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In-depth
* [93]Hardware

The true story behind the IBM Personal Computer

The industry-creating IBM Personal Computer 5150 turned 40 this year. To mark
the occasion, we reveal the story of its birth – and destroy one long-running
myth in the process

by: [94]Tim Danton
3 Dec 2021
3 Dec 2021
A front view of the IBM Personal Computer on a plain white background
with the IBM logo on the screen in green

Shutterstock

“No one would have believed in the last years of the nineteenth
century that this world was being watched keenly and closely by
intelligences greater than man’s and yet as mortal as his own; that as
men busied themselves about their various concerns they were
scrutinised and studied, perhaps almost as narrowly as a man with a
microscope might scrutinise the transient creatures that swarm and
multiply in a drop of water.”

So begins The War Of The Worlds by HG Wells, and while some [95]IBM
executives of the late 1970s may have taken offence at this comparison
– the world being watched was the explosive growth of personal
computers, the eyes behind the microscope belonging to IBM – there is a
ring of truth to this parallel. The main difference was that the
template of the PC, as established by IBM, would outlast all of the
“transient creatures” other than [96]Apple.

There was one other crucial difference: Those creatures knew they were
being watched. Everyone in the nascent microcomputer industry knew it
was a matter of time before IBM would make the leap from building
[97]mainframes and minicomputers to [98]PCs. The only question was
when.
* [99]Whatever happened to the 1980s coding heroes?

One popular story goes that the IBM Personal Computer was kicked into
action in mid-1980 when Atari sent a letter to IBM’s then chairman,
Frank Cary, suggesting that it could make IBM’s PCs. Rather than fling
the invitation into the bin, so the stories go, Cary passed it on to
Bill Lowe. Now dubbed “The father of the IBM PC”, at that time Lowe was
IBM’s director of entry systems.

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color=ffe019

Contemporary accounts suggest this is, at best, a blurring of facts.
According to Ray Kassar, then CEO of Atari, the potential partnership
was instigated by Bill Lowe. “We had two meetings actually, one in my
office and another at my apartment in San Francisco with IBM,” Kassar
is quoted as saying in the book Atari Inc: Business is Fun. But the
discussions never got far, likely due to Atari’s proprietary design and
the fact its computers could only output 40 columns.

In truth, Lowe didn’t need a memo from Atari to tell him that IBM
should be building a new computer; it was something he had been
convinced of for years. Why had IBM resisted? [101]As Lowe would
reflect in 2007, IBM in the late 1970s was in defence mode, “fighting
the Justice Department in the US and fighting legal battles overseas”
to protect its hardware and software designs and make sure no rival
could service its products.

But Lowe wasn’t done yet. In the 1996 documentary Triumph of the Nerds,
he recalled his subsequent conversation with the IBM chairman. “He kind
of said ‘well, what should we do?’ and I said, we think we know what we
would like to do if we were going to proceed with our own product. And
he said no. At IBM it would take four years and 300 people to do
anything, it’s just a fact of life, and I said no sir, we can provide
you a product in a year. And he abruptly ended the meeting and said,
you’re on, Lowe, come back in two weeks and tell me what you need.”

Birth of the PC

What Lowe needed, it transpired, was a team of 12 young, [102]dedicated
engineers who would work flat out for the next year. “We were selected
to go work on a top-secret project,” says Patty McHugh, a senior
associate engineer on the team who designed the motherboard. “Our
mission was to get a product into the market in a year using
off-the-shelf components.”

This was a radical departure for IBM. “The key decisions were to go
with an [103]open architecture, non-IBM technology, non-IBM software,
non-IBM sales, and non-IBM service,” said Lowe, “and we probably spent
a full half of the presentation carrying the corporate management
committee into this concept because this was a new concept for IBM at
the time.”

In particular, the only proprietary chip on the motherboard contained
the [104]BIOS (basic input/output system). While that gave IBM some
protection against copycats, it was hardly Fort Knox. Even by [105]1980
it was well established that other companies could legitimately
reverse-engineer a BIOS – crack that and anyone in the world could
build a computer that was 100% compatible with any software that ran on
the IBM PC. A platform was born.

Famously, the other key decision was to use “non-IBM software”. In
August 1980, the month in which the IBM board officially signed off on
the project, it was unclear who would be providing this software, but
Microsoft was already the frontrunner. Jack Sams was the engineer in
charge of software development for the IBM prototype and had plenty of
experience working in BASIC: He had spent months wrestling with the
language in an attempt to get it working on a minicomputer (the IBM
System/23 Datamaster), delaying the project by a year in the process,
and had no desire to repeat the same mistakes this time around.
* [106]Six key events that helped Microsoft dominate the PC platform

By all reports, Sams liked the cut of young [107]Bill Gates’ jib. And
it’s worth emphasising the “young”. While Gates was 24 by this time, he
still had the physique and face of an adolescent, meaning Sams
initially assumed that Gates was the office boy when they met for the
first time. By the end of their second meeting, however, he was
convinced by the young man’s brains and professional manner;
[108]Microsoft was a company that IBM could do business with.

