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  Employees sort through waste at the Electronics Recyclers International
  facility in Fresno, California

  Employees sort through waste at the Electronics Recyclers International
  facility in Fresno, California. Photograph: Philip Cheung/The Guardian

‘I spot brand new TVs, here to be shredded’: the truth about our electronic
waste

  Employees sort through waste at the Electronics Recyclers International
  facility in Fresno, California. Photograph: Philip Cheung/The Guardian

  In a giant factory in California, thousands of screens, PCs and other
  old or unwanted gadgets are picked apart for materials. But what about
  the billions of other defunct (or not) devices?
  by [78]Oliver Franklin-Wallis
  Sat 3 Jun 2023 08.00 EDT
    *
    *
    *

  In the lobby of Fresno airport is a forest of plastic trees. A bit on
  the nose, I think: this is central California, home of the grand
  Sequoia national park. But you can’t put a 3,000-year-old redwood in a
  planter (not to mention the ceiling clearance issue), so the tourist
  board has deemed it fit to build these towering, convincing copies. I
  pull out my phone and take a picture, amused and somewhat appalled.
  What will live longer, I wonder: the real trees or the fakes?

  I haven’t come to Fresno to see the trees; I’ve come about the device
  on which I took the picture. In a warehouse in the south of the city,
  green trucks are unloading pallets of old electronics through the doors
  of Electronics Recyclers International (ERI), the largest electronics
  recycling company in the US.

  Waste electrical and electronic equipment (better known by its
  unfortunate acronym, Weee) is the fastest-growing waste stream in the
  world. Electronic waste amounted to 53.6m tonnes in 2019, a figure
  growing at about 2% a year. Consider: in 2021, tech companies sold an
  estimated 1.43bn smartphones, 341m computers, 210m TVs and 548m pairs
  of headphones. And that’s ignoring the millions of consoles, sex toys,
  electric scooters and other battery-powered devices we buy every year.
  Most are not disposed of but live on in perpetuity, tucked away,
  forgotten, like the old iPhones and headphones in my kitchen drawer,
  kept “just in case”. As the head of MusicMagpie, a UK secondhand retail
  and refurbishing service, tells me: “Our biggest competitor is apathy.”

  Globally, only 17.4% of electronic waste is recycled. Between [79]7%
  and 20% is exported, 8% thrown into landfills and incinerators in the
  global north, and the rest is unaccounted for. Yet Weee is, by weight,
  among the most precious waste there is. One piece of electronic
  equipment can contain 60 elements, from copper and aluminium to rarer
  metals such as cobalt and tantalum, used in everything from
  motherboards to gyroscopic sensors. A typical iPhone, for example,
  contains 0.018g of gold, 0.34g of silver, 0.015g of palladium and a
  tiny fraction of platinum. Multiply by the sheer quantity of devices
  and the impact is vast: a single recycler in China, GEM, produces more
  cobalt than the country’s mines each year. The materials in our e-waste
  – including up to 7% of the world’s gold reserves – are worth £50.9bn a
  year.

  Aaron Blum, co-founder and chief operating officer of ERI, arrives
  wearing the corporate uniform of a tech executive: navy hoodie and
  jeans. “You’ll need these,” he says, handing me a pair of bright orange
  earplugs. Blum and a friend started ERI back in 2002, after leaving
  college. California had just banned electronics from landfills due to
  hazardous chemical contents – but little recycling infrastructure
  existed. “I didn’t know anything about electronics. I was a business
  major,” Blum says. Today, ERI has eight facilities across the US and
  processes 57,000 tonnes of scrap electronics a year.
  Aaron Blum, co-founder and chief operating officer at the Electronics
  Recyclers International facility in Fresno, California, wearing hi-vis
  jacket and hard hat
  ‘I didn’t know anything about electronics. I was a business major,’
  says ERI co-founder Aaron Blum. Photograph: Philip Cheung/The Guardian

  To get to the factory floor, we pass through a scanner. Security is
  tight for a reason: millions of dollars’ worth of still-functioning or
  repairable electronics passing through make it a tempting target for
  thieves. In the loading bay, a goateed guy named Julio is unloading
  pallets of shrink-wrapped monitors from a Salvation Army truck –
  charity shops are a major source of ERI’s product. Everything that
  arrives is scanned before being dismantled and sorted. “You can’t shred
  certain materials, so you’ve got to do a sort,” Blum says.

