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[32]Kevin Driscoll
[33]Ideas
May 17, 2022 9:00 AM

The Internet Origin Story You Know Is Wrong

The history of the internet is repeatedly reduced to the story of the
singular Arpanet. But BBSs were just as important—if not more.
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This story is adapted from [36]The Modem World: A Prehistory of Social
Media, by Kevin Driscoll.

For more than two decades, dial-up bulletin board systems, or BBSs,
were a primary form of popular networked computing in North America.
The creators and maintainers of BBSs, known as system operators or
“sysops,” stood at the forefront of computer-mediated communication,
carving out a space between nationwide commercial services and
subsidized university systems. From the moral economy of shareware to
the cooperative networks of HIV/AIDS activists, BBS communities adapted
the simple idea of a “computerized bulletin board” to an array of
socially valuable purposes. Their experiments with file sharing and
community building during the 1980s provided a foundation for the
blogs, forums, and social network sites that drove the popularization
of the World Wide Web more than a decade later. But today the systems
that made up this “modem world” are almost totally absent from the
internet’s origin story.
Book cover for The Modem World by Kevin Drsicoll
Courtesy of Yale University Press

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Instead of emphasizing the role of popular innovation and amateur
invention, the dominant myths in internet history focus on the
trajectory of a single military-funded experiment in computer
networking: the Arpanet. Though fascinating, the Arpanet story excludes
the everyday culture of personal computing and grassroots
internetworking. In truth, the histories of Arpanet and BBS networks
were interwoven—socially and materially—as ideas, technologies, and
people flowed between them. The history of the internet could be a
thrilling tale inclusive of many thousands of networks, big and small,
urban and rural, commercial and voluntary. Instead, it is repeatedly
reduced to the story of the singular Arpanet.

The tales that we tell about Arpanet and the Cold War, Silicon Valley,
and the early web have become a founding mythology for the
internet—narrative resources that we rely on to make sense of our
computer-mediated world. Activists, critics, executives, and policy
makers routinely call on this mythology to advance arguments on issues
related to technology and society. In debates about censorship,
national sovereignty, privacy, net neutrality, cybersecurity,
copyright, and more, advocates refer to a few oft-repeated tales in
search of fundamental truths about how the internet ought to be
governed. The stories that people—especially people in power—believe
about the internet of the past affect the lives of everyone who depends
on the internet in the present.

Forgetting has high stakes. As wireless broadband approaches ubiquity
in many parts of North America, the stories we tell about the origins
of the internet are more important than ever. Faced with crises such as
censorship and surveillance, policy makers and technologists call on a
mythic past for guidance. In times of uncertainty, the most prominent
historical figures—the “forefathers” and the “innovators”—are granted a
special authority to make normative claims about the future of
telecommunications. As long as the modem world is excluded from the
internet’s origin story, the everyday amateur will have no
representation in debates over policy and technology, no opportunity to
advocate for a different future.

The modem world refuses to be a single, stable object of analysis. In
life and in memory, it was multiple, different, conflicting networks at
the same time. This complexity was written into the architecture of the
networks themselves. Before 1996, the modem world was not yet the
internet, not yet a single, universal information infrastructure bound
together by a shared set of protocols. In the days of Usenet and BBSs
and Minitel, cyberspace was defined by the interconnection of thousands
of small-scale local systems, each with its own idiosyncratic culture
and technical design, a dynamic assemblage of overlapping communication
systems held together by digital duct tape and a handshake. It looked
and felt different depending on where you plugged in your modem.

The standard history of the internet jumps from Arpanet to the web,
skipping right past the mess of the modem world. A history that
consists of mostly Arpanet and the web isn’t incorrect or not valuable.
There is much to learn from these networks about informal
collaboration, international cooperation, public-private partnerships,
and bottom-up technical innovation.

But we’ve been telling the same story about Arpanet and the web for 25
years, and it isn’t satisfying anymore. It doesn’t help us understand
the social internet we have now: It doesn’t explain the emergence of
commercial social media, it can’t solve the problems of
platformization, and it won’t help us to imagine what comes after.