To Sams’ disappointment, though, Microsoft couldn’t provide the CP/M
operating system that a business computer would surely need. For this,
Gates told him, he would need to meet with Gary Kildall of software
firm Digital Research. Gates and Kildall had been working together for
some time – they even discussed merging their two companies – so Gates
had no hesitation in picking up the phone to Kildall and arranging a
meeting on IBM’s behalf. Days later, Sams, along with a couple of other
IBM executives, flew up to meet Kildall in Pacific Court, California.

Flying close to the truth

Sams’ meeting – or non-meeting – with Kildall is the stuff of
[109]Silicon Valley legend. Famously, Bill Gates allegedly described it
as the day “Gary went flying”, leading to the apocryphal idea that
Kildall spent his day piloting his private plane for pleasure rather
than meet with IBM.

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color=ffe019

There are some things we know for sure. Kildall wasn’t there at the
start of the meeting, with his wife Dorothy greeting the IBM
contingent; this makes sense as she handled the company’s business
dealings. When IBM handed over a non-disclosure agreement that one
person at Digital Research would later describe, euphemistically, as
“unidirectional”, she called in the company lawyer.

While Sams initially stated that he never met Gary Kildall, it now
seems certain that the Digital Research founder returned from his
business trip to Oakland (having flown there; that much appears true)
and, after some deliberation, signed the agreement. Things didn’t go
any more smoothly from this point on, though, with IBM’s stance being
that it wanted to buy the rights to CP/M outright for $250,000. Kildall
said no; he wanted to keep to the $10 per licence agreement he had
elsewhere.

Whatever the truth of that day, we know that Sams was not impressed by
Digital Research. He wanted to deal with Microsoft, and the businessman
in Gates sniffed an opportunity greater than his loyalty and friendship
to Kildall. Although “friendship” may be overstating it – Kildall would
write in [111]an unpublished manuscript: “Our conversations were
friendly, but, for some reason, I have always felt uneasy around Bill.
I always kept one hand on my wallet, and the other on my program
listings.”

Development of DOS

Those instincts were probably correct. When Gates heard about an
operating system called QDOS – the Q and D standing for quick and dirty
– he realised he could provide what IBM wanted without paying Kildall a
penny for licensing. He also realised the company that owned the IBM
PC’s operating system would have immense power; how much better for
that power to be in Microsoft’s hands than, say, Seattle Computer
Products, creators of QDOS.

It helped that Microsoft and Seattle Computer Products already had a
business relationship. Its most important programmer, Tim Paterson, had
helped Microsoft develop an add-in card for the Apple II that would run
CP/M. It was Paterson who created QDOS for [112]Intel’s new 16-bit 8086
processor, which Seattle Computer Products would soon rename 86-DOS.

But there were a couple of problems. First, QDOS was heavily based on
CP/M; although Paterson didn’t have access to the Digital Research
code, there was publicly available documentation that allowed him to
effectively mimic its way of working. Second, in August 1980, QDOS
remained rough and ready, although it did include some improvements on
CP/M. And third, it was owned by Seattle Computer Products: Gates
wanted Microsoft to own all the software rights.

Despite these hurdles, Gates and the newly hired [113]Steve Ballmer
felt enough confidence in the operating system – and their ability to
acquire it – that they could act. They flew out to Boca Raton, home of
IBM’s new PC division, and pitched for a deal that would make both of
them billionaires.

The most important element was ownership. Microsoft would own the DOS
to run the IBM personal computer (at that point called Project Acorn,
with no one involved aware of [114]the fledgling British company’s
existence) but license it to IBM for a one-off fee. IBM would not be
able to create its own version of the DOS, with any amendments needing
to go through Microsoft. Most crucially of all, this wasn’t an
exclusive deal: Microsoft could also license the operating system to
any other companies that came along.
* [115]IBM pledges to reskill 30 million people globally by 2030

“The key to the structure of our deal was that IBM had no control over
our licensing to other people. The lesson of the computer industry in
mainframes was that over time people build compatible machines or
clones or whatever term you want to use,” said Bill Gates in Triumph of
the Nerds. “And so we were hoping that a lot of other people would come
along and do compatible machines.”

As history – and Microsoft’s share price – reveals, not only was Bill
Gates’ prediction right, but IBM said yes. It helped that there was a
personal connection: Bill’s mother, Mary, had served on the board of
directors of charity United Way, as had incoming IBM chairman John
Opel. “Oh, is that Mary Gates’ boy’s company?” Opel reportedly asked
when he heard of Microsoft’s involvement. The deal was signed in
November 1980.

There was still much to do. First, Microsoft had to acquire QDOS. With
Seattle Computer Products struggling financially, the $50,000 Microsoft
offered was too tempting to resist (needless to say, Paul Allen, who
negotiated the deal, mentioned nothing of IBM). QDOS creator Paterson
would soon join Microsoft to further develop the code, which needed
urgent attention: According to Gates, even on the date he signed the
agreement it was apparent that they were three months behind schedule.
For the next nine months, he would drive his team of around 40
[116]programmers to the edge with countless all-night sessions to meet
IBM’s deadlines.