  Electronics are piled everywhere: flatscreens, DVD players, desktops,
  printers, keyboards. At a set of tables, nine men are taking apart
  large TVs, their electric screwdrivers emitting a low whiz. Another is
  smashing a monitor from its casing with a hammer (“Due to the
  adhesive”). The dismantling crews, Blum says, will handle up to 2,948kg
  (6,500lb) of devices a day.

  We pass a noticeboard marked Focus Material, on which actual parts have
  been pinned as visual aids: motherboards, wire scraps, monitor casings.
  “This hits home more than reading a document,” Blum says.

  Scrap recycling contains so many different materials that the industry
  has developed its own shorthand: light copper is “Dream”, No 1 copper
  wire is “Barley”, insulated aluminium wire is “Twang”. There’s no such
  poetry here, however. Instead, the extracted pieces are thrown into
  boxes scrawled with things like Copper and CAT-5 wiring. Inside one I
  notice a coil of LED Christmas lights. “During the holidays we get a
  ton of these. This is all copper, in the wire,” Blum says, grabbing a
  handful. “We have to go through and manually cut the bulbs off.”

    Paranoid about losing industrial secrets to China, companies would
    rather have their old machines wiped and shredded

  Some materials – paper, batteries – must be removed for safety reasons.
  “If something gets through that can’t be shredded, you can have a fire
  or an explosion,” Blum says. “When you’re shredding metal, it gets
  really hot.” Heat-sensing cameras constantly scan the factory floor for
  hot pockets, and the workers wear masks and gloves: e-waste contains
  toxicants ranging from lead and mercury to polybrominated
  flame-retardants and [80]PFAS.

  The centrepiece of the facility is the shredder, a hulking beast that
  stretches the length of the building, three storeys high, making a
  prodigious racket. (Hence the earplugs.) Once the waste has been
  sorted, a worker in a Bobcat telehandler carries it over to the
  conveyor’s gaping maw, where ultra-hardened spinning blades cut through
  aluminium and plastic like ice in a blender. “When you’re shredding
  electronics, you’re creating dust that contains lead from the circuit
  boards, so we have collection hoods sucking up all the dust,” Blum
  hollers. The dust has to be disposed of as hazardous waste. I nod,
  exhilarated by the sheer violence of it.

  Magnetic belts, air-sorters and filters separate the materials as they
  pass along the shredder, dropping them into giant “super sacks”. We
  stop at one and look down at a treasure haul of silver-grey flecks. “We
  call this precious metal fines,” Blum says. “It’s gold, silver and
  palladium from the circuit boards.” A single sack’s contents are
  probably worth enough to buy a decent car.
  Piles of shredded copper at the Electronic Recyclers International
  facility in Fresno, California
  Piles of shredded copper at the facility …
  Sacks of precious metals, aluminium, steel, plastic and copper at the
  Electronics Recyclers International facility in Fresno, California
  … and sacks of precious metals, aluminium, steel, plastic and copper.
  Photographs: Philip Cheung/The Guardian

  Farther along the line, the conveyor splits off into tributaries. A
  robot arm whirrs above one, picking up parts. “We used to have 15
  pickers on this line. Now we have two or three,” Blum says. The company
  spent a lot of money training the robot, which picks far faster than
  any human could and is now 97% accurate. Blum seems to prefer it to
  people. “It comes to work every day and never got Covid,” he says. I
  can’t tell if he’s joking.

  Near the end of the line, more metals roll into their super sacks.
  ERI’s biggest material streams, by weight, are steel, plastic,
  aluminium and brass. The circuit boards are sent to LS Nikko, a metals
  manufacturing giant based in South Korea; the aluminium goes to the US
  smelting giant Alcoa. “The steel might go to your large steel buyers in
  the US – they might send it to mills in Turkey, but otherwise,
  everything stays domestic.”

  ERI charges customers a fee for disposal, dismantling, data removal and
  recycling. Most are motivated not by reducing waste, Blum says, but by
  cybersecurity: “Ninety-nine per cent of the electronics you have today
  have your data on them. So data has become very, very important.”
  Paranoid about losing industrial secrets to China, companies would
  rather have their old machines wiped and shredded. “We have Homeland
  Security come to our facilities. They will escort the material to the
  shredder, stand watching while we run the material through, and
  sometimes even take the shred out.”