Today’s social media ecosystem functions more like the modem world of
the late 1980s and early 1990s than like the open social web of the
early 21st century. It is an archipelago of proprietary platforms,
imperfectly connected at their borders. Any gateways that do exist are
subject to change at a moment’s notice. Worse, users have little
recourse, the platforms shirk accountability, and states are hesitant
to intervene.

Before the widespread adoption of internet email, people complained
about having to print up business cards with half a dozen different
addresses: inscrutable sequences of letters, numbers, and symbols
representing them on CompuServe, GEnie, AOL, Delphi, MCI Mail, and so
on. Today, we find ourselves in the same situation. From nail salons to
cereal boxes, the visual environment is littered with the logos of
incompatible social media brands. Facebook, Google, Twitter, and
Instagram are the new walled gardens, throwbacks to the late 1980s.

In recent years, it has become commonplace to blame social media for
all our problems. There are good reasons for this. After decades of
techno-optimism, a reckoning came due. But I am troubled by how often
people—not platforms—are the object of this criticism. We’re told that
social media is making us vapid, stupid, intolerant, and depressed,
that we should be ashamed to take pleasure from social media, that we
are “hardwired” to act against our own best interest. Our basic desire
to connect is pathologized, as if we should take the blame for our own
subjugation. I call shenanigans.

People aren’t the problem. The problem is the platforms. By looking at
the history of the modem world, we can begin to extricate the
technologies of sociality from what we’ve come to call “social media.”
Underlying many of the problems we associate with social media are
failures of creativity and care. Ironically, for an industry that
prides itself on innovation, platform providers have failed to develop
business models and operational structures that can sustain healthy
human communities.

Silicon Valley did not invent “social media.” Everyday people made the
internet social. Time and again, users adapted networked computers for
communication between people. In the 1970s, the Arpanet enabled remote
access to expensive computers, but users made email its killer app. In
the 1980s, the Source and CompuServe offered troves of news and
financial data, but users spent all their time talking to one another
on forums and in chat rooms. And in the 1990s, the web was designed for
publishing documents, but users created conversational guest books and
message boards. The desire to connect with one another is fundamental.
We should not apologize for the pleasures of being online together.

Commercial social media platforms are of a more recent origin. Major
services like Facebook formed around 2005, more than a quarter-century
after the first BBSs came online. Their business was the enclosure of
the social web, the extraction of personal data, and the promise of
personalized advertising. Through clever interface design and the
strategic application of venture capital, platform providers succeeded
in expanding access to the online world. Today, more people can get
online and find one another than was ever possible in the days of AOL
or FidoNet.

Yet commercial social media failed to produce equitable, sustainable
business models. Despite massive user populations, remarkable
engineering, and pervasive cultural influence, all major social media
platforms depend on a revenue stream that has not changed for two
decades: the exploitation of personal data for the purposes of
advertising. This was true when Google launched Adwords in the year
2000. It was true when Google acquired YouTube in 2006. It was true
when Facebook and Twitter went public in 2012. And it was still true in
2021. Despite the “moonshots” and “big bets,” these firms draw an
overwhelming proportion of their revenue from the mundane business of
placing ads on screens.

The modem world shows us that other business models are possible. BBS
sysops loved to boast about “paying their own bills.” For some, the BBS
was an expensive hobby, a money pit not unlike a vintage car. But many
sysops sought to make their BBSs self-sustaining. Absent angel
investors or government contracts, BBSs became sites of commercial
experimentation. Many charged a fee for access—experimenting with
tiered rates and per-minute or per-byte payment schemes. There were
also BBSs organized like a social club. Members paid “dues” to keep the
hard drive spinning. Others formed nonprofit corporations, soliciting
tax-exempt donations from their users. Even on the hobby boards, sysops
sometimes passed the virtual hat, asking everybody for a few bucks to
buy a new modem or knock out a big telephone bill.