Dirty dozen

Meanwhile, in Boca Raton, IBM’s team of 12 engineers were putting in
similar shifts under the leadership of Don Estridge, who had taken over
the project after Lowe was promoted. The team’s existence, well away
from the IBM mothership, allowed them to operate in a very non-IBM way:
There was no big corporation clock-on, clock-off mentality here, with
engineer Mark Dean describing the team as a “tight-knit family”. “We
would celebrate together and eat together,” he said in the IBM
Centennial Film: They Were There. “I don’t think that any of us slept
together but we would do just about everything else together. We would
be at work late. We trusted each other.”

The hard work paid off, with Patty McHugh stating that the team shipped
the first prototype to Microsoft by Thanksgiving (27 November in 1980).
With Estridge and Gates in constant correspondence, using an early form
of [117]email and meeting in person, the fast pace of development
continued.

Nor did the rush mean poor quality. If anything, the IBM computer was
the most thought-through microcomputer design yet seen, with an
attention to detail and reliability that lesser companies simply
couldn’t match. For instance, this was the first microcomputer to run a
series of hardware tests (POST) during its boot-up sequence; it meant
it took longer to start, but better for a slight delay at the start of
the day than a hardware error to cause a crash during a crucial
calculation.

This was also the first microcomputer to include a parity bit in the
memory, which meant the hardware could detect corrupted memory before
it caused potentially fatal errors in processing. According to
Estridge, IBM even paid attention to the contrast between the screen
and the monitor’s bezel to reduce eye fatigue. The end result was a
solid computer that businesses could trust.

Launch day

Was it exciting? To those in the know, yes. The day after IBM announced
what it called the IBM Personal Computer 5150 and everyone else called
the IBM PC, The New York Times quoted Christopher Morgan,
editor-in-chief of Byte magazine, as saying: “It’s one of the most
important announcements we’ve seen in the industry”. Michael McConnell,
executive vice president of retailer ComputerLand, made this prescient
point in the same article: “People will now know that personal
computers are not a fad or a flash in the pan.”

Apple, which shipped almost 80,000 computers in the US in 1980, was a
little more sniffy. In reaction to the IBM Personal Computer, it took
out a full-page ad in the The Wall Street Journal with the headline,
“Welcome, IBM. Seriously.”

Tandy, which dominated the US microcomputer market in 1980 with sales
of almost 300,000 TRS-80 computers, appeared just as relaxed. “I’m
relieved that whatever they were going to do, they finally did it,”
said the firm’s chief of financial planning, Garland Asher, in The New
York Times. You can almost hear the sneer in his voice as he continued:
“I’m certainly relieved at the pricing. They haven’t introduced
anything that’s going to rewrite the ground rules.”

The IBM Personal Computer cost a similar amount to the Apple III. At
launch, you could buy an IBM PC 5150 with 16KB of RAM, keyboard, and
monochrome monitor for $1,565. That price included BASIC, but you were
expected to buy PC-DOS – IBM’s licensed version of Microsoft’s DOS –
for $40.

After Kildall threatened to sue IBM due to the similarity of PC-DOS to
CP/M, the companies agreed that users could buy the Personal Computer
with a version of CP/M (called CP/M-86). This arrived on the market six
months after the computer’s release, but it was doomed from the start.
For one, it cost $240, six times the price of PC-DOS. More crucially
still, by this time there was a flourishing market of software written
for PC-DOS. Even at launch, you could buy popular spreadsheet VisiCalc,
EasyWriter, and a number of accounting packages. For a bit of fun, you
could play [118]Microsoft Adventure too.

Incredibly for IBM, a company famous for taking years to create new
products, the first IBM Personal Computers started shipping in October
1981. That’s 14 months after it received the green light from the
board. It also chose to sell the computers through retail stores such
as ComputerLand and Sears. IBM even created a series of ads aimed at
consumers – the first time in its 70-year life that IBM had
communicated to anyone other than businesses – featuring Charlie
Chaplin’s The Tramp character.

Modest beginnings

While sales were initially modest compared to the likes of Apple and
Tandy – 13,000 units by the end of 1981 – this was due to production
limits rather than a lack of demand. Byte reported that 40,000 were
ordered on the day the 5150 was announced, and IBM spent the next two
years desperately trying to catch up with demand. According to market
research firm Dataquest, it sold 156,000 computers in 1982. It’s easy
to argue that this success brought credibility to computers for the
first time; a credibility enhanced yet further when [119]Time put “The
Computer” on the cover of its traditional “Man of the Year” issue in
January 1983.

IBM’s honeymoon period would continue for several years to come, but
it’s notable that within a year [120]Compaq released a computer that
was 100% compatible with the IBM Personal Computer. That meant that any
software that ran on the IBM would run on Compaq’s machine. And,
shortly afterwards, those of [121]Dell, Gateway, [122]HP and Packard
Bell. As luck would have it, a company called Microsoft, run by a
beaming man-child, was more than happy to sell you the software to make
it run.
* [123]Microsoft
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