    Many manufacturers argue that repairs must be done by professionals
    or even by them – for a hefty fee, of course

  As we pass back through the factory, something catches my eye: a pallet
  of TV screens from a major manufacturer, still neatly boxed and
  plastic-wrapped. They are brand new, but here to be shredded: “They
  don’t want this product resold and competing against their new
  products, so they want it all destroyed.”

  I’d expected to see this at ERI, but not so brazenly. Manufacturers and
  retailers routinely destroy returns and unsold items, known as
  deadstock, en masse. As Kyle Wiens, founder of the repair chain
  [81]iFixit, tells me, these “must-shred” contracts are the “dirty
  secret” of the recycling industry. (“The recyclers are desperate for
  manufacturer contracts, so they’ll do anything and keep their mouths
  shut,” Wiens says.) In 2021, for instance, an ITV News investigation in
  the UK found [82]Amazon was sending millions of new and returned items
  a year to be destroyed. (Amazon says it has since stopped the
  practice.)

  In 2020, [83]Apple sued a Canadian recycler for reselling some of the
  500,000 devices it had sent for shredding. The recycler, GEEP, blamed
  rogue employees – but the implication that the devices had been working
  well enough to sell set off a wider scandal. The unfortunate truth is
  that companies destroy new and nearly new products all the time. Luxury
  and technology brands are reluctant to discount or donate unsold items
  that might undermine sales of new models. [84]Burberry, for one,
  admitted to incinerating £105m of unsold items in the five years to
  2018, to stop them being sold at discounted rates (Burberry also says
  it has ended the practice). In other cases, the financial upside of
  processing unsold items or returns is not worth the costs, so it’s
  cheaper to write it off. Burn it or bury it, wasting is cheap.
  Employees at the Electronics Recyclers International facility in
  Fresno, California, finish their shift
  ERI employees finish their shift. Photograph: Philip Cheung/The
  Guardian

  There’s an old axiom that they don’t make things like they used to.
  Goods cheaply bought are cheaply made – no surprise there. But when it
  comes to e-waste, a more serious allegation is “planned obsolescence”,
  by which industries design products with artificially short lives, so
  they need to be replaced more quickly.

  Some obsolescence is good: replacing cars for models with more
  fuel-efficient engines, for example. Similarly, we know the rapid churn
  of smart devices in the last decade has been driven not by faulty
  products, but by the relentless pace of technological progress.

  Even so, the electronics industry has faced allegations that planned
  obsolescence is contributing to our rising tide of e-waste. In 2017,
  for example, Apple [85]admitted it had been using software to slow
  older iPhones. After multiple lawsuits, including a $500m civil action
  it [86]settled in 2020, the company eventually apologised. But it has
  also engaged in a pattern of behaviour critics allege undermines its
  self-image as a sustainable business: the iPhone 13, introduced in
  2021, initially included a feature that would disable the Face ID
  unlock system if the screen was replaced with one not made by Apple.

  Most of us would have no idea how to fix our phone and even if we did,
  many manufacturers have removed the ability for consumers even to
  replace batteries, arguing that repairs must be done by professionals
  or even by the company itself – for a hefty fee, of course. iPhone
  owners in the US who want to repair their phone, for example, must pay
  a $1,200 deposit to hire Apple’s special tools. I find this
  disheartening, because as a teenager in the mid-2000s I spent my
  weekends working at a mobile phone repair stall in the local shopping
  centre, happily swapping out dud batteries and broken screens from old
  Nokias and Motorolas for new ones.
  Employees sort through waste at the Electronics Recyclers International
  facility in Fresno, California
  The Fresno facility is one of eight ERI has across the US, processing
  57,000 tonnes of scrap electronics a year. Photograph: Philip
  Cheung/The Guardian

  But it isn’t just amateurs who find modern electronics hard to repair.
  As our devices have become thinner and cheaper, they have become
  trickier to fix: once-removable parts printed on to circuit boards;
  screens held in place by adhesives; tiny earbuds that can’t be opened;
  software locks that render older devices unusable. This fight over
  repair has come to a head, thanks to organisations such as iFixit
  (which, in addition to its repair shops, publishes How To guides online
  for free), the [87]Restart Project and Europe’s [88]“right to repair”
  rules. In France, [89]new electronics must now be labelled with a
  “repairability index” score, which rates products on categories such as
  spare parts and ease of access.