The other key, and closely related, failure of the social media
industry is in its disregard for the needs of the communities that rely
on it. In public debate, commercial social media providers like
Facebook portray themselves as “tech” firms rather than “media”
publishers, merely “neutral platforms.” This allows them to disclaim
liability for the things that people do on their platform and entitles
them to regulate user behavior through capricious “Terms of Service”
agreements. Users who rely on these platforms for social support and
economic opportunity click through the inscrutable terms without
reading them. When harmed, they are left with no recourse, no avenues
for redress, and no practical pathways to exit. Of course, the
platforms want it both ways. At the same time that they deny
responsibility for their users, they promote themselves as places for
people to gather and share the intimate details of their lives. These
are undemocratic, private spaces masquerading as a public square.

The modem world, again, offers different models. The stewardship of an
online community takes work. The literature of the modem world is
replete with textfiles, magazine articles, and how-to books about
cultivating communities, moderating discussions, handling troublesome
users, and avoiding burnout. The role of the bulletin board system
operator required a unique mix of technical acumen and care for the
community. Former BBS sysops recall late nights spent answering email,
verifying new users, tweaking software settings, cleaning up messy
files, and trying to quell flame wars.

This work is still being done on platforms like Facebook and Reddit.
But unlike the sysops who enabled the flourishing of early online
communities, the volunteer moderators on today’s platforms do not own
the infrastructures they oversee. They do not share in the profits
generated by their labor. They cannot alter the underlying software or
implement new technical interventions or social reforms. Instead of
growing in social status, the sysop seems to have been curtailed by the
providers of platforms. If there is a future after Facebook, it will be
led by a revival of the sysop, a reclamation of the social and economic
value of community maintenance and moderation.

Platforms didn’t invent the social use of computer networks. Amateurs,
activists, educators, students, and small business owners did. Silicon
Valley turned their practices into a product, pumped it full of
speculative capital, scaled it, and so far refuse to treat the lives we
live through it with care. The stories we tell about the early internet
must disentangle the grassroots origin of social media from its capture
and commodification. I do not expect that new models for online
sociality will look exactly like the BBSs did in the 1980s, but the
history of the modem world centers on the interests of everyday people,
a reorganization of narrative resources from which to envision
alternative futures.

The extraordinary history of the modem world allows us to imagine an
internet beyond the platforms. But turning to the past for help with
the present is risky. Misogyny, homophobia, and white supremacy were
problems on networks of the 1980s, just as they are today. To
appreciate the moments of brilliance and possibility, we must also see
the complex—often ugly—circumstances within which they unfolded.
Historian Joy Lisi Rankin urges us to “overwrite” the narrow mythology
of Silicon Valley exceptionalism with an account of the many different
worlds of computing that have existed since the 1960s. And indeed,
there is an abundance of history that remains unwritten.

From the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, millions of people living and
working in cities and towns throughout the continent collectively
transformed the personal computer into a medium for social
communication. They were the first to voluntarily spend hours in front
of a computer, typing messages to strangers. Their experiments in
community building and information sharing provided a foundation for
the practices that now compel us to our computers and smartphones each
day: love, learning, commerce, community, and faith.

In the words of one former sysop, the BBS was the original cyberspace.
The stories from this era remind us that many different internets have
already existed. An internet after social media is still possible; the
internet of today can still become something better, more just,
equitable, and inclusive—a future worth fighting for.
__________________________________________________________________

Adapted from The Modem World: A Prehistory of Social Media by Kevin
Driscoll. Copyright © 2022 by Kevin Driscoll. Published with permission
from Yale University Press.

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[52]Kevin Driscoll is the author of [53]The Modem World: A Prehistory
of Social Media, co-author of [54]Minitel: Welcome to the Internet, and
maintainer of the [55]Minitel Research Lab, USA with Julien Mailland.
He is an assistant professor of media studies at the University of
Virginia.

Topics[56]Book Excerpt[57]platforms[58]Silicon Valley

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89. https://www.facebook.com/wired/
90. https://twitter.com/wired/
91. https://pinterest.com/wired/
92. https://www.youtube.com/user/wired/
93. https://instagram.com/wired/
94. https://www.tiktok.com/@wired?lang=en