increasing control and c connectivity (pp. 107); stressing the postmodern
 sensibility of architects, operation on the surface of computing (pp. 108)
The Limits of Narrative (108-109)
- Limits to narrative approach, misses fine-grained activities (pp. 108)
- Examination of the structure of contemporary narratives in architecture
 through the operative metaphor of the theatre; distinguishing between
 positive, responsible, transparent narratives and negative narratives that
 preserve the status quo and are obscurantist (pp. 109)
Narrative Models (pp. 109-113)
- His work captures "cultural narratives" which consist of technical,
 analytical, methodological, and reflective narratives; each can be weighed
 against each other to examine what architecture means in its changing context
 (pp. 109)
- Technical = mechanics of design (pp. 111); analytical = which sims (pp.
 111-112); Methodological = how sims fit into design (pp. 112); reflective =
 thinking about meaning of design (pp. 112)
- Adaptation of Russian Formalist literary model through Bruner; focus on
 "genre" of narrative; discourses change more than themes ore genres; these
 are: identity, knowledge and form (pp. 110)
- Discursive change from focus on building technical performance to performance
 of human experience (pp. 110-111) From Narrative to Theater (pp. 113-116)
- Theatre analogy since sims take on theatricality in their performance of
 experiences; adapts Brecht's distinction between dramatic and dialogical
 [epic] theatre (pp. 113)
- Dramatic = performance obscures and prevents thinking/reflection (pp. 114)
- Dialogic = performance establishes critical distance and makes audience
 reflect on the terms of the performance and beyond (pp. 114)
- Potential of computer simulation to be dialogic within the design process
 (pp. 114); critical reflection upon professional roles, opening identities up
 for discussion (pp. 115)
- Political capacity of computer simulation as (what DCL calls later as a
 criticism) a politics of representation; pluralism of involvement;
 speaking-for (pp. 116)

7 -- Human, Machine, Environment (117-122)
Intro section (pp. 117)
- This chapter outlines future directions the work could take (pp. 117)
 Professional Narratives (pp. 117-119)
- Extension of architectural activity beyond architects alone (pp. 117)
- Next pages sum up argumentation and discusses his omissions: geographic,
 racial, demographic, gender, class (pp. 118-119) Non-Professional Narratives
 (pp. 119-122)
- Potential research direction toward non-professionals; YL focuses
 specifically on inhabitants as co-designers (pp. 119)
- Outlines a direction through Kevin Lynch's Image of the City (pp. 120-121)
- Examination of how simulation influences environmental imaginations (pp. 121)
 and changing meaning of "dwelling" (pp. 122)

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