  While most of us are probably not going to attempt to fix our phones,
  even with a $1,200 repair kit, the issue of repair has real-world
  consequences farther afield – often in places where technical support
  is much harder to find.
    __________________________________________________________________

  Rich countries have been exporting e-waste to poorer countries for
  almost as long as there has been any to send. But the trade didn’t earn
  much attention until 2002, when the Basel Action Network released
  [90]Exporting Harm, a now-infamous documentary about the environmental
  crisis e-waste was inflicting on recycling towns in southern China,
  particularly Guiyu. The film showed desperately poor workers, including
  children, breaking down electronics by hand, burning the casings off
  wires and separating components with acid baths, to access the valuable
  scrap metals inside.

  The ecological and human toll was heartbreaking. Soil and water samples
  in the recycling zones contained lead and other heavy metals that
  exceeded every World Health Organization threshold; in one study, 81.8%
  of children under six surveyed were suffering from lead poisoning. The
  Chinese government has since cleared many of the informal recycling
  shops in Guiyu and concentrated e-waste inside allocated industrial
  zones. But while China’s imports have fallen, the amount we produce has
  only grown. For the last few years, the most notorious destination for
  western electronics has been not China but a slum in Accra, Ghana.
  Dubbed “[91]the world’s largest e-waste dump”, Agbogbloshie has been
  the subject of harrowing press coverage, as well as many viral YouTube
  films (most shot by white westerners).
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  An employee at the Electronics Recyclers International facility in
  Fresno, California plastic-wraps microwaves
  An employee plastic-wraps old microwaves. Photograph: Philip Cheung/The
  Guardian

  I remember being horrified by the images: barefoot “burner boys”
  torching scrap wire as toxic fumes billowed from scorched earth; others
  cracking open imported phones against the backdrop of a dilapidated
  slum. Once again, it seemed, western waste electronics were being
  dumped on the world’s poor, who were reaping the toxic consequences. I
  decided I needed to see it for myself, and it turns out the reality is
  not quite so simple.
    __________________________________________________________________

  It’s a glorious day in Accra when I arrive outside Evans Queye’s
  electronics shop. “Welcome!” Queye, who is expecting me, steps out to
  offer a warm handshake. A spectacled man with a bright smile and a
  taste for even brighter shirts, Queye is an electronics importer who
  buys used laptops from the Netherlands to resell in Accra’s thriving
  secondhand market.

  “Our biggest market is schools,” he says, gesturing into an
  open-fronted unit with sun-baked brickwork and faded signage, on the
  end of a row of similar shops. Inside, I spot several dozen new-looking
  Dell boxes, stacked chest high. Children have recently returned to
  classrooms after the pandemic and orders are picking up again. “Some of
  these have come from schools in Holland and will go to schools in
  [96]Ghana. Come,” Queye says, gesturing at the high sun and perhaps
  noticing the sweat pooling at my neck. “We’ll talk in my office.”

  Queye’s office is a few blocks away and as we drive there in his Volvo,
  I notice more repair shops. Outside one, rows of old Sony TVs hide in
  the shade of an awning. At another, kitchen appliances – almost all
  imported – spill into the street. Ghana’s economy, like many in this
  part of [97]Africa, is built on the secondhand trade. Every year, more
  than 1.2m containers pass through the nearby port of Tema, loaded with
  pre-owned goods from the US, Europe and Asia. Not only electronics, but
  clothing and cars, too. In 2009, the last year with solid data, Ghana
  imported 215,000 tonnes of electronics, 70% of it used. The imports are
  by necessity, as much as anything: the minimum wage in Ghana is just
  12.53 cedis (90p) an hour, so few people can afford to buy new. That’s
  where repairers like Queye come in.

    The plastic melts away like marshmallow, giving off smoke. The air
    is singed with the wretched stench of burning solder

  His office is a cool, welcoming place, the desk dotted with old
  laptops, a ceiling fan looping lazily overhead. Queye has worked in the
  secondhand trade since he left school, in 2002. These days, he is a rep
  for Snew BV, a “circular telecoms” company based in the Netherlands,
  which collects used electronics from across Europe for resale. The
  newer models are resold in Europe, the older ones in Africa, where
  prices are lower. “The standard model we receive is five years old. But
  we can use a machine for as much as 15 years. I have a Pentium IV ... ”
  He pulls out a Dell laptop that must be at least a decade old (Intel
  stopped making the Pentium IV in 2008). “I’ve been using it a very long
  time and it’s working perfectly.”

  Later, Queye drives me across town to Danke IT Systems, a small repair
  shop on the second storey of a strip mall. It’s a tiny place, internet
  cafe-style, with a handful of machines set up for customers. The
  manager, a bright-eyed, bald 39-year-old named Wisdom Amoo, sits behind
  his desk with a laptop on his lap and a screwdriver in his hand. The
  cubbyholes and drawers around him are brimful of laptops and parts:
  Dells, mostly, but also machines from HP, Lenovo, Asus, Apple.

  Amoo has just finished with the HP in his hands, which had a broken
  charging port. The part is soldered down, so he has improvised by
  converting a display port to accept a charging cable. “I need to cut a
  hole here and replace it with parts from another machine,” he says,
  gesturing with a precise finger. Certain models tend to have the same
  issues – screen burn in one, faulty trackpads in another – and repair
  work is a delicate skill: a single slip with a soldering iron can ruin
  a laptop rather than fix it. When he’s soldering, Amoo holds his
  breath.

  In Accra, Queye explains, the scrap recyclers from dumps such as
  Agbogbloshie are part of the repair ecosystem. “If the repair shops had
  a machine that could not be repaired, then the scrap boys would pick it
  up and take it to Agbogbloshie. Then the repair shops would go down
  there to see if they could source parts. If I need a part for a TV with
  a working screen but a broken power system, by chance, I might find the
  same TV with a broken screen but the power system working.” Only after
  usable parts had been extracted would the remainder be dismantled and
  sold off for scrap.

  This, Queye explains, is the context often overlooked in western media
  stories about Agbogbloshie. E-waste is not coming to Ghana to be
  dumped; it’s coming to be used. In that sense Agbogbloshie was not “the
  world’s largest e-waste dump”.

  It’s a neighbourhood, home to schools, markets, churches and to a large
  informal settlement, Old Fadama, which houses an estimated 100,000
  people, many immigrants from the poor northern regions of Ghana. The
  “dump” was a scrapyard – albeit a very large and well documented one,
  where the environmental controls were tragically lacking.

  I’m writing in the past tense because Agbogbloshie no longer exists –
  at least, not in the form it once did. In 2021, the Ghanaian police
  raided and demolished the scrapyard. A couple of days after meeting
  Queye, I head there to see it for myself. From Old Fadama, I can look
  out across the Odaw River to where it once stood. The site has been
  razed. Bare earth covers the area of the former scrapyard and shops, a
  handful of heavy earth movers still dragging topsoil around. The
  government supposedly plans to build a hospital there.
  African men disassemble electronic scrap and bulky waste on the largest
  electronic scrap yard of Africa in Agbogbloshie, a district of Ghana's
  capital Accra, May 2019
  Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana, was dubbed ‘the world’s largest e-waste
  dump’, then raided and demolished in 2021. Photograph: Anadolu
  Agency/Getty Images

  I don’t intend to minimise the pollution caused at Agbogbloshie, which
  was nothing short of horrifying. The toxic toll of burning and
  dismantling the e-waste polluted the soil, the groundwater, the workers
  and even the food. In 2011, a [98]Ghanaian researcher found soil at a
  nearby school exceeded European safety standards twelvefold; in another
  study, eggs from chickens living in the settlement contained [99]220
  times the tolerable daily intake of dioxins. Agbogbloshie might not
  have been the largest e-waste dump in the world, but it was almost
  certainly among the most polluted.

  With Agbogbloshie gone, many of the scrappers have simply crossed the
  river into Old Fadama, itself a sprawling place: colourful wooden
  dwellings separated by thin mud lanes, so close as to be almost on top
  of one another. Inside, some inhabitants sleep eight to a room. Few of
  the buildings have toilets or running water. The scrap workers have set
  up shop around the edge of the slum, on the river beach. There, several
  dozen men are dismantling waste: hammering apart old engine blocks and
  tearing down refrigerators. Here, a teenage boy is cutting up a gearbox
  while an older man prises the springs from an old car seat. With
  nowhere to keep their stocks, the scrappers store them in the open. One
  tangle of old bicycles looks like the aftermath of a collision on the
  Tour de France. The ground is flecked with snapped fragments of TV
  casings and old motherboards, which chickens and goats pick through,
  looking for lunch.

  The burner boys have set up as far from the houses as possible, out
  beyond the children playing football. A dozen are gathered around a
  makeshift fire pit, carrying nests of wire on metal poles, which they
  press into the flames. The plastic melts away like marshmallow, giving
  off smoke. The air is singed with the wretched stench of plastics and
  burning solder. I want to talk to some of them, but my colleagues
  advise me not to. Since the government clearance, some of the scrap
  workers have become angry with western interlopers, whom they
  justifiably blame for the government’s decision to knock down their old
  homes. “They have given thousands of interviews,” Queye says. “They
  were still evicted.”

  But Queye has known many of the scrap boys for years and offers to
  introduce me to some at his office. When I turn up next day, half a
  dozen young men – some of whom I’d still consider children – file in,
  looking down, wearing flip-flops and the tattered shirts of rich
  European football teams: Juventus, Chelsea, Real Madrid. Most are not
  from Accra. “We’re all from the north,” Yakubu Sumani, a wiry young man
  in tired black jeans and a brown T-shirt says.
  Buy. Return. Repeat … What really happens when we send back unwanted
  clothes?
  Read more

  Sumani had worked in the scrapyard since he was 15, earning 15-20 cedis
  (£1.10-£1.40) a day, buying and selling material. It wasn’t easy or
  glamorous, but it paid better than other jobs in the informal sector;
  many of the young men were able to earn enough to send some money back
  to their families.

  Sumani recalls the clearing of Agbogbloshie: “The police came with
  weapons. They were arresting us. They beat some of us.” The scrappers
  scattered, some returning home, to scrap jobs in the north. “We have a
  lot of people who are displaced,” Queye says, quietly.

  By destroying Agbogbloshie, the government has not eliminated the
  e-waste, but spread it. “The waste is still in the system. But where is
  it now? You can’t find it because it is scattered all over.” Queye and
  other scrap traders argue that it would be better to formalise the
  trade in Ghana: allocate an industrial zone, provide health and safety
  rules, give workers formal recognition and social support, such as
  pensions. “None of them have any savings,” he says. “What they make,
  they eat that night.” He fears the country will soon follow in the
  footsteps of others, including China, India, Thailand and Uganda, and
  ban the import of used electronics entirely. “If it happens here,” he
  says, “we are doomed.”

  Too often, the way we talk about e-waste falls into a kind of guilt
  trap: aren’t we terrible, for inflicting our waste on others. But the
  story is rarely that simple. To see exports as “dumping” ignores the
  local importers and the reasons they do it. That isn’t to say we should
  permit dumping, but rather recognise that, for consumers in the global
  north, our role in this story is more difficult. (And that we aren’t
  always the protagonist.) A more serious attitude to e-waste might ask
  why [100]extended producer responsibility schemes – in which technology
  companies pay into a central fund that goes towards recycling and
  product end-of-life programmes – aren’t sending far more money into the
  global south, where their devices end up. When we discuss the right to
  repair and obsolescence, we rarely see the last links in the chain, the
  people who often use those products the longest. Who is listening to
  their voices? Where are they at the table? As the journalist Adam
  Minter writes in his scrap travelogue [101]Junkyard Planet: “When you
  think about it, insisting Africa’s secondhand traders adopt Europe’s
  definition of ‘waste’ ... is a kind of colonialism.”

  As I step out of Queye’s office into the bright sunlight, I’m reminded
  of something he’d said that first morning we met. “Every machine one
  way or the other will die.” Then he’d grinned that irresistible grin.
  “Like humans: everything has a lifespan.”

  This is an edited extract from Wasteland: The Dirty Truth About What We
  Throw Away, Where It Goes, and Why It Matters by Oliver
  Franklin-Wallis, published by Simon & Schuster on 22 June at £20. To
  support the Guardian and Observer, order your copy at
  [102]guardianbookshop.com. Delivery charges may apply.
  Topics
    * [103]Waste
    * [104]Recycling
    * [105]Ethical and green living
    * [106]Computing
    * [107]Ghana
    * [108]Africa
    * [109]extracts

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  [110]Reuse this content